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Example of the mixing of African, American, and European cultures as part of the Atlantic system

Cultural Mixing 1: New goods from the Americas were introduced into various regions due to the Atlantic system, with the triangular trade trading slaves from Africa for these new products. After obtaining these items, the Europeans were then able to continuously sail to Africa to constantly trade these useful items for Africans to be sent to the Americas as slaves.

Example of the mixing of African, American, and European cultures as part of the Atlantic system

Cultural Mixing 2: The Atlantic system involved the trading of slaves from Africa to the Americas by the Europeans in exchange for goods, nevertheless, this exchange also subliminally resulted in the exchange of various cultures and religions from Africa to the Americas, therefore, representing cultural exchange between different regions of the world.

Example of Afro-Eurasian fruit trees, grains, sugar, and domesticated animals that were brought by Europeans to the Americans. For each example, explain its impact on the Americas.

Domesticated Animal 1: In North America, tribes like the Navajo became sheepherders and began to produce woolen textiles. The abundance of cattle increased the amount of meat in New World diets and provided them with hides.

1450s - Printing Press in Europe (Gutenberg)

During the Renaissance, ideas were spread through trade, travel, and education. The spread of these ideas were more efficient by the invention of the printing press, by a German named Johannes Gutenberg in about 1450, and this machine presses inked type or plates onto paper to create many copies of a work. This invention dramatically improved on existing printing methods, especially by this printing press utilizing the method of movable type, which is that characters could be rearranged and used over again on other printing tasks, building on prior Chinese printing technology. Eventually, books were distributed in greater quantities in the West, which helped expand the audience for Renaissance writers and disseminated religious ideas. Literacy began to gain ground and became a fertile source of new kinds of thinking, and the printing press allowed for people to use printed matter to spread new ideas, discoveries, and inventions quickly and efficiently, and since printed material was more widely available, more people learned to read, such as the Bible.

Example of how European colonization and the introduction of European agriculture and settlement practices in the Americas affected the physical environment.

European Practice 1: Soil depletion Environmental Impact: Europeans who practiced subsistence farming also had a negative effect on the environment through the practice of slashing and burning agriculture in the New World where land was abundant, rather than rotating crops, and this resulted in soil depletion.

Example of how European colonization and the introduction of European agriculture and settlement practices in the Americas affected the physical environment.

European Practice 2: Deforestation Environmental Impact: European deforestation was for the purpose of shipbuilding and the planting on profitable New World cash crops, and this clear cutting of forest led to increased erosion and flooding. Also, deforestation allowed cattle and pigs, which Europeans had brought to the New World, to increase tremendously. Unhindered by thick forests, livestock was free to roam and scavenge, and with this, they destroyed native farms, eating harvests and trampling crops.

Colonies

European settlements established in the new world for the purpose of further developing economic strength and prosperity through acquiring new territories and resources that are sent to the mother country.

Topkapi Palace

the Ottoman Empire and the sultans ruled their vast domains from the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul. This palace was built by Sultan Mehmed II, "the Conqueror," after his army stormed and sacked Constantinople in 1453, the palace served as the home of the sultans and their court until the mid-19th century.

1480s - Height of Aztec Empire

Many years after the Mexica people first built their proud city, Tenochtitlan, they formed an alliance with two other cities known as Texcoco (Tetzcoco) and Tlacopan. This Triple Alliance was to rule the Valley of Mexico until the Spanish arrived, which ultimately brought this empire to an end, and over time, Tenochtitlan eventually became the most powerful, and began conquering other cities as the capital of the Aztec civilization, officially established in 1428. Cultures in the area at the time the Mexicas arrived in the Valley of Mexico included the Tepanecs, Cholcos, Xochimilcos, Tlaxcalans and others, all attempting to gain dominance in the valley itself. Each state in the empire was ruled by its local government, which paid tribute and followed a number of laws dictated by the Triple Alliance. Most of the tribute went to Tenochtitlan, and this tribute made this type of empire hegemonistic. The organization of the empire is acknowledged to be efficient and successful in their expansion with the Aztec Empire reaching east and west from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, and along the north-south axis, the empire stretched from Central Mexico to modern day Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala. The organization of the empire was efficiently maintained through the development of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan on the western shore of Lake Texcoco flourished so that the city could boast at least 200,000 inhabitants by the early 16th century CE, making it the largest city in the Pre-Columbian Americas. These inhabitants were divided into several social strata. At the top were local rulers (teteuhctin), then came nobles (pipiltin), commoners (macehualtin), serfs (mayeque), and finally slaves (tlacotin). The strata seem to have been relatively fixed but there is some evidence of movement between them, especially in the lower classes. Furthermore, regarding ruling the empire, it is noted that groups of families, formed through marriage alliances, were the basic unit of government in the empire. These groups, called calpulli, had existed long before the Aztec civilization, and were set up to own land. The leaders of the calpulli established schools for common citizens, collected taxes, and took care of basic group needs. Later, calpullis were less family related and more regional, but operated in much the same way. Leaders of the calpullis formed a city council which was possibly the unit with the most power in the ancient Aztec government. Each city council had another council within it, and this was an executive council made of four members with one of the members being the leader of the city, or tlatcani. The council of Tenochtitlan led the empire itself, and has been compared to the senate of Rome. The leader of this group was the Huey Tlatcani, or the emperor. He was worshiped as a god, since the Aztec civilization was polytheistic, and had the support of the city council, major government officials, and the priesthood. Nevertheless, regarding religion, Mythology and religion, as with most ancient cultures, were closely intertwined for the Aztecs. The very founding of Tenochtitlán was based on the belief that people from the mythical land of plenty Aztlán (literally 'Land of White Herons' and origin of the Aztec name) in the far northwest had first settled in the Valley of Mexico. They had been shown the way by their god Huitzilopochtli who had sent an eagle sitting on a cactus to indicate exactly where these migrants should build their new home. The god also gave these people their name, the Mexica, who along with other ethnic groups, who similarly spoke Nahuatl, collectively made up the people now generally known as the Aztecs. The Aztec pantheon included a mix of older Mesoamerian gods and specifically Mexica deities. The gods were honored with festivals, banquets, music, dancing, decoration of statues, burning of incense, the ritual burial of precious goods, penances such as blood-letting, and animal sacrifices. Humans, both adults and less often children, were also frequently sacrificed to metaphorically 'feed' the gods and keep them happy lest they become angry and make life difficult for humans by sending storms, droughts etc. or even just to keep the sun appearing every day. Finally, within the empire, the Aztecs were appreciative of fine art and they collected pieces from across their empire to be brought back to Tenochtitlan and often ceremonially buried. Aztec art was broad and ranged from miniature engraved precious objects to massive stone temples. Monumental sculptures were a particular favorite and could be fearsome monstrosities. Organised in guilds and attached to the main palaces, artisans could specialise in metalwork, wood carving or stone sculpture, with materials used such as amethyst, rock crystal, gold, silver, and exotic feathers. Aztec art depicted all manner of subjects but especially popular were animals, plants and gods, particularly those related to fertility and agriculture. Art could also be used as propaganda to spread the imperial dominance of Tenochtitlan. Examples such as the Sun Stone, Stone of Tizoc, and Throne of Motecuhzoma II all portray Aztec ideology and seek to closely correlate political rulers to cosmic events and even the gods themselves. Even architecture could achieve this aim, for example, the Templo Mayor pyramid sought to replicate the sacred snake mountain of Aztec mythology, Coatepec, and temples and statues bearing Aztec symbols were set up across the empire. Nevertheless, these details were the powerful Aztec empire's height until it was eventually captured and sacked by Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes in 1521.

Aztec Empire

Example of how imperial conquests and widening global economic opportunities contributed to the formation of new political and economic elites.

New Elites 1: Manchus in China Cause of their rise: In East Asia the Manchus, descendants of the Jurchen, overthrew the corrupt Ming and established the Qing Dynasty placing China once again under the yoke of a foreign ethnic group. As they ruled China, they proclaimed that"Manchu and Han are one family." Although, reality was immensely different because the Manchus actually strove to keep themselves racially separate from the ethnic Chinese (the Han). For instance, Chinese people were forbidden to learn the Manchu language and were prohibited from traveling to the Manchu homeland where they might learn it.

Mestizos

People of mixed European and Indian ancestry in Mesoamerica and South America; particularly common in areas colonized by Spain; often part of forced labor system Mughal Empire- The Mughals were a Turkish group of people who relied on a military elite armed with firearms and created a strong centralized empire organized with a bureaucracy. They expanded into the south and unified much of the India subcontinent where they ruled an empire comprised mainly of Hindus, thus the rulers and the ruled were divided along religious lines. The most famous Mughal leader, Akbar, attempted to bridge this divide through a policy of toleration, such as by, marrying Hindu princesses but not requiring them to convert, giving Hindus positions in the government, inviting Christian, Hindu, and Muslim scholars to peaceful open debates about the merits of their religions, and removing the religious tax on non-Muslims. Akbar created his own syncretic religion called "the divine faith" which drew on Islamic, Hindu and Zoroastrian beliefs. This religion pointed to the emperor as the leader of all faiths in the empire, but this drew the anger of conservative Muslim teachers. Subsequent Mughal leaders fell under the sway of these conservatives and Akbar's policy of toleration was later abandoned. Hindu temples were destroyed, and religious tension reemerged as a central problem of the Empire. Furthermore, during his reign, Akbar significantly reformed the Mughal bureaucracy. Previously, the Mughal emperors collected taxes by relying upon a decentralized network of local administrators called zamindars. Acting as local aristocratic landlords, they collected taxes from peasants and sent a set quota to the state, but much of this revenue failed to arrive to the emperor. As profits from the Indian Ocean pepper trade increased, Akbar monetized the tax system (required taxes paid in currency rather than in kind) and required the peasants to sell their grain in market towns and ports for cash where oversight of taxation could be more controlled. Having been bypassed in the taxation process, the role of the zamindars as tax-collecting landlords decreased, political control was centralized, and state profits poured directly into the government's purse. This windfall of revenue was used to fund military expeditions and to embellish the imperial courts. Furthermore, with the decreased role of the zamindars, Akbar began the process of political centralization.

1545 - Discovery of silver at Potosí

Silver discoveries were made in a mountain at Potosi in upper Peru(present-day Bolivia), which was the largest silver mine of all producing about 80 percent of all Peruvian silver, as well as producing Spain's currency known as peso de ocho. Also, in the early 17th century, more than 160,000 people lived and worked in the town and the town's mine. Furthermore, after the purest veins of silver were quickly strip-mined production slowed. Later, the Spanish introduced the combined method of using mercury to extract silver from ore. Production soared. In two centuries the silver mines of the Spanish New World produced 40,000 tons of silver. The industrial centers that grew around these mines minted 2.5 million silver coins per year. The peso de ocho, worth about 80 US dollars today, gained acceptance around the world and lubricated global trade on an unprecedented level.

Give an example of economic prosperity and economic disruption that resulted from an intensification of existing regional trade patterns and the new global circulation of goods for each of the listed regions. (Overland Eurasia)

Prosperity Europe's new initiatives added to existing trans-regional trade patterns as the range and significance of exchange began to increase steadily as empires across Eurasia continued to exchange with one another, as well as with products from the New World. New World crops were spread rapidly through Western merchants, and the exchange of these new crops, along with the new agricultural improvements, triggered large population increases. Disruption The extension of contacts across the Atlantic spread disease, coming from the Old World to the New World. The greatest victims were millions of Native Americans, who had not been previously exposed to Afro-Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox and measles, and who therefore, had no natural immunities, therefore, during the 16th and 17th centuries, they died in huge numbers.

Example of staple food crops and cash crops that originated in the Americas but transferred to Europe, Asia, and Africa as part of the colonial exchange. Additionally, for each crop listed, discuss its impact on Afro-Eurasia.

Cash Crop 1: Tobacco The Europeans obtained knowledge of tobacco from the Native Americans. Although the natives did not use it recreationally, its use became widely popular with Europeans in the New World and in Europe. In the English colony of Jamestown, tobacco leaves were used as currency and the exporting of tobacco as a cash crop is credited with having saved colonial Virginia from ruin.

Mamluks

A Mamluk, slave soldier, was a member of one of the armies of slaves that won political control of several Muslim states during the Middle Ages. Under the Ayyubid sultanate, Mamlūk generals used their power to establish a dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517.

1521 to 1523 - Magellan circumnavigates the Earth

A Spanish expedition under Ferdinand Magellan set sail westward in 1519. Eventually, after facing incredible hardships and more than a month spent traversing the strait, Magellan's remaining armada emerged in November 1520 to behold a vast ocean before them. They were the first known Europeans to see the great ocean, which Magellan named Mar Pacifico, the Pacific Ocean, for its apparent peacefulness, a stark contrast to the dangerous waters of the strait from which he had just emerged. In fact, extremely rough waters are not uncommon in the Pacific Ocean, where tsunamis, typhoons and hurricanes have done serious damage to the Pacific Islands and Pacific Rim nations throughout history. Nevertheless, seeking riches and personal glory, Magellan's daring and ambitious voyage around the world provided the Europeans with far more than just spices. Although the trip westward from Europe to the east via the Strait of Magellan had been discovered and mapped, the journey was too long and dangerous to become a practical route to the Spice Islands. There was minimal knowledge about the geography beyond South America at that time, and Magellan optimistically estimated that the trip across the Pacific would be rapid. In fact it took three months for the fleet to make its way slowly across the vast Mar Pacifico. The days dragged on as Magellan's crew anxiously waited to utter the magic words "Land, ho!" At last in March 1521 the fleet reached the Pacific island of Guam, where they finally replenished their food stores.Magellan's fleet then sailed on to the Philippine archipelago landing on the island of Cebu, where Magellan befriended the locals and, struck with a sudden religious zeal, he sought to convert them to Christianity. Magellan was now closer than ever to reaching the Spice Islands, but when the Cebu asked for his help in fighting their neighbors on the island of Mactan, Magellan agreed. He assumed he would command a swift victory with his superior European weapons, and against the advice of his men, Magellan himself led the attack. The Mactanese fought fiercely, and Magellan fell when he was shot with a poison arrow. He died on April 27, 1521. Magellan failed to make it to the Spice Islands, but after the loss of yet another of his fleet's vessels, the two remaining ships finally reached the Moluccas on November 5, 1521. In the end, only the Victoria completed the voyage around the world and arrived back in Seville, Spain, in September 1522 with a heavy cargo of spices but with only 18 men from the original crew. Nevertheless, European geographic knowledge was expanded immeasurably by Magellan's expedition. He found not only a massive ocean, hitherto unknown to Europeans, but he also discovered that the earth was much larger than previously thought. Finally, although it was no longer believed that the earth was flat at this stage in history, Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe empirically discredited the medieval theory conclusively.

Jesuits

A new religious order founded during the Catholic Reformation in response to the Protestant Reformation who were active in politics and missionary work, sponsoring missions to South America, North America, and Asia. The Jesuits traveled across the globe seeking converts and often endured severe hardships and even executions. Despite their devotion, they had minimal success in Asia except for the northern Philippines which remains predominantly Catholic to this day. The Jesuits experienced a sufficient amount of success in Latin America. In Brazil, they organized people into villages, built schools for children, and created a writing system for the local languages. The 17th century viewed an increase of Jesuit missionary activity across Latin America. They set up missions in Peru, Colombia, Venezuela and Bolivia.

Great Plaza of Isfahan

Abbas I, the Safavid ruler from 1587 to 1629, devoted special attention to his capital at Isfahan. The splendid seat of Safavid power was laid out around a great square, which was lined with two-story shops interspersed with great mosques, government offices, and soaring arches that opened onto formal gardens. Abbas I founded several colleges and oversaw the construction of numerous public baths and rest houses. He patronized workshops where intricately detailed and brilliantly colored miniatures were produced by master painters and their apprentices. Above all, the great mosques that Abbas Ihad built at Isfahan were the glory of his reign. The vividly colored ceramic tiles, which Iranian builders had begun to use centuries earlier, turned the massive domes and graceful minarets of Safavid mosques and royal tombs into creations of stunning beauty. Geometric designs, floral patterns, and verses from the Quran written in stylized Arabic added movement and texture to the deep blue tiles that distinguished the monumental structure of the Safavid era. Gardens and reflecting pools were built near the mosques and rest houses. Combining graceful arches, greenery, and colorful designs, Persian architects, and artisans created lush, cool refuges, in a land that is dry, dusty, and gray-brown for much of the year.

1607 - Founding of the Jamestown Colony

About one hundred colonists a joint venture called the Virginia Company left England in late December 1606 on three ships (the Susan Constant, Godspeed and the Discovery) and reached Chesapeake Bay late next April. After forming a governing council—including Christopher Newport, commander of the sea voyage, and John Smith, a former mercenary who had been accused of insubordination aboard ship by several other company members—the group searched for a suitable settlement site. On May 14, 1607, they landed on a narrow peninsula in the James River, where they would begin their lives in the New World. Nevertheless, Famine, disease and conflict with local Native American tribes in the first two years brought Jamestown to the brink of failure before the arrival of a new group of settlers and supplies in 1610. Tobacco became Virginia's first profitable export, and a period of peace followed the marriage of colonist John Rolfe to Pocahontas, the daughter of the Algonquian Chief Powhatan who had been captured by the settlers and converted to Christianity, and whose death during a trip to England in 1617 and the death of Powhatan in 1618 strained the already fragile peace between the English settlers and the Native Americans. During the 1620s, Jamestown expanded from the area around the original James Fort into a New Town built to the east, and it remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699.

Creoles

After driving the Moors and Jews out of Iberia, the Spanish Conquistadors who came to the Americas were very conscious of race. The class system they established there combined the racial prejudices of Europeans with the unique circumstances of the New World. The Spanish exercised power in their American empire primarily through large landed estates through which they controlled indigenous labor and collected tribute. The owners of these estates were creoles, people of pure Spanish descent for whom the New World was their permanent home. Although peninsulares, viceroys and other bureaucrats on assignment from Spain, continued to be the colonial connection to the crown back in Europe, creoles better understood the day-to-day management of the colonies and developed their own colonial culture. The new creole elites worked in close relationship with the Roman Catholic Church which served to reinforce the hierarchical and patriarchal social order of the colonies. Nevertheless, the creoles grew to resent the peninsulares, and the creoles would be the driving force for independence in the revolutionary period.

1519 to 1521 - Cortez conquered the Aztecs

Although Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes was primarily responsible for the demise of the Aztec Empire, there were various other factors that led to the decline and fall of the Aztec Empire. For instance, the Aztec acted brutally towards the neighboring tribes and city states through acts such as forcing them to pay costly tributes, as well as human sacrifice, which was central to the Aztec religion. Cortes used these peoples' hatred towards the Aztecs as an advantage. In March 1519, Hernan Cortes landed at the town of Tabasco, where he learned from the natives of the great Aztec civilization, then ruled by Moctezuma (or Montezuma) II. Defying the authority of Velasquez, Cortes founded the city of Veracruz on the southeastern Mexican coast, where he trained his army into a disciplined fighting force. Cortes and some 400 soldiers then marched into Mexico, and due to the instability within the Aztec empire, Cortes was able to form alliances with other native peoples, notably the Tlaxcalans, who were then at war with Montezuma. In November 1519, Cortes and his men arrived in Tenochtitlan, where Montezuma and his people greeted them as honored guests according to Aztec custom (partially due to Cortes' physical resemblance to the light-skinned Quetzalcoatl, whose return was prophesied in Aztec legend). Though the Aztecs had superior numbers, their weapons were inferior, and Cortes was able to immediately take Montezuma and his entourage of lords hostage, gaining control of Tenochtitlan. The Spaniards then murdered thousands of Aztec nobles during a ritual dance ceremony, and Montezuma died under uncertain circumstances while in custody. Cuauhtemoc, his young nephew, took over as emperor, and the Aztecs drove the Spaniards from the city. With the help of the Aztecs' native rivals, Cortes mounted an offensive against Tenochtitlan, finally defeating Cuauhtemoc's resistance on August 13, 1521. In all, some 240,000 people were believed to have died in the city's conquest, which effectively ended the Aztec civilization. After his victory, Cortes razed Tenochtitla and built Mexico City on its ruins; it quickly became the premier European center in the New World.

Example of European technological developments in cartography and navigation that built on previous knowledge developed in the classical, Islamic, and Asian worlds.

Arabia(adopted by Portuguese) The caravel, a light, fast, and maneuverable ship first devised by the Portuguese, adopted the lateen sail first pioneered by Arab merchants in the India Ocean. This gave these ships the ability to tack into the face of the wind. The caravel was able to carry a large cargo with an inordinately small crew, thus decreasing the cost of shipping and increasing profits.

Define Little Ice Age

Beginning in the 14th century, there was a decrease in mean temperatures around the world that lasted until the 19th century, contributing to changes in agricultural practices and the contraction of settlement in parts of the Northern Hemisphere.

Cash Crop 2: Sugar Indigenous to Southeast Asia, sugarcane was brought to the Caribbean by the Spanish early on, and the demand for sugar in Europe grew, as it was a more convenient and potent sweetener than what was available to them. The Portuguese introduced the plantation system in Brazil to grow sugarcane. Then in the early 17th century a discovery was made that dramatically increased the cultivation of sugar. Plantation slaves discovered that molasses, a byproduct of the production of sugar that was often discarded, could be distilled into alcohol. This new product, Rum, meant that sugarcane could produce two highly profitable products and had virtually no waste. Entire forests were cleared to grow sugarcane and the plantation system proliferated across the Caribbean. This in turn created a tremendous demand for slaves. The cash crop of sugar--and to a lesser extent tobacco--increased the slave trade of the Atlantic system.

Example of the intensification of peasant labor and the resulting produced product

China The Qing (Manchu) Empire utilized peasants for their economic gain, as well as silk exports becoming important to their economy. In order to meet the demand of foreigners for silk, the government forced peasants to work in the growing of mulberry plants (necessary for silkworms to produce quality silk) and in the general production of silk. In some areas, silk production exceeded rice production and consumed all surplus labor of peasant families.

Example of European technological developments in cartography and navigation that built on previous knowledge developed in the classical, Islamic, and Asian worlds.

China The compass is an instrument that has magnetic needle that, when it is positioned horizontally, can rotate freely around its vertical axis and because the needle aligns with North-South direction it is used for navigation and orientation, and this was utilized by Europeans for the purpose of more efficient navigational tools during sea exploration.

Type of coerced labor used by colonial economies in the Americas.

Coerced Labor 1: The encomienda Explanation This system was modeled after the reconquest of Iberia. In Spain, the conquistadors were granted access to Muslim labor in the areas they reconquered for the monarch. Land grants, called encomiendas, were given to Spanish conquistadors and soldiers and they were free to exploit the labor of the people inhabiting the land entrusted to them.

Type of coerced labor used by colonial economies in the Americas.

Coerced Labor 2: The mita system Explanation The mita system developed in the Inca Empire as a method of rotating groups of workers in the service of the state. When they were not working on their family farms, men between the ages of 15 and 50 would provide their labor to the empire as a form of tax payment, or a corvée system. The Spanish adopted this system of labor and applied it to several contexts, especially their silver mining projects.

Type of coerced labor used by colonial economies in the Americas.

Coerced Labor 3: Chattel slavery Explanation The form of labor in which the laborer is most dehumanized as he or she is considered solely as private property of the owner. Chattel slaves can be bought and sold at the owner's discretion, are uncompensated, and have little chance of gaining freedom. As mentioned above, Africa provided the chattel slaves to the Americas predominantly after sugar plantations, began by the Portuguese, spread across South America and the Caribbean.

Oceania

Collective name for the islands scattered throughout most of the Pacific Ocean. The term, in its widest sense, embraces the entire insular region between Asia and the Americas.

Provide an example of the factor listed and explain how it provided a significant challenge to state consolidation and expansion.

Competition over trade routes: Omani-European rivalry in the Indian Ocean. As trade with India increased steadily Omani merchants prospered, and Oman emerged as a key player in the Indian Ocean trade. This resulted in European merchants becoming fearful became, and the British treaty with Oman in 1799 reflects this anxiety, because it was to protect their interests in India) Also, mercantile rivalry between Britain and France provides a larger context for relations among Europeans, Indians, Arabs, and Africans in the Indian Ocean system. Nevertheless, the Spanish empire was crucially involved in this rivalry because the Spanish Empire made it difficult for the Ottoman Empire to expand farther west because their forces decreased in size causing them to retreat from Europe, demonstrating that this rivalry challenged their means of expansion and consolidation.

Absolute monarchy

Concept of government developed during the rise of nation-states in western Europe during the 17th century; featured monarchs, superior rulers, who passed laws without parliament, or any other means of regulation of laws, appointed professionalized armies and bureaucracies, established state churches, and imposed economic policies.

Identify and explain notable gender and family restructuring that occurred during the time period.

Demographic changes in Africa that resulted from the slave trade Explanation: In Africa, the slave trade caused a significant demographic change. Between 1500 and 1900, approximately 10 million slaves were taken from Africa's west coast to labor in the Americas. During that same time, 6 million left the east coast as slaves in Asia and 8 million were enslaved within the African continent. The result was that just as European and Asian populations were increasing due to the transferring of new crops (The Columbian Exchange), Africa saw a significant decline in population. Furthermore, since there was an emphasis placed on having male slaves for sugar plantations in the Americas, the drain of slaves on the west African coast had a strong gender dimension. Regions impacted the most by the slave trade, such as Angola, experienced a catastrophic gender imbalance with females comprising up to 65 percent of the population.

Explain how the traditional incorporation of slaves into households and the export of slaves to the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean represents a continuity for Africa.

Despite all the dramatic changes in labor during this period, Africa continued to supply slaves to the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean as it did in previous periods. Records of the slave trade in Africa date back to 2900 B.C.E. when slaves were transported from Sub-Saharan Africa to Nubia. As the slave trade grew significantly in the Atlantic system to supply plantation labor in the Americas, the movement of African slaves to the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean regions was an important continuity with the past as this slave trade remained consistent and constantly progressed over long periods of time, likewise form 2900 B.C.E to the 17th century.

Example of Afro-Eurasian fruit trees, grains, sugar, and domesticated animals that were brought by Europeans to the Americans. For each example, explain its impact on the Americas.

Domesticated Animal 2: The introduction of horses dramatically increased the efficiency of hunters and warriors, and tribes like the Comanche, Apache, Blackfoot and Sioux grained greater success in hunting the buffalo herds on the plains of North America.

Explain the role of tribute collection and tax farming in the generation of revenue for territorial expansion. Use a specific example.

During his reign of the Mughal Empire, Akbar significantly reformed the Mughal bureaucracy. Previously, the Mughal emperors collected taxes by relying upon a decentralized network of local administrators called zamindars. Acting as local aristocratic landlords, they collected taxes from peasants and sent a set quota to the state, but much of this revenue failed to arrive to the emperor. As profits from the Indian Ocean pepper trade increased, Akbar monetized the tax system (required taxes paid in currency rather than through agricultural products) and required the peasants to sell their grain in market towns and ports for cash where oversight of taxation could be more controlled. Having been bypassed in the taxation process, the role of the zamindars as tax-collecting landlords decreased; political control was also centralized. State profits poured directly into the government's purse. This windfall of revenue was used to fund military expeditions for the purpose of territorial expansion, as well as to embellish the imperial courts. With the decreasing role of the zamindars, Akbar began the process of political centralization.

Define mercantilism

Economic theory that stressed governments' promotion of limitation of imports from other nations and internal economies in order to improve tax revenues. It promotes government regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of increasing state power at the expense of rival national powers. Mercantilism includes a national economic policy aimed at accumulating monetary reserves through a positive balance of trade, especially of finished goods. Historically, such policies frequently led to war and also motivated colonial expansion.

Mercantilism

Economic theory that stressed governments' promotion of limitation of imports from other nations and internal economies in order to improve tax revenues. Mercantilism was dominant in modernized parts of Europe from the 16th to the 18th centuries during the period of Proto-industrialization It promotes government regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of increasing state power at the expense of rival national powers. Mercantilism includes a national economic policy aimed at accumulating monetary reserves through a positive balance of trade, especially of finished goods. Historically, such policies frequently led to war and also motivated colonial expansion.

1533 - Pizarro topples the Inca

Enamored by stories of Inca wealth, Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro lured Atahualpa to meeting for a supposed dinner in his honor and kidnapped the emperor in November 1532. Atahualpa was executed the following summer, and although the Spanish were far outnumbered by the locals, they easily sacked Cusco in late 1533 with their superior weaponry.

Existing political and economic elites whose power fluctuated as he confronted new challenges to his ability to affect the policies of the increasingly powerful monarchs and leaders.

Existing Elites 1: Russian Boyars Challenges to their power: The territorial conquests of Ivan III and Ivan IV had extended the borders of Russia before its political institutions had been fully developed; Russia was an empire before it was a state. Most power resided in local aristocrats called boyars, a class of people Ivan IV (Ivan "The Terrible") deeply distrusted. Both Ivans sought to weaken the boyars and create a more centralized state.

Existing political and economic elites whose power fluctuated as he confronted new challenges to his ability to affect the policies of the increasingly powerful monarchs and leaders.

Existing Elites 2: Mughal Zamindars Challenges to their power: The zamindars of the Mughal Empire were intermediaries between rulers and the ruled, and they performed the function of aristocrats. The Mughal state had the zamindars collect tribute, paid in the form of crops, rice, pepper, or other agricultural products, from peasants and allowed them to keep 10 percent of it themselves before sending it to the government. As with all aristocrats with local authority, zamindars constituted a potentially decentralizing force. Revenues to the state began to drop because the zamindars were keeping much of this tribute for themselves; peasants resented them for growing rich at their expense. Emperor Akbar reformed this system of taxation in a way that both ensured higher revenues for the state as well as centralizing the power of the government. With an abundance of Spanish silver now available in Asia, Akbar monetized the tax system, requiring peasants to pay taxes in currency rather than in agricultural produce. In order to do this the peasants were required to take their harvest to special state monitored markets to sell for cash which was then used to pay taxes directly to the government. The system of tribute collecting lords deteriorated and eventually vanished, and the zamindars had been circumvented(avoided), with many of them becoming servants of the state, and the state became more centralized.

Identify and explain notable gender and family restructuring that occurred during the time period.

Family Restructuring: Smaller family size in Europe Explanation: Economic changes in this era began a transformation of family patterns which would become much more important in the industrial age. European families decreased in size, particularly in urban centers. An agricultural based society thrives on large and extended families, as each member contributes to the family's production of food. In middle class urban families, children tend to be an expense for a longer period of time. As a consequence, the fertility rate was smaller in urban societies. Men and women also tended to marry later in life, usually in their twenties, a sharp contrast to agricultural marriages which took place at an earlier age. As people began to earn money through crafts, trade and investments, a single set of parents and their children grew to be economically independent from the larger extended family. The nuclear family, as this was called, was less tied to property ownership and more emotionally centered.

Example of food brought to the Americans by African slaves.

Food Introduced by African Slaves: Yams, okra, and black-eyed peas Impact on the Americas: Slaves brought these new plants to the New World that soon became common foods that took the place of most indigenous crops, except maize (corn).

Identify and explain notable gender and family restructuring that occurred during the time period.

Gender Restructuring: The dependence of European men on Southeast Asian women for conducting trade Explanation: In Southeast Asia, which had long been a crossroad of trans-regional trade, a very different change in gender relations was occurring. For a long time, merchants arriving to this area discovered that local women were the essential key to doing business. Through a traditional practice called temporary marriage, merchants entered into relationships with local women that were mutually benefiting to both parties: merchants gained access to local markets and products, learned of indigenous practices and conditions, and gained sexual relations; the women gained gifts, support for their children, and connections to outside trading networks. When the merchant proceeded, these marriages could be terminated and the women were free to pursue another such connection without any shame or loss of social status. These reciprocating relationships allowed some women to create impressive networks of trade and wield considerable power on local politics.

Tokugawa Shogunate

General Toyotomi Hideyoshi was a general under Japanese daimyo Oda Nobunaga, and he succeeded as leading military power in central Japan. Hideyoshi continued efforts to break the power of the daimyos, and constructed a series of alliances that made him a military master of Japan in 1590. Although Hideyoshi had tried to ensure that he would be succeeded by his son after his death in 1598, the vassals he had appointed to carry out his wishes tried to seize power for themselves after his death. One of these vassals, Tokugawa Ieyasu, had originally come up from a daimyo house, but as an ally of Hideyoshi, he had been able to build up a powerful domain on the heavily populated Kanto plain. Ieyasu soon emerged triumphant from the renewed warfare that resulted from Hideyoshi's death. Rather than continuing Hideyoshi's campaigns of overseas expansion, Ieyasu concentrated on consolidating power at home. In 1603, he was granted the title of shogun by the emperor, an act that formally inaugurated centuries of rule by the Tokugawa Shogunate. Under Ieyasu's direction, the remaining daimyo were reorganized. Most of the lands in central Honshu were either controlled directly by the Tokugawa family, who now ruled the land from the city of Edo, or were held by daimyo who were closely allied with the shoguns. Although many of the outlying or vassal daimyo retained their domains, they were carefully controlled and required to pledge their personal allegiance to the shogun. In order to ensure their continuing loyalty, the shogun compelled them to spend half of the year in the capital city at Edo. This arrangement not only ensured that their allegiance to be tested and their activities monitored, the costs involved in moving their households annually cut down on the resources they might use to become a military threat to the ruling dynasty. It was soon clear that the Tokugawas' victory had put an end to the civil wars and brought an appearance of political unity to the islands.

1571 - Battle of Lepanto

Generally, western Europe dominated a growing percentage of oceanic shipping, even using war ships to muscle in on trade between other societies, as between India and southeast Asia. This significantly increased Europe's overall profits, and disproportionate control by the great merchant companies increased the European ability to determine the framework for international trade. For instance, in the eastern Mediterranean, a Spanish-directed fleet defeated the navy of the Ottoman Empire in the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. With this setback, any hope of successful Muslim rivalry against European naval power ended. The Turks rebuilt their fleet and continued their activity in the eastern Mediterranean, but they could not challenge the Europenas on the larger international routes.

Example of Afro-Eurasian fruit trees, grains, sugar, and domesticated animals that were brought by Europeans to the Americans. For each example, explain its impact on the Americas.

Grain: Widespread amounts were brought and made available to the Americas which was used to make bread, and then be made into bread.

1488 - Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope

In 1488, Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias became the first European mariner to round the southern tip of Africa, opening the way for a sea route from Europe to Asia. Dias' ships rounded the perilous Cape of Good Hope and then sailed around Africa's southernmost point, Cabo das Agulhas, to enter the waters of the Indian Ocean. Portugal and other European nations already had long-established trade ties to Asia, but the arduous overland route had been closed in the 1450s due to the Ottoman Empire's conquest of the remnants of the Byzantine Empire. A major maritime victory for Portugal, Dias' breakthrough opened the door to increased trade with India and other Asian powers. It also prompted Genoan explorer Christopher Columbus, then living in Portugal, to seek a new royal patron for a mission to establish his own sea route to the Far East.

1529 - 1st unsuccessful Ottoman siege of Vienna

In 1529 the Ottoman Empire made a determined effort to capture Vienna, the capital of the Habsburg Austrian Empire. After the defeat of the Hungarians at the Battle of Mohacs, the Ottoman Empire and Austria were brought into direct contact along a border across Hungary. In 1529, Suleiman launched a campaign against Austria's Archduke Ferdinand I with an army of more than 100,000. Suleiman's advance from the Black Sea, which began in May, was difficult because the weather had been particularly wet, with many lives lost due to the spread of illness through the soaked ranks of the sultan's army. Much of the heavy artillery that would have been vital in the siege had to be abandoned when it became stuck in the mud. Suleiman reached Vienna in September with his army greatly weakened. Ottoman attempts to mine the walls were hampered by a counterattack, and more heavy rains in October dampened much of the gunpowder. Constant attacks repulsed by the Austrian defenders, who picked off the Ottoman troops with arquebuses from the high walls of the city and forced back those who scaled the walls by using long pikes. In late October, Suleiman ordered one last all-out assault, but this was also repulsed. Suleiman then ordered a retreat of his battered army, which turned into a disastrous ordeal as winter snows came early causing many deaths and loss of the remaining artillery. Defeat at Vienna forced Suleiman back into Ottoman Hungary and, after a second failure to take Vienna in 1532, he abandoned thoughts of conquering Europe.

1600 - Battle of Sekigahara

In 1600, this conflict established the machinery for the Tokugawa shogunate, the last feudal military dictatorship of Japan, which would last until 1868. The death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi left Japan under the rule of his five-year-old son, Hideyori. Regents were appointed but two factions of a coalition of generals and Tokugawa Ieyasu, who controlled much of eastern Japan, emerged. Ieyasu defeated the alliance at Sekigahara and founded the Tokugawa shogunate.

1644 to 1911 - Qing Dynasty

In 1644 the Manchus entered China and easily drove all the way to Beijing where they defeated the weakened Ming and established their own rule over China, the Qing Dynasty. The Qing Dynasty would be characterized by a problem some other land-based empires had in this time period—a minority ruling a different ethnic or religious majority. In order to bridge the gap between themselves and the ethnic Han Chinese, the Manchus implemented the civil service Confucian bureaucracy. Chinese were allowed to rise in the political system, and Qing Emperors adopted the Chinese title Son of Heaven. The Manchu emperors began the practice of publicly performing Confucian rituals to gain political legitimization from the Chinese. For example, each year the Emperor would plow the first furrow of ground in front of the Temple of Agriculture, and this symbolic gesture was to ensure a good harvest. The most important implementation of the was planned with Confucian ritual. The Manchu emperors continued these rituals, as well as maintaining the classical Confucian texts as the basis of the civil service examination system. The Manchus utilized the nobles of conquered areas to help them administer and control their growing empire. With their growing empire, the Manchus, The Manchus outlined the modern day border of China, and by respecting the cultures of minorities, they preserved a sense of identity for many of these groups and endowed them with an enduring sense of autonomy. Despite the fact that ethnic Chinese were allowed to rise in the bureaucracy, the Manchus preserved the highest positions in the government for themselves. They maintained their cultural integrity by banning marriage between Manchus and Chinese, forbidding the Han Chinese to move into the Manchu homeland, and Manchus forcing the Chinese to refrain from the Ming style robes in favor of Manchu garments, and ordered the Chinese to adopt the Manchu hairstyle of shaving the front of the head and braiding the long hair in the back into a queue. Furthermore, the Manchus accomplishment included, their centralized rule through bureaucracy, their expansion militarily far into central Asia, and the established tributary relations with Vietnam, Burma, Korea and Nepal. They also focused on China's economic strength on the practice of agriculture than they did commerce with the city of Canton in the south of China being the only location where trade with Europe was allowed. As new crops were transplanted from the New World, the Qing experienced a large population growth corresponding with their territorial growth. In some areas, silk production exceeded rice production and consumed all surplus labor of peasant families, allowing for the support of population growth.

1618 to 1648 - Thirty Years' War

In Germany, the Thirty Years War broke out in 1618, pitting German protestants and allies such as Lutheran Sweden against the Holy Roman emperor, backed by Spain. The war was so devastating that it reduced German power and prosperity, for a full century, cutting population by as much as 60 percent in some regions. It was ended only by the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia, which agreed to the territorial tolerance concept: Some princely states and cities chose on religion, some another. This treaty also finally settled a rebellion of the Protestant Netherlands against Spain, giving the former its full independence.

Manchus

Qing dynasty

Thirty Years' War

1453 - Ottomans capture Constantinople

In moving into Europe in the mid-14th century, the Ottomans had bypassed rather than conquered the great city of Constantinople, the capital of the once powerful Byzantine Empire. In the mid-15th century, the Ottomans were strong enough to undertake the capture of the well-fortified city. For seven weeks in the spring of 1453, the army of the Ottoman sultan, Mehmed II, "The Conqueror", which numbered well over 100,000, assaulted the triple ring of land walls that had protected the city for centuries. The outnumbered forces of the defenders repulsed constant attacks until the sultan ordered his gunners to batter a portion of the walls with their siege cannon. Constant waves of Ottoman troops struck at the gaps in the defenses that had been cut by the guns, quickly overwhelmed the defenders, and raced into the city to loot and pillage for three days that Mehmed had promised as their reward for victory.

1517 - Martin Luther/Protestant Reformation

In the 16th century during the Renaissance, an event known as the Protestant Reformation was taking place forcing people to make the decision of what kind of Christian they were going to submit to. This reformation took place because the people who were in support of the reformation, the ones referred to as protestant, were against some of the ideas, or 'abuses', of the Church. The Protestant Reformation actually began by this German monk issued a document containing 95 theses, or propositions. He was publicly protesting claims made by papal representatives in selling indulgences, or grants of salvation, for money, but in fact his protest went deeper. Luther's reading of the Bible convinced him that faith alone could gain salvation, and as well as believing that a person could receive grace and enter the kingdom of God (heaven) not through payments, good works or by attending Church. Church sacraments were not the path, for God could not be manipulated. Luther's protest, which was rebuffed by the papacy, soon led him to challenge many Catholic beliefs, including the authority of the pope. Luther would soon argue that monasticism was wrong, that priests should marry, it at the Bible should be translated from Latin so ordinary people could have direct access to its teachings. Luther did not want to break Christian unity, but the church he wanted should be on his terms. Furthermore, this led to Luther seeking reforms in the Church and in addition to teaching that salvation was available through faith and trust in God alone, Luther instituted two other changes as a part of the new Lutheran doctrine. Luther first taught that religious truth and authority lies only in the Bible, not in the interpretation of the priest alone. Services were to be held in the local language so worshippers could easily understand and participate in the services. Luther also emphasized that the Church's power and influence was not only in the hands of the clergy, but rather in the community of all believers. All useful occupations, not just religious ones, were important to the whole community. All productive and honest occupations were considered vocations, in which people could serve both God and their neighbors. Nevertheless, this reformation to protestantism was brought to the Church, such as, first, many devout Christians were finding the Church's growing emphasis on rituals unhelpful in their quest for personal salvation. Another need for a reformation, the papacy had lost much of its spiritual influence over its people because of the increasing tendency toward secularization. In other words, popes and bishops were acting more like kings and princes than they were the spiritual guides of European men and women. Again, because so many people were now crowding into cities, the lavish homes and palaces of the Church were noticed by more and more people from all walks of life. The poor resented the wealth of the papacy and the very rich were jealous of that wealth. At the same time, the popes bought and sold high offices, and also sold indulgences. All of this led to the increasing wealth of the Church -- and this created new paths for abuses of every sort. Finally, at the local level of the town and village, the abuses continued. Some Church officials held several offices at once and lived off their income. The clergy had become lax, corrupt and immoral and the people began to take notice that the sacraments were shrouded in self-satisfaction and unimportance, showing something was dreadfully wrong. Furthermore, the common people sought a more personal, spiritual and immediate kind of religion, like something that would touch them directly, in the heart. The rituals of the Church now meant very little to them, and they needed some kind of guarantee that they were doing the right thing and that they would indeed be saved. The Church gave little thought to reforming itself, but people longed for something more while the Church seemed to promise less. Therefore, it seemed that a general reform of Christianity itself was needed, and only such a major transformation would effect the changes reflected in the spiritual desires of the people.

Chartered companies

In the early 1600s European countries found new methods of financing exploration and business. Since trading ventures were too expensive for most individuals to fund, investors began to pool their resources together into organizations called joint-stock companies. The most famous of these, the British East India Company (EIC), began in 1600 when the British government gave 218 London investors a royal monopoly of all trade east of the Cape of Good Hope. Established about one year later was the Dutch East India Company, known as the VOC. They were initially a much larger and wealthier rival of the EIC, with 10 times the capital resources of its British counterpart. Joint-stock companies proliferated. The Dutch West Indies Company traded in the New World and founded New Amsterdam, and the Virginia Company of London was given a monopoly on the mid-Atlantic coast of North America. Joint-stock companies were an improvement over traditional partnerships because of something called limited liability. In a partnership, investors pool their resources together and share the profits or losses collectively. In the case of a shipwreck or some other calamity, however, investors would owe more than they put in and could be driven to bankruptcy. But the limited liability of a joint-stock company meant that an investor could never lose more than what he paid in. With risks thus limited but the potential for profit still high, joint-stock companies attracted thousands of investors willing to put up money, called stock, in these ventures.

Explain the role that coerced labor played in plantation economies that produced cash crops for Afro-Eurasia.

In the early 17th century, plantation slaves discovered that molasses, a byproduct of the production of sugar that was often discarded, could be distilled into alcohol. This resulted in the new product of rum, which meant that sugarcane could produce two highly profitable products and had virtually no waste. Furthermore, this discovery by plantation slaves resulted in entire forests being cleared to grow sugarcane, and the plantation system and economy increased across the Caribbean, therefore, demonstrating the role that coerced labor played in increasing the production of cash crops for Afro-Eurasia.

Example of European technological developments in cartography and navigation that built on previous knowledge developed in the classical, Islamic, and Asian worlds.

Islam Borrowing the principles of the Islamic astrolabe, the Portuguese created the mariner's astrolabe, an instrument whose functions were limited to and designed specifically for the purpose of navigation. At sea, the mariner's astrolabe helped ships determine their latitude by aligning the instrument with the sun or a known star.

Provide an example of the factor listed and explain how it provided a significant challenge to state consolidation and expansion.

Local resistance: Peasant Uprisings A variety of reasons fueled the emergence of the peasant revolt such as tax resistance, social inequality, religious wars, national liberation, resistance against serfdom, redistribution of land, and external factors such as plague and famine. Furthermore, these uprisings and rebellions challenged consolidation and expansion because it resulted in the authorities of the empire having to halt expansion for the purpose of dealing with internal conflicts with the empire of the people rebelling against the power and laws of the government and its officials, therefore, challenging their means of power used to consolidate their power.

Example of how imperial conquests and widening global economic opportunities contributed to the formation of new political and economic elites.

New Elites 2: Creoles in Spanish America Cause of their rise: The Spanish Conquistadors, having just driven the Moors and Jews out of Iberia, established a class system which combined the racial prejudices of Europeans with the unique circumstances of the New World. The Spanish exercised power in their American empire mostly through large landed estates through which they controlled indigenous labor and collected tribute. The owners of these estates were creoles, people of pure Spanish descent for whom the New World was their permanent home. Although peninsulares, viceroys and other bureaucrats on assignment from Spain, continued to be the colonial connection to the crown back in Europe, creoles better understood the day-to-day management of the colonies and developed their own colonial culture. The new creole elites worked in close relationship with the Roman Catholic Church which served to reinforce the hierarchical and patriarchal social order of the colonies. Nevertheless, the creoles grew to resent the peninsulares, and they would be the driving force for independence in the revolutionary period.

What impact did the diversity of American food crops have on Afro-Eurasian people?

New World crops that were transplanted to Afro-Eurasia improved the variety and nutritional content of the population. The coming of potatoes, sweet potatoes, and maize to the Old World resulted in caloric and nutritional improvements over previously existing crops. Also, the diversity of the New World food crops made different demands on the soil than crops that had been cultivated for centuries in the Old World. Fields whose fertility had declined with constant planting of traditional crops were given new life when New World crops arrived. The new crops also had different growing and harvest times, therefore, New World crops supplemented crops already grown in the Old World creating more varied, nutritional, and abundant food production.

Explain how the new global circulation of silver from the Americas was intimately tied to commercialization and the creation of a global economy.

New global circulation of silver from the Americas was initially tied to commercialization and the creation of a global economy due to its contribution to the development of a currency utilized globally. Widely accepted currencies speed up transactions and provide standardized way for merchants to measure the value of products. In this period the use of a common currency expanded from regional to global use. The Spanish peso de ocho, or "piece of eight," was the first currency to be used globally, and was the product of Spain's mining of enormous amounts of silver in the New World. The peso de ocho gained acceptance around the world and lubricated global trade on an extraordinary level.

Explain why Northern Atlantic crossings for fishing and settlements continued and spurred European searches for multiple trade routes to Asia.

North Atlantic crossings increased as European explorers sought to exploit the wealth of the New World and continue to find a way across it. The waters off the eastern coast of North America were filled with fish, and some men made fortunes shipping salt-cured cod to Europe and the Caribbean. Furthermore, these crossing spurred European searches for multiple trade routes due to the benefits of acquiring New World products from the colonies to be trade for a nation's benefit.

1683 - 2nd unsuccessful Ottoman siege of Vienna (Mehmet IV)

On August 6, 1682, Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV declared war against the Holy Roman Empire for the reason of obtaining glory for the Ottoman Empire. The chance of Sultan Mehmed IV succeeded in capturing the Holy Roman Empire would make him outshine his distant predecessor, Suleiman the Magnificent, who failed to capture Vienna in 1524. Another reason was the ambitions of Mehmed IV's Grand Vizier, Kara Mustafa. The Grand Vizier had the ambition of capturing lands up to the Tiber River and for his horses to gallop triumphantly at the St. Peter's Square. Besides booty and land, glory drove the Ottomans to declare war upon the Holy Roman Empire. Meanwhile, the Holy Roman Empire faced a lot of challenges, such as the Magyars being a problem. Later, the Ottomans threatened the Holy Roman Empire and Vienna. In addition to the problems was the incompetence of its own ruler. Emperor Leopold was indecisive, uncharismatic, and disturbed. When the Ottoman army began to march towards Vienna in April 1683, Leopold performed a huge political and public relations oversight. Instead of remaining and encouraging the people of Vienna to remain strong and fight the invaders, Leopold, instead, evacuated the city, with many being disgusted by the act. On his way to Linz, peasants mocked and even spit on the Holy Roman Emperor. Although, Leopold was not all incompetent and unprepared, since, when the Ottomans declared war, he appointed Charles V, Duke of Lorraine, to command the Imperial Army against the Ottoman forces. Charles V commanded over 70,000 troops, but he faced an army twice of that size. The Ottoman forces commanded personally by Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa. Mustafa had an army between 140,000 to 240,000 men. It was made of the made bulk of the Ottoman Army composed of the Janissaries and cavalry, including the dreaded Sipahi, but it was also composed of armies of other tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire, like the Crimean Khanate, Wallachians, Moldovians, and Transylvanians. Hungarians who rebelled against Holy Roman Empire also linked up with the Ottomans. Furthermore, Charles deciding to fight the Ottomans possibly meant that his army would be slaughtered. The Duke knew this and he decided to avoid a direct confrontation against the Ottoman army, but part of this plan was evacuating Vienna as well. He planned to bolster his forces by pleading to neighboring Catholic nations to join their fight against the Ottomans. When the Catholic armies of other kingdoms arrived, only then they would confront the Ottomans head on. On July 14, 1683, the Ottoman Army arrived at the gates of Vienna. Viennese were heavily outnumbered. Charles V left the city with 10,000 troops, 600 cavalry and artillery pieces. They were commanded by Count Ernst Rudinger von Starhemberg. The Imperial defenders were also supplemented with 5,000 civilian volunteers organized by the charismatic Mayor of Vienna, Andreas von Liebenberg. Although the numbers were not on their side, the Viennese defenders showed determination in defending their city. Citizens helped strengthen the walls and erected barricades. Houses constructed besides the walls were demolished. Around Vienna, fields were cleared to provide a clear view for the artillery. Women also contributed by digging defensive trenches surrounding the city. The Viennese prepared for the Ottoman onslaught. On the other side of the story, the Ottomans amass a large force outside Vienna. They surrounded it their white tents and with their artillery. The Ottomans arrived on July 14 but only began the siege operations on the 17th, when the bombardment began. Miners began to dig underground towards the city walls with the plan of digging all the way to the foundation of the wall and plant it with explosives. With an explosion, the wall above it would collapse, then the elite Janissaries would then assault the breached walls. At the same time, the Ottoman cavalry cut off the city from its supply. Cutting the supplies brought starvation to Vienna. Although, the Ottomans faced challenges that were artificial, such as logistics becoming difficult, feeding a large army needed a lot of attention and detail, and the Grand Vizier was not all together dedicated in bringing Vienna down. He found time bathing in other captured cities. He was hesitant in launching a full scale barrage against Vienna because he wanted it preserved for his later pleasure and showcase as his own personal city. His agitation from destroying Vienna led to a weaker attack against the Austrian, and added with the determination of the Viennese, the Ottomans faced stiff resistance. Furthermore, the Viennese managed to hold the Ottomans, and their artillery attacks made the Ottomans hesitant of launching a direct assault. They also made measures to detect any digging operation beneath the city walls, such as by placing buckets of water beneath the city walls so when ripples appeared it meant that there was a digging operation nearby. Another measure was their defensive trenches, as well as also helping to make the digging of the Ottomans difficult because it meant that they had to dig deeper in order to show their position by digging close to the trenches. Although, the Turks were able to make serious inroads into the city's defenses and are generally believed to have come closer to taking Vienna than they were in 1529. The battle raged for 15 hours before the Turkish invaders were driven from their trenches, thus, leading to Viennese victory, marking the beginning of the end of Turkish domination in eastern Europe.

Prosperity Portugal emerged from their first round of explorations with coastal holdings in parts of Africa and in the Indian port of Goa, a lease on the Chinese port of Macao, and the claim on Brazil. Spain asserted its control of the Philippines, and various Pacific islands, and the bulk of the Americas. These acquired territories were all a means of Portugal and Spain attempting to monopolize trade in the Indian Ocean. Vasco da Gama's fleet of four ships reached India 1498, and battled for domination of trade in this part of the world against Muslim merchants, and eventually emerged victorious due to their violent and powerful military forces. Da Gama's success set in motion an annual series of Portuguese voyages to the Indian Ocean. Disruption Attempts by Portugal and Spain to monopolize trade in the Indian Ocean led to the downfall of the Swahili cities and the fall of Malacca. Vasco Da Gama's maritime route to the Indian Ocean lessened Europe's dependence upon Silk Road trade.

Prosperity Sub-Saharan Africa entered the new world economy mainly as suppliers of slaves. In return for these slaves, and other unprocessed goods exchanged, Europeans traded their manufactured items while profiting from their control of commercial and shipping services. Disruption In Africa, the incorporation of West Africa into the Atlantic system drew the focus of trade from Trans-Saharan to the west.

Prosperity Western Europe dominated a growing percentage of oceanic shipping as between India and Southeast Asia. This greatly increased Europe's overall profits, and disproportionate control by the great merchant companies increased the European ability to determine the framework for international trade. Disruption The Mongol Empire sped up exchanges between the civilizations of Asia, and this developed the European interest. Although, the fall of Khans in China disrupted this interchange, as China became once again a land of mystery to Europeans. Europe's upper classes had by this time become used to imported products from Southeast Asia and India, and these goods were transported to the Middle East in Arab ships, then brought overland, where they were loaded again onto vessels for the Mediterranean trade. Furthermore, Europeans entered into this era of growing contacts with several disadvantages, such as remaining ignorant of the wider world.

Canton system

Qing (Manchu) Empire utilized peasants for their economic gain. Although they focused on China's economic strength on the practice of agriculture than commerce, silk exports became important to their economy. The city of Canton in the south of China was the only location where Europeans were allowed to conduct business and the Chinese accepted only gold and silver as payment for their exports, and this provided China with a dominant means of control over global trade. In order to meet the demand of foreigners for silk, the government forced peasants to work in the growing of mulberry plants (necessary for silkworms to produce quality silk) and in the general production of silk. In some areas, silk production exceeded rice production and consumed all surplus labor of peasant families.

Example of how rulers used religious ideas to legitimize their rule.

Religious Idea: European Notions of Divine Right of Kings Associated Empire/Ruler: Holy Roman Empire(Charlegmagne) France(Louis XIV) Explanation: The divine right of kings is an important political ideology in Western Europe. It maintains that the king's authority comes from God and, as such, the king is accountable only to God for his actions. Thus it supports the idea of absolute monarchy in which the monarch's power is not checked by any earthly agent.

Example of how rulers used religious ideas to legitimize their rule.

Religious Idea: Mexica or Aztec Practice of Human Sacrifice Associated Empire/Ruler: Aztec Empire Explanation: Many of the violent sacrifices of the Aztecs were aimed at maintaining the empire's economic and social stability and the calendar year was full of systematic sacrifices performed by groups of different tradesmen at specified times. Historians are not in total agreement about the purpose of these bloody pageants. Some emphasize that they represent the use of terror and fear to coerce obedience to the state. Others demonstrate how the sacrifices, on which many aspects of Aztec civilization depended, maintained the power of the priests and elites classes who carried them out. They seemed to have brought cohesiveness to the multi-ethnic and tribal components of the expanding empire. The sacrifices at the capital city of Tenochtitlan were "intended to win the loyalty of a relatively small target group, the young men who formed the core of the Aztec army." The recognition and rewarding of young warriors provided a united bond among men from varied backgrounds that minimized ethnic and kinship identities. Therefore, the sacrifices brought greater unity and loyalty to the state.

Example of how rulers used religious ideas to legitimize their rule.

Religious Idea: The Safavid's Use of Shiism Associated Empire/Ruler: The Safavid Empire Explanation: The Safavids rose out of the dissolution of the Timurid Empire, the state formed by the conquest of Timur, also known as Tamerlane. After his death, Timur's empire fell to warring family members. In Persia, Mesopotamia, and Eastern Anatolia, the disintegrating Timurid Empire opened the way for Shi'ite sects and Sufi brotherhoods to proliferate. Taking advantage of the absence of any centralized state, Ismail—a leader from a prominent Sufi family—conquered most of these areas in the late 15th century and began the Safavid Empire. Although, despite unifying Iran (Persia), much of the population did not accept their authority. After converting to Shia Islam, Safavid leaders aspired to install Shiism as the state religion in order to command the loyalty of the population. The result was a syncretic blend of Shiism and traditional Persian beliefs. Ismail "adopted many of the forms of Persian, pre-Islamic government, including the title of Shah." He claimed to have descended not only from the Seventh Imam, but also to be the reincarnation of pre-Islamic kings and prophets. Furthermore, subsequent Safavid leaders continued to fuse Shiism with their political power; since the Safavids: Built mosques and appointed prayer leaders in each village to secure Shia beliefs. Made their empire a safe haven for Shi'a scholars and invited many of them to migrate to their empire. These religious sages depended on the state for support and in turn recognized the legitimacy of Safavid rule. Although, they did not grant them absolute rule over scholarly religious affairs which meant that political and religious leadership would form a dual system of authority.

Counter-Reformation

Restatement of traditional Catholic beliefs in response to the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. Established the Council of Trent that revived Catholic Doctrine and refuted Protestant beliefs.

Example of the intensification of peasant labor and the resulting produced product

Russia In order to secure the new frontier settlements to the east that had been growing since Ivan IV, Russian Czars encouraged peasants to migrate to Siberia by providing them with incentives, such as grain, seeds, and farming tools. Many peasants sought to create a better and more independent life for themselves by moving east. Fur trappers pushed to the east as well to take advantage of the profitable trade in furs.

Muscovy

Russia's emergence as a new power in eastern Europe and central Asia initially depended on its gaining freedom from Mongol control. The Duchy of Moscow was the center for the liberation effort beginning in the 14th century. Local princes began to carve out greater autonomy, and the effectiveness of mongol control began to deteriorate. Although, the Moscow princess initially gained political experience as tax collectors for the Mongols, but gradually they moved toward regional independence. Under Ivan III- Ivan the Great(1462-1505), who claimed secession from the Rurik Dynasty and the old Kievan days- a large Russian territory emerged. Ivan organized strong army, giving the new government a military emphasis it will long retain. In 1480, Moscow had been freed from any payment to the Mongols and Ivan had gained a vast kingdom running from the borders of the Polish Lithuanian Kingdom to the Ural Mountains. Ivan the Great claimed an earlier tradition of centralized rule, which bent back to the Rurik Dynasty and Byzantine precedents, and added to its new sense of imperial mission. She married the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, which gave him the chance to assert control over all Orthodox Churches regardless of whether in Russia. The idea of Russia are the Third Rome explains why I've been called himself tsar, or caesar, the "autocrat of all Russians." From Ivan III onward, early modern Russia was strongly shaped by military needs. Mongol counter-attacks were legitimate concern, but Russian rulers also pressed conquests beyond defense. They seized additional territory from the Mongol in modern-day Ukraine, and also in Central Asia, through the 16th century, and they also began to expand east-central Europe, which brought them face-to-face with other military opponents. Furthermore, the power of the aristocratic landlords, called boyars, also led to conflicts with the claims of the tsars, who wanted to rule without interference. These conflicts Martha Russian history in the 16th and 17th centuries, before the boyars were finally defeated. This pattern, along with a deep-seated and durable pressure on the serfs, due to the tsars granting hereditary territories to military nobles, the find key developments in Russia even beyond the early modern centuries.

Conquistadors

Spanish conquerors who were very successful in conquering the Native Empires in the Americas due to their firearms, organizational skills, and determination.

Explain why the Spanish sponsorship of voyages across the Atlantic and Pacific dramatically increased European interest in transoceanic travel and trade.

Spanish sponsorship of voyages across the Atlantic and Pacific dramatically increased European interest in transoceanic travel and trade because the newly realized potentially beneficial territory of the Americas, discovered by Christopher Columbus. The Columbian voyages initiated the world-transforming encounter between two hemispheres of this planet, thus, resulting in profound cultural, demographic, political and social consequences.

Staple Crop 1: Potatoes Potatoes were transplanted to places like Europe, Russia, and China. Potatoes produce greater yields than cereal grains and can be cultivated in higher altitudes, so they led to increased surpluses of food. About 25% of the population growth in Afro-Eurasia between 1700 and 1900 can be attributed to the cultivation of potatoes. China, for example, experienced a rapid population growth after potatoes were widely cultivated there.

Staple Crop 2: Tomatoes, hot chili peppers Tomatoes and hot chili peppers were also transplanted from their place of origin in South America to Afro-Eurasia. In the modern day, cuisines characteristically associated with Italy and Asia are unthinkable without tomatoes and hot peppers.

Provide an example of the factor listed and explain how it provided a significant challenge to state consolidation and expansion.

State rivalries: Thirty Years War In Germany, the Thirty Years broke out in 1618, pitting German Protestants and allies such as Lutheran Sweden against the Holy Roman emperor, supported by Spain. The war was so devastating that it reduced German power and prosperity by a full century, therefore, showing how this state rivalry provided a significant challenge to state consolidation and expansion, due to the reduction of German power making them unable to expand and consolidate.

Example of Afro-Eurasian fruit trees, grains, sugar, and domesticated animals that were brought by Europeans to the Americans. For each example, explain its impact on the Americas.

Sugar: Indigenous to Southeast Asia, sugarcane was brought to the Caribbean by the Spanish early on, and the demand for sugar in Europe grew, as it was a more convenient and influential sweetener than previously available materials. The Portuguese introduced the plantation system in Brazil to grow sugarcane. Then in the early 17th century a discovery was made that dramatically increased the cultivation of sugar. Plantation slaves discovered that molasses, a byproduct of the production of sugar that was often discarded, could be distilled into alcohol. This new product, Rum, meant that sugarcane could produce two highly profitable products and had virtually no waste. Entire forests were cleared to grow sugarcane and the plantation system proliferated across the Caribbean. This in turn created a tremendous demand for slaves.

1653 - Cape Town colony founded (Dutch)

The Cape Colony was established by the Dutch on the Cape of Good Hope in 1652. The intent was to form another coastal station to supply Dutch ships heading for Asia. Although, Dutch farmers were sent, and these Boers, the Dutch word for farmers, began to fan out on large farms in a region that remains lightly populated by Africans. They clashed with local hunting groups, enslaving some of them. Only after 1770 did the expanding Boer settlements directly conflict with Bantu farmers, opening a long battle for control of southern Africa that raged until the late 20th century in the nation of South America.

Columbian Exchange

The Columbian exchange, named for Christopher Columbus, was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the Americas, West Africa, and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries. It also relates to European colonization and trade following Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage. Invasive species, including contagious diseases, were a byproduct of the exchange. The changes in agriculture significantly altered global populations. The most significant immediate impact of the Columbian exchange was the cultural exchanges and the transfer of people (both free and enslaved) between continents. The new contact between the global population circulated a wide variety of crops and livestock, which supported increases in population in both hemispheres, although diseases initially caused precipitous declines in the numbers of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Traders returned to Europe with maize, potatoes, and tomatoes, which became very important crops in Europe by the 18th century.

Explain how the European establishment of new trading-post empires in Africa and Asia, affected the power of states in the interior of West and Central Africa.

The Europeans establishment of new trading post empire in Africa and Asia affected the power of states in the interior of West and Central Africa because these trading post empires are located along the coast of these continents, and trade is allowing them to gain more powerful due to its means of strengthening the economy, which aids in strengthening the political power of these coastal empires. Furthermore, since most of the power within the African power is located along the African coast, the interior states receive less benefits because the trading within these coastal empires act as a blockade that is difficult for the interior states to work their way around for the interests of also participating in trade because the trading post established by these coastal empires are blocking some means of trade for the interior state, therefore, deriving the interior states of West and Central Africa from economic benefits and power.

Forbidden City

The Forbidden City is a large precinct of red walls and yellow glazed roof tiles located in the heart of China's capital, Beijing. As its name suggests, the precinct is a micro-city in its own right. Measuring 961 meters in length and 753 meters in width, the Forbidden City is composed of more than 90 palace compounds including 98 buildings and surrounded by a moat as wide as 52 meters. The Forbidden City was the political and ritual center of China for over 500 years. After its completion in 1420, the Forbidden City was home to 24 emperors, their families and servants during the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties. The last occupant (who was also the last emperor of imperial China), Puyi (1906-67), was expelled in 1925 when the precinct was transformed into the Palace Museum. Nevertheless, the construction of the Forbidden City was the result of a scandalous coup d'état plotted by Zhu Di, the fourth son of the Ming dynasty's founder Zhu Yuanzhang, that made him the Chengzu emperor (his official title) in 1402. In order to solidify his power, the Chengzu emperor moved the capital, as well as his own army, from Nanjing in southeastern China to Beijing and began building a new heart of the empire, the Forbidden City. Also, the architectural style also reflects a sense of hierarchy. Each structure was designed in accordance with the Treatise on Architectural Methods or State Building Standards (Yingzao fashi), an eleventh-century manual that specified particular designs for buildings of different ranks in Chinese social structure. Finally, the establishment of the Qing dynasty in 1644 did not lessen the Forbidden City's pivotal status, as the Manchu imperial family continued to live and rule there. While no major change has been made since its completion, the precinct has undergone various renovations and minor constructions well into the twentieth-first century. Since the Forbidden City is a ceremonial, ritual and living space, the architects who designed its layout followed the ideal cosmic order in Confucian ideology that had held Chinese social structure together for centuries. This layout ensured that all activities within this micro-city were conducted in a manner appropriate to the participants' social and familial roles. All activities, such as imperial court ceremonies or life-cycle rituals, would take place in sophisticated places depending on the events' characteristics. Similarly, the court determined the occupants of the Forbidden City strictly according to their positions in the imperial family.

Holy Roman Empire

The German king Otto I was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 962, hearkening back to Charlemagne's designation as the Holy Roman Emperor. This title symbolizes Charlemagne's revival and restoration of the 'Roman Empire' through a different means of religion throughout Charlemagne's rule over the Frankish Kingdom, and in exchange of Charlemagne conquering Lombardi in Italy, Charlemagne was named emperor of the Romans by the Pope in 800. Charlemagne also encouraged church-based education and used regional administrators to help govern his empire. Nevertheless, his title of the Holy Roman Emperor symbolizes his contribution of the unity of church and state. Furthermore, Otto's successors survived the power struggle with the papacy over the lay investiture controversy of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The dispute was over whether a secular leader, rather than the pope, could invest bishops with the symbols of office. It was finally resolved in the Concordat of Worms of 1122, when the Church achieved autonomy from secular authorities. The Holy Roman Empire remained vibrant until it was virtually destroyed during the Thirty Years' War(1618-1648), from when it never recovered. The Empire came to an end with Napoleon's invasion in 1806.

1689 - Glorious Revolution/English Bill of Rights

The Glorious Revolution, also called "The Revolution of 1688" and "The Bloodless Revolution," took place from 1688-1689 in England. It involved the overthrow of the Catholic king James II, who was replaced by his Protestant daughter Mary and her Dutch husband, William of Orange. Motives for the revolution were complex and included both political and religious concerns. The event ultimately changed the ways of English government, giving Parliament more power over the monarchy and planting seeds for the beginnings of a political democracy. These reforms occurred through the establishment of the English Bill of Rights. This document was developed through King William and Queen Mary accepting more restrictions from Parliament than any previous monarchs, causing an unprecedented shift in the distribution of power throughout the realm. The king and queen both signed the Declaration of Rights, which became known as the English Bill of Rights. This document acknowledged several constitutional principles, including the right for regular Parliaments, free elections, and freedom of speech in Parliament. Additionally, it forbade the monarchy from being Catholic. Many historians believe the Bill of Rights was the first step toward a constitutional monarchy. Furthermore, after this event, the monarchy in England would lack the acquiring of absolute power again. With the Bill of Rights, the regent's power was defined, written down, and limited for the first time. Parliament's function and influence changed dramatically in the years following the revolution.

Inca Empire

The Inca civilization flourished in ancient Peru between c. 1400 and 1533 CE, and their empire eventually extended across western South America from Quito in the north to Santiago in the south, making it the largest empire ever seen in the Americas and the largest in the world at that time. Undaunted by the often harsh Andean environment, the Incas conquered people and exploited landscapes in such diverse settings as plains, mountains, deserts, and tropical jungle. Nevertheless, Inca rule was, much like their architecture, based on divided sections and interlocking units. The Inca capital of Cuzco was the religious and administrative centre of the empire and had a population of up to 150,000 at its peak. Dominated by the sacred gold-covered and emerald-studded Coricancha complex, or Temple of the Sun, forming the core foundation of the Inca religion. The Inca religion was polytheistic, and Inca religious rituals involved ancestor worship as seen through the practice of mummification and making offerings to the gods of food, drink, and precious materials. Sacrifices - both animals and humans, including children - were also made to pacify and honour the gods and ensure the good health of the king. The Incas imposed their religion on local populations by building their own temples and sacred sites, and they also commandeered sacred relics from conquered people and held them in Cuzco. Furthermore, although the Incas imposed their religion and administration on conquered peoples, extracted tribute, and even moved loyal populations (mitmaqs) to better integrate new territories into the empire, the Incas also brought certain benefits such as food redistribution in times of environmental disaster, better storage facilities for foodstuffs, work through state-sponsored projects, state-sponsored religious feasts, roads, military assistance and luxury goods, especially art objects enjoyed by the local elite. Finally, a legacy of the Inca is that they are famed for their unique art and architecture through their construction of finely-built and imposing buildings wherever they conquered, as well as the spectacular adaptation of natural landscapes with terracing, highways, and mountaintop settlement. the Inca Empire was founded on, and maintained by, force, and the ruling Incas were very often unpopular with their subjects , a situation that the Spanish conquistadores, led by Francisco Pizarro, would take full advantage of during the 16th century CE. The Inca Empire was unstable with rebellions being common, and the Incas were engaged in a war in Ecuador where a second Inca capital had been established at Quito. Even more serious, the Incas were hit by an epidemic of European diseases, such as smallpox, which had spread from central America even faster than the European invaders themselves, and the wave killed approximately 65-90% of the population. It was this combination of factors - a perfect storm of rebellion, disease, and invasion - which brought the downfall of the mighty Inca Empire.

What impact did the Little Ice Age have on agricultural practices and settlement in the Northern Hemisphere?

The Little Ice Age impacted agricultural practices and settlement in the Northern Hemisphere because the cold climate resulted in bad harvests, and bad harvests consequently brought hunger and even starvation to millions of people. This resulted in the taxes being higher since there was less available food to sell since the harvests were horrific. Less food also meant more disease and also more crime since poor harvest led to civil unrest. Since farming was the principal occupation and nearly the primary source of income for most settlements, severe annual variations in agriculture echoed throughout settlement life, nevertheless, various aspects of agricultural decline contributed to population declines.

Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation was begun by this German monk issued a document containing 95 theses, or propositions. He was publicly protesting claims made by papal representatives in selling indulgences, or grants of salvation, for money, but in fact his protest went deeper. Luther's reading of the Bible convinced him that faith alone could gain salvation, and as well as believing that a person could receive grace and enter the kingdom of God (heaven) not through payments, good works or by attending Church. Church sacraments were not the path, for God could not be manipulated. Luther's protest, which was rebuffed by the papacy, soon led him to challenge many Catholic beliefs, including the authority of the pope. Luther would soon argue that monasticism was wrong, that priests should marry, it at the Bible should be translated from Latin so ordinary people could have direct access to its teachings. Luther did not want to break Christian unity, but the church he wanted should be on his terms. Furthermore, this led to Luther seeking reforms in the Church and in addition to teaching that salvation was available through faith and trust in God alone, Luther instituted two other changes as a part of the new Lutheran doctrine. Luther first taught that religious truth and authority lies only in the Bible, not in the interpretation of the priest alone. Services were to be held in the local language so worshippers could easily understand and participate in the services. Luther also emphasized that the Church's power and influence was not only in the hands of the clergy, but rather in the community of all believers. All useful occupations, not just religious ones, were important to the whole community. All productive and honest occupations were considered vocations, in which people could serve both God and their neighbors. Nevertheless, there was another form of Protestantism besides Lutheranism, and this was Calvinism. Calvinism was another sect of the Protestant religion which was founded and developed by French protestant, John Calvin, who stressed the idea of predestination, or prior determination of those to be saved. The center of Calvinism was established at Swiss canton of Geneva. Calvinist encouraged ideas of wider access to government by seeking the participation of all believers in the local church administration. They also promoted broader education in order for more people to be able to read the Bible. Calvinism spread from Switzerland to Northern Europe and North Africa. Furthermore, Protestantism is the general wave of religious dissent against the believed corruption of the Catholic Church.

Seven Years' War

The Seven Years War, a global conflict known in America as the French and Indian War, officially begins when England declares war on France. Although, fighting and conflicts between England and France had been going on in North America for years. In the early 1750s, French expansion into the Ohio River valley repeatedly brought France into armed conflict with the British colonies. In 1756-the first official year of fighting in the Seven Years War-the British suffered a series of defeats against the French and their broad network of Native American alliances. Although, in 1757, British Prime Minister William Pitt recognized the potential of imperial expansion that would come out of victory against the French and borrowed heavily to fund an expanded war effort. Pitt financed Prussia's struggle against France and her allies in Europe and reimbursed the colonies for the raising of armies in North America. In 1760, the French had been expelled from Canada, and by 1763 all of France's allies in Europe had either made a separate peace with Prussia or had been defeated. In addition, Spanish attempts to aid France in the Americas had failed, and France also suffered defeats against British forces in India. The Seven Years War ended with the signing of the treaties of Hubertusburg and Paris in February 1763. In the Treaty of Paris, France lost all claims to Canada and gave Louisiana to Spain, while Britain received Spanish Florida, Upper Canada, and various French holdings overseas. The treaty ensured the colonial and maritime supremacy of Britain and strengthened the 13 American colonies by removing their European rivals to the north and the south. Fifteen years later, French bitterness over the loss of most of their colonial empire contributed to their intervention in the American Revolution on the side of the Patriots.

Why did the European establishment of trading post empires in Africa and Asia, prove to be so profitable for the merchants and rulers involved in new global trade networks?

The establishment of trading post empires in Africa and Asia proved to be very profitable for the merchants and rulers involved in new global trade networks because European merchants and rulers interacted with the trade networks associated with Africa and Asia significantly due to all of the benefits that arise from their involvement. For instance, in Asia, involvement with the Silk Roads demonstrated to be very beneficial in contributing to the economic strengthening of empires, so the Europeans establishment of trading post allows for the Europeans to have a better source of control of this trade network which then makes them more profitable. Also, in Africa, establishing trading posts allows them to have a better means of control of the profitable triangular trade trading network, between the Americas, Europe and Africa. Furthermore, establishing trading posts in Africa allows European merchants to develop acquire much economic influence due to the fact that Africa supplies the slaves needed to acquire goods in the Americas, and these goods are then needed to be taken to Europe to be trade, and finally, bringing better goods to again be trade in Africa to continue this profitable cycle for the European merchants.

Explain the impact that the expansion of literacy had on the populous during this period.

The expansion of literacy allowed for a greater freedom of the spreading of ideas and stories as the invention of the printing press allowed for these ideas and stories to be written onto paper, copied, and then distributed throughout vast regions of great populations of people throughout the world during this time period.

Why did the growth of the plantation economy coincide with an increased demand for slaves in the Americas?

The growth of the plantation economy corresponded with an increased demand for slaves in the Americas because since a plantation is a large commercial farm used to grow a single cash crop for export, that means there is a requirement for laborers to work on the fields and handle the crops to be exported, but since many native Americans submitted to diseases carried by the European plantation managers the Europeans were forced to look to Africa, furthermore, demonstrating the increased demand for slaves in the Americas for the Europeans benefit.

1492 - Columbus/Reconquista of Spain

The people who inhabited the Iberian Peninsula had long lived at the frontier of Mediterranean Europe. During the Middle Ages their lands were a cultural frontier between Christianity and Islam. Conflicts created a strong tradition of military conquest and rule over people of other beliefs and customs. A number of Christian kingdoms emerged, such as Portugal on the Atlantic coast, Aragon in eastern Spain, and in the center of the Peninsula, Castile, the largest of all. In the mid-15th century, the rulers Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile carried out a program of unification that sought to eliminate the religious and eventually the ethnic divisions in their kingdoms. With the fall in 1492 of Granada, the last Muslim kingdom, the cross triumped throughout the peninsula. Moved by political sharpness and religious passion, Isabella ordered the Jews of her realm to convert or leave the country. As many as 200,000 people may have left, severely disrupting some aspects of the Castilian economy. It was also in 1492, with the Granada war at an end and religious unification established, that Isabella and Ferdinand were willing to support the project of a Genoese mariner named Christopher Columbus, who hoped to reach the East Indies by sailing westward around the globe.

Cartography

The sea voyages of the Europeans in this era could not have taken place without a revolution in the craft of cartography, or map making. European maps in the Middle Ages, called T-O maps because of their shape, were not intended as tools for navigation. These maps often placed Jerusalem in the center of the world and divided the world into the domains of Noah's three sons. Therefore, they were qualitative maps intended to make a religious statement about the world from a Christian point of view. They declared what was religiously important but were useless in bringing sailors back to port. This changed with European contacts with Byzantine and Islamic influences that had been increasing over the previous few centuries. Although, writings of the Greek cartographer Ptolemy (90-168 C.E.) had been making their way into Europe in the previous period, few Europeans read Greek. With the increase of available classical authors and their translation into Latin, a new interest in Ptolemy's work emerged. [3] Combined with the growing desire for trade, navigation and cartography attracted some of the best academic minds of the 15th century who began to view the world, like Ptolemy, in a quantitative way. They believed mathematics corresponded with the actual way the world was. A change in mentality meant that the world was now conceived in a mathematical and rational way. Cartography was concerned with making maps that resemble the features of geography as they actually existed rather than making a theological statement about the world. Merchants could now use maps to plot new routes to and from desired locations and their experiences and information was in turn applied to the latest maps. The craft of this new quantitative method of map-making and the training required for the new instruments of navigation were taught in the city of Lisbon, Portugal.

1502 - 1st African Slaves to Americas

The slaves carried across the Atlantic were brought mainly to the plantations and mines of the Americas. In 1502, the first slaves to arrive as part of a labor force in the New World reached the island of Hispaniola. This island was another estate in which large amounts of labor, often coerced, from Africa were utilized for the production of sugar, rice, cotton, and tobacco. Nevertheless, this shows how West Africans, coming from societies in which herding, metallurgy, and intensive agriculture were widely practiced, were sought by Europeans for the specialized tasks of making primarily sugar. In any case, the plantation system of farming with a dependent or enslaved workforce characterized the production of many tropical and semitropical crops in demand in Europe, and thus the plantation became the position of African and American life. Although, slaves had many other jobs as well, from mining to urban occupations as artisans, street vendors, and household servants. Nevertheless, there was almost no occupation that slaves did not perform, although most were agricultural laborers.

Palace of Versailles

The team of Louis le Vau (architect to the aristocracy), André le Nôtre (landscape designer), and Charles le Brun (über-fashionable interior decorator and painter), Louis XIV's enormous and stylish palace was completed 21 years after it was begun in 1661 allowing Louis (and his closest friends, family, courtiers, servants and soldiers—all 20,000 of them) to officially set up court there (by that point, the succeeding architect, Jules Hardouin Mansart, had taken up the design reins). he place has 700 rooms, 2,153 windows, and takes up 67,000 square meters of floor space. Furthermore, over and above anything else, Versailles was meant to emphasize Louis's importance. After all, this is the guy that called himself The Sun King; as in, everything revolves around me. "L'état, c'est moi" (I am the state), he said, famously and oh-so-modestly. By building Versailles, Louis shifted the seat of French government away from the feuding, gossiping, trouble-making noble families in Paris. He had the whole palace and its massive gardens built along an East/West axis so the sun would rise and set in alignment with his home. And he filled both the palace and its gardens with sculpture, painting, and fountains that all focused on himself. Nevertheless, Louis, especially liked linking himself directly to the Greek god Apollo (Sun King = Sun God). The Apollo Fountain and Apollo Salon remain two of the major highlights of a visit to Versailles. Not content with the restraint of pure classical design, he had his team create a palace that used classical structures to contain the elaborate grandeur of the Baroque style that was all the rage in the mid-seventeenth century. He wanted to establish the most significant statement of Versailles, and he developed that Versailles was a palace designed to glorify the French monarch by incorporating both ornate Baroque decorations that amply demonstrates his wealth and glory and the stricter rules of classicism that express his intellectual and cultural stature.

New World

The territory of the Americas in which Italian navigator Christopher Columbus had arrived and claimed to be India, but after his death, other Spanish explorers and various kinds of ethnic Europeans groups sought to explore and expand their territory for the purpose of exploiting its wealth from the new resources.

Explain how the transfer of diseases to the Americas as part of European colonization impacted Amerindian populations. Give specific examples

The transfer of diseases to the Americas as part of European colonization impacted the populations of the native, indigenous people of the Americas because since the Native Americans did not have the immunities to the microorganism that the Europeans brought along with them, developing into diseases that they were then immune to these diseases, caused by the microorganisms, became highly susceptible to these diseases. New encounters between Europeans and Native Americans caused the spread of viruses such as measles and smallpox with catastrophic results, and this resulted in natives dying by the millions. In central Mexico, pandemic diseases killed 60 to 90 percent of the population. When the Tlaxcalan people sided with the Spaniards against the Aztecs, Tlaxcala paid a heavy price. The disease they caught from their Spanish allies killed up to 1,000 of them daily, with a total of about 150,000 deaths. In addition to smallpox and measles, Europeans also unintentionally spread cholera, malaria, influenza, and bubonic plague in the New World. The decimation of native Americans due to these diseases played a large role in the Spanish conquest of the mighty Inca and Aztec empires.

Explain the importance that travel to and trade with West Africa played in the formation of Portugal's global trading-post empire.

The travels to and trade with West Africa were first made by the European nation of Portugal, and these travels were important to King John's son, Prince Henry, because their was the opportunity of acquiring gold, which would be very beneficial in establishing Portuguese trading post as gold is a very legendary source that is desired by very empires, therefore, sought to be traded. Furthermore, Henry's capture of the Muslim city of Ceuta in 1415 opened the western coast of Africa to Portuguese exploration, and by the year of Henry's death in 1460, the Portuguese explorers had arrived in Guinea on Africa's western coast. Eventually, African gold was flowing by sea from west Africa directly to Iberia rather than across the trans-Saharan caravan routes, and, although Algiers and Tunis in North Africa were economically devastated by this rerouting of trade, Portugal got rich. As contacts with west African societies continued the Portuguese began trading in ivory and slaves as well. Finally, the Portuguese development of a school of navigation, specifically made by Prince Henry the Navigator, led to increased travel and trade to West Africa, furthering the development and construction of their global trading-post empire.

Taj Mahal

This currency was the product of Spain's mining of enormous amounts of silver in the New World. In present day Bolivia and Mexico, they discovered massive deposits of silver, including a mountain full of silver at Potosi. After the purest veins of silver were quickly strip-mined production slowed; then the Spanish introduced the combined method of using mercury to extract silver from ore. Production soared. In two centuries the silver mines of the Spanish New World produced 40,000 tons of silver. [17]The industrial centers that grew around these mines minted 2.5 million silver coins per year. The peso de ocho, worth about 80 US dollars today, gained acceptance around the world and lubricated global trade on an unprecedented level. Mughal India wanted Spanish silver for payment for its pepper sales, and this surge of silver funded Shah Jahan's construction of the Taj Mahal. Much of the Spanish silver ended up the hands of the Chinese, who had no desire for European products but readily accepted silver as payment for its coveted exports. The peso do ocho was even accepted currency in the United States until the Coinage Act of 1857.

Peninsulars

Viceroys, aristocrats, and other bureaucrats from Europe who were considered to be at the highest position of the social class pyramid in the Spanish colonies; resented by the creoles since the peninsulares are their superiors, but the creoles believed that they were more knowledgeable about day to day management of the colonies.

Atlantic System

a trade route primarily used between 1450 and 1750, and it connected the old and new worlds in a triangular pattern across the ocean. The Atlantic system involved the trading of slaves from Africa to the Americas by the Europeans in exchange for goods in a triangular manner, and this exchange also subliminally resulted in the exchange of various cultures and religions from Africa to the Americas, as well as to Europe, representing cultural exchange between these different ethnical regions of the world.

Enclosure

the division or consolidation of communal fields, meadows, pastures, and other arable lands in western Europe into the carefully outlined and individually owned and managed farm plots of modern times. In order to enclose land was to put a hedge or fence around a portion of this open land and thus prevent the exercise of common grazing and other rights over it. In England the movement for enclosure began in the 12th century and proceeded rapidly in the period 1450-1640, when the purpose was mainly to increase the amount of full-time pasturage available to manorial lords. Much enclosure also occurred in the period from 1750 to 1860, when it was done for the purpose of increasing agricultural efficiency, especially in the New World, restricting land access to the Native Americans.

Bullion

the name applied to gold, silver, and platinum considered solely as metal without regard to any value arising from its form as coins or ornaments. The bullion value of a coin is determined by its weight, fineness (proportion of precious metal to total weight), and the current price of the metal.

Monetization

the use of an established currency for business transactions, rather than agricultural products.

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