AS Level Psychology (9990) - Case Studies

3.1 BANDURA ET AL. (aggression) Describe the 4 stages of the social learning theory

(1) Attention: - Observers must pay attention to the behaviour(s) of a role model; - The role model could be the observer's parent or even a character on television. The role model must have some features that attract the observer; - The idea is that a same-sex model might have more of the relevant characteristics to be observed. (2) Retention: - Observers must store the observed behaviour(s) in their long-term memory so that the information can be used again; - This could be when the observer wants to imitate the observed behaviour. (3) Reproduction: - Observers must feel capable of imitating the retained, observed behaviour; - If they do, they may attempt to imitate the behaviour; - If they do not, they may observe some more or choose never to attempt to imitate the behaviour. (4) Motivation: - If observers experience vicarious reinforcement they are more likely to imitate the observed behaviour; - This is when the role model has been rewarded for performing the observed. Attention - Retention - Reproduction - Motivation

3.1 BANDURA ET AL. (aggression) Recall the research method used for this case study

(Main) Laboratory experiment: doesn't take place in the normal environment and the situation was controlled. (Also) Considered a controlled observation as well.

1.3 SCHACHTER & SINGER (two factors in emotion) Recall the type of data (results) for this case study

- All but one of the 185 participants agreed to the injection. Eleven participants were so suspicious about some crucial feature of the experiment that their data was discarded. Five participants had no physiological reaction to the injection of epinephrine and were also excluded from the data analysis. - This left 169 participants' data to be analysed - The participants who received the injections of adrenalin showed significantly more sympathetic arousal (as measured by pulse rate and self-ratings on numbness, tremor, itching, palpitation and headache) compared with the placebo participants. - The misinformed condition was only run in the euphoria condition as it was a control condition and inclusion in just one of the categories was adequate to evaluate the possible impacts of receiving information about side effects after the injection. - It can be immediately seen that on all items those participants in the adrenaline condition show more evidence of physiological response (change in pulse rate) compared to the control groups. - Further to this, on the self-report measures, those participants who were in the adrenaline conditions reported higher scores for palpitations and tremors suggesting that they were having a behavioural response to the increased levels of arousal. - In all the adrenalin conditions pulse rate increased significantly when compared with the decreased characteristic of the placebo conditions. - On the self-report scales about palpitations and tremors it is clear that the participants in these conditions experienced more of these symptoms in comparison to the placebo conditions. - The difference between the adrenalin conditions and the placebo conditions are all significant at the 0.001 level of significance. Therefore, it is clear that those participants in the adrenalin conditions were physiologically aroused during the experiment. - From the self-report measures, in the euphoria condition, the misinformed participants were feeling happier than all the others; the second happiest group was the ignorant group. This demonstrates that these participants were more susceptible to the stooge because they had no way of explaining why they felt as they did. - The informed group felt the least positive because they were aware why they felt as they did. - In the anger condition, the ignorant group felt the angriest and the second angriest group was the placebo group. - The least angry group were those who had been informed. This shows that participants were more susceptible to the stooge because they had no way of explaining why their body felt as it did. - Behaviour of the groups was observed through a one-way mirror and matched their self-reports.

1.2 DEMENT & KLEITMAN (sleep and dreams) Describe how an EEG works

- An EEG produces a chart (an encephalogram) showing how brain waves vary (i.e. how the frequency and amplitude of electrical activity changes over time). - The chart records changes which indicate the sleep stage a person is in. - An EEG can also be used to detect activity in the muscles moving the eyes, so can be used to measure eye movements. This is called an ElectroOculoGram (EOG).

Recall the names of the 3 case studies under the cognitive approach

- Andrade (doodling) - Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) - Laney et al. (false memory)

2.1 ANDRADE (doodling) Recall the conclusions for this case study

- Andrade concluded: "Participants who performed a shape-shading task... concentrated better on a mock telephone message than participants who listened to the message with no concurrent task" (2009: 4). - This was seen in both the monitoring performance task and the recall task. - However, it was not dear whether the doodling led to better recall because doodlers happened to notice more of the target information or whether it actually aided memory recall by encouraging some deeper processing of the telephone message.

1.3 SCHACHTER & SINGER (two factors in emotion) Recall the issues & debates for this case study

- Application to everyday life: it is useful to know that people describe their feelings in terms of the cognitions available at that time, especially when people have no immediate explanation for the physiological arousal they experience. This could be useful in hospitals when patients (especially children) are given drugs that might have some side effects that are not desirable. If the patients are engaged in behaviours that might generate euphoria or happiness, this may help them to get through any short-term negative side effects. For example, the Epi Mis group showed the most euphoria when the confederate was showing euphoria too. However, there could be ethical and moral issues in deceiving patients about side effects of drugs. - Individual and situational explanations: the study appears to show a situational explanation for participants' behaviour. They used the situation they were in to try to understand the physiological reactions they had or thought they were having. However, these differences should be noted: • If participants experienced an unexplained state of physiological arousal, they attempted to describe or label the emotions in terms of the relevant cognitive explanations available (e.g. euphoria or anger shown by the confederate). Therefore, the situation was used to label the emotions felt - so in the euphoria condition they "felt" joy whereas in the anger condition they "felt" fury. • If participants had an appropriate explanation for the physiological arousal, they did not use situational cues to understand the arousal. For example, participants who clearly attributed their physiological state to the injection did not show any anger in the anger condition However, this is based on just three participants showing a clear attribution. - Nature vs. nurture: although the study did not focus on nature versus nurture, we can link some concepts to this issue. The study shows that there would appear to be an interaction between the two. The nature side is supported by the underlying physiological mechanisms involved in experiencing different emotions. This could be in-built (nature) or changed or developed via the environment (nurture). The cognitive component of experiencing the emotions could represent the nurture side of the argument as the environmental cues are being used to understand the current emotion a person is feeling. However, this too could be in-built in brain neurology (nature) or purely via life experiences (nurture). Overall, it would appear that both nature and nurture are supported in this study.

1.1 CANLI ET AL. (brain scans and emotions) Recall the issues & debates for this case study

- Application to everyday life: the findings of this study may be useful for advertising agencies. If emotionally intense information is more likely to be recognised or recalled at a later date then advertisements that will appear on television or in magazines may be designed specifically to contain intense imagery. - Nature vs. nurture: some psychologists may argue that because the findings show that emotions are linked to brain function, the study supports a link to nature. However, as experiences were not taken into account in the study, it could still be nurture causing the results.

2.1 ANDRADE (doodling) Recall the issues & debates for this case study

- Application to everyday life: the results of this study might be useful for students when they are revising for examinations. If students have a podcast to listen to or are reading notes, it could be useful for them to doodle at the same time. - Individual and situational explanations: both sides of the argument can be seen in this study. In terms of individual explanations, participants may have used a similar strategy before or have a personality type that requires extra stimulation when processing information (e.g. some may be extroverts). In terms of situational explanations, the process of doodling in the given situation could have caused the improvement in recall rather than it being due to the individual: that is, the act of doodling is what helps people retain information.

1.2 DEMENT & KLEITMAN (sleep and dreams) Recall the issues & debates for this case study

- Application to everyday life: the study could identify when participants were entering REM or nREM sleep. The EEG monitor that did this could help sleep scientists to identify whether a person has a disorder based around REM sleep. A person complaining of poor sleep could come into a sleep laboratory and be wired up to an EEG. The person's brain wave patterns could be monitored to see whether they were typical or atypical. - Nature vs. nurture: the study could be considered to be relevant to the nature-nurture debate as it is believed that the experience of REM and n-REM sleep are universal and therefore due to nature. All participants in the study experienced both types of sleep and also the majority of dreaming took place during REM sleep. This also suggests that dreaming during REM sleep could be due to nature. However, there were individual differences between participants and this could be as a response to the environment as some of the participants had very disturbed sleep, possibly due to the uncomfortable environment of the sleep laboratory. This shows that environmental factors can also affect sleeping patterns.

1.1 CANLI ET AL. (brain scans and emotions) Describe what the amygdala is

- Areas that have been shown to have a significant association with emotion and memory are the subcortical areas of the brain, including the amygdala. - The amygdala is an almond-shaped set of neurons located deep in the brain's medial temporal lobe and has been shown to play a key role in the processing of emotions such as pleasure, fear and anger. - Importantly, the amygdala is also responsible fordetermining where memories are stored in the brain and which ones are kept.

1.2 DEMENT & KLEITMAN (sleep and dreams) Recall how the Aserinsky and Kleitman (19595) study is related to the Dement and Kleitman study

- Aserinsky and Kleitman were the first to use physiological measures of sleep to explore the relationship between sleep and dreaming. - They used an EEG to record brain activity and eye movements and showed that we have several stages during the night, alternating between REM and nREM sleep. - They found that participants woken from REM sleep were more likely to report a vidid, visual dream than when woken in other stages.

2.2 BARON-COHEN ET AL. (eyes test) Define the key terms in this case study

- Autism Spectrum Quotient Test (AQ): a self-report questionnaire with score ranging from 0 to 50. A higher score suggests that the person completing it has more autistic traits. - Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM): published by the American Psychiatric Association, it is used as a classification and diagnostic tool by doctors, psychiatric and psychologists across the globe. - International Classification of Disorders (ICD): published by the world health organisation (WHO), and similar to the DSM, it has a wider scope and covers all health-related conditions, not only mental health and psychological conditions. - Ceiling effect: this occurs when a test is too easy and all participants in a condition score the top score. This is problematic as it does not allow the research to differentiate between participants. - Basic emotions: as argued by Ekman (1992), there are six basic emotions that are recognised universally by adults and even very young children developing normally. These emotions are: happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear and disgust. - Quasi-experiment: quasi means 'almost', and refers to the fact that these experiments often have lots of control over the procedure, but not over how participants are allocated to conditions within the study. - IQ: a measure of intelligence that produces a score representing a person's mental age. The average range of IQ is between 85 and 115.

Recall the names of the 3 case studies under the learning approach

- Bandura et al. (aggression) - Saavedra and Silverman (button phobia) - Pepperberg (parrot learning)

State the main assumptions of the cognitive approach

- Behaviour and emotions can be explained in terms of the role of cognitive processes such as attention, language, thinking and memory; - Similarities and differences between people can be understood in terms of individual patterns of cognition.

State the main assumptions of the biological approach

- Behaviour, cognitions and emotions can be explained in terms of biological systems & processes, such as evolution, the nervous system and hormones; - Behaviour, cognitions and emotions can be investigated by manipulating and measuring biological responses (e.g. eye movements, brain activity and pulse rate); - Similarities and differences between people can be understood in terms of biological factors and their interaction with other factors.

State the main assumptions of the social approach

- Behaviour, cognitions and emotions can be influenced by other individuals; - Behaviour, cognitions and emotions can be influenced by other groups or social contexts.

What are the four approaches?

- Biological - Cognitive - Learning - Social

Recall the names of the 3 case studies under the biological approach

- Canli et al. (brain scans & emotions) - Dement and Kleitman (sleep & dreams) - Schacter and Singer (two factors in emotion)

1.1 CANLI ET AL. (brain scans and emotions) Recall the conclusions for this case study

- Canli et al. found an association between individual experiences of emotional intensity for stimuli with amygdala activation and subsequent memory for these stimuli, suggesting that the more emotionally intense an image is, the more likely it will be remembered. - This conclusion provides evidence to explain why people remember emotionally intense experiences well - The level of arousal a person is under could affect the strength of a memory trace. When exposed to an event that causes this arousal, such as a car crash or witnessing a crime, the memory trace will be more robust. - They also found that the amygdala is sensitive to individuals' experienced emotional intensity of visual stimuli with activity in the left amygdala during encoding being predictive of subsequent memory. - Canli et al. do comment that some of their findings are correlational, showing an association between the emotional impact on the participant and the subsequent memory for the item.

State the main assumptions of the learning approach

- Conditioning helps to explain changes in behaviour; - Social learning helps to explain changes in behaviour.

1.2 DEMENT & KLEITMAN (sleep and dreams) Recall the ethical issues for this case study

- Confidentiality: the researchers only used participants' initials when publishing the data to ensure that specific dreams could not be linked to individuals. - Protection: as the participants were sleeping in an unnatural situation it may have altered their normal sleep patterns. The person's ability to concentrate at work or at home next day could have been affected. There was no chance to ensure a normal sleeping night before the study ended.

1.3 SCHACHTER & SINGER (two factors in emotion) Recall the ethical issues for this case study

- Deception: participants thought that they were receiving a vitamin supplement called Suproxin (when it was actually epinephrine). They also thought that the confederate was another real participant who had been injected and was completing the questionnaire. - Protection: participants were injected, which could have caused physical pain. Also, as they were in situations that could bring about euphoria or anger, their psychological state on leaving the study was not the same as when they entered.

1.1 CANLI ET AL. (brain scans and emotions) Recall the hypothesis for this case study

- Directional‌ ‌hypothesis‌: the more arousing an image is the more likely it is to be remembered, as the amygdala will be more active when the pictures aren't 'tranquil'. - Null‌ ‌hypothesis‌: ‌the emotional intensity will not affect memory and any findings are all due to chance.

1.2 DEMENT & KLEITMAN (sleep and dreams) Recall the conclusions for this case study

- Dreaming is reported from REM but not nREM sleep, participants can judge the length of their dream duration and REM patterns relate to dream content. - As a consequence, dreaming is more likely at the end of the night, as the REM stages are longer. (These two observations fit with those reported by other researchers.) - The occasional recall of dreams from nREM is likely to happen because dreams are being recalled from the previous REM phase (as this is more likely closely following REM sleep). - The finding that REM sleep occurs in phases during the night helps to explain why participants in other studies who were awoken randomly may not have reported dreaming. Perhaps they were only woken in nREM stages, or were dreaming about distant objects so had few REMs, making accurate detection difficult. - Measurement of eye movements and brain waves has shown that dreams progress in 'real time' and that this is a more objective way to study dreaming than using subjective recall of dreams alone, which can also be affected by forgetting.

1.1 CANLI ET AL. (brain scans and emotions) Define the key terms in this case study

- Evolution: the process of natural selection of offspring which have inherited characteristics that make them most likely to survive. - Genes: inherited instructions that are passed on from parents to children that control our development and influence some aspects of our thinking, behaviour and emotions, such as our personality and intelligence. One way this can happen is by affecting brain function. - Correlation Coefficient: a number between -1 and 1 which shows the strength of a relationship between two variables with a coefficient of -1 meaning there is a perfect negative correlation and a coefficient of 1 meaning there is a perfect positive correlation. - Physiological: to do with the biological processes in the body (e.g. hormones). - Valence: when discussing emotions this refers to the attractiveness (positive valence) or aversiveness (negative valence) of an event, object or situation. - Foil: an unknown or unseen object that is used as a control when testing a participant's memory.

1.1 CANLI ET AL. (brain scans and emotions) Describe how fMRI works

- Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a neuroimaging procedure using MRI technology that measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow. - In the simplest fMRI study a participant would alternate between periods of completing a specific task and a control or rest state to measure baseline activity. - The fMRI data is then analysed to identify brain areas in which the signal changed between the activity and the rest state and it is inferred that these areas were activated by the task. - The data from an fMRI an is used to generate images that can illustrate how the brain is working during different tasks. - Such a scan allows a living brain to be seen without resorting to surgery. 1. During the scan, patients are placed in a scanner that sends a strong magnetic field through their head. 2. The magnetic field causes the nuclei in hydrogen molecules in the brain to spin in a particular way, and the scanner picks this up. 3. Because hydrogen concentrations vary in different parts of the brain, the scanner is able to create a very detailed picture of the brain.

1.2 DEMENT & KLEITMAN (sleep and dreams) Recall the research method used for this case study

- General: laboratory experiment - Specific: • Study 1: experiment (difference in dream recall between REM and nREM sleep) • Study 2: correlation (relationship between dream duration and the length of the REM period) • Study 3: self-reports (relationship between eye movement patterns and dream content).

3.1 BANDURA ET AL. (aggression) Recall the aim of this study

- General: to investigate observational learning of aggression; - Specific: to investigate whether a child would learn aggression by observing a model and would reproduce this behaviour in the absence of the model, and whether the sex of the role model was important.

1.3 SCHACHTER & SINGER (two factors in emotion) Recall the background information on this case study

- How individuals use either internal or external cues to identify their own emotional state has been of interest to psychologists since the late 1800s. - Some of the early research suggested that cognitive factors could influence our emotional state. - Following on from this it was suggested that an emotional state may be considered a function of a state of physiological arousal and of a cognition appropriate to this state of arousal. The cognition therefore steers our interpretation of our physiological state so that we can our emotional responses. - They suggest that emotional experience comes from a combination of a physical state of arousal and a cognition that makes best sense of the situation the person is in. - This study investigates emotions, and the TFToE which argues that we experience emotions as an interaction between physiological and psychological variables. - To achieve this, they created a situation where some participants were physiologically aroused through an epinephrine injection and put into either a 'happy' or 'angry' situation to investigate if those participants would look to the situation for content cues to explain their arousal.

1.3 SCHACHTER & SINGER (two factors in emotion) Recall the hypothesis for this case study

- Hypothesis 1: if a person doesn't have an explanation for their state of arousal, they will label that arousal based on immediate cognition (whatever is picked up from the immediate environment). - Hypothesis 2: if a person has an explanation for their state of arousal, they won't necessarily consider their immediate environment when labelling that arousal. - Hypothesis 3: if a person experiences a situation they have encountered previously, they will only have an emotional response if they feel physiologically aroused.

1.2 DEMENT & KLEITMAN (sleep and dreams) Recall the IV, DV & CV for this case study

- IV: • Study 1: whether the participant was woken from REM sleep/nREM sleep. • Study 2 (correlation): waking after 5 or 15 minutes. • Study 3: the IV of eye-movement pattern type. - DV: • Study 1: whether a dream was reported (or not) and, if so, the detail. • Study 2 (correlation): participants' choice of 5 or 15 minutes. • Study 3: the report of dream content.

3.1 BANDURA ET AL. (aggression) Recall the IV, DV & CV for this case study

- IV: 1. Model type: whether the child saw an aggressive model, non-aggressive model or no model. 2. Model gender: same gender as child (boys = male model, girls = female model) or different gender (boys = female model, girls = male model). 3. Learner gender: whether the child was a boy or a girl. - DV: The learning the child displayed. This was measured through a controlled observation of the children and measures of aggressive behaviour were recorded (8 categories). - CV: The absence of a model. * The non-aggressive model group might appear to be a "control group" because the key factor of aggression is missing. However, the important aspect is the presence of a model - and there is one here.

2.1 ANDRADE (doodling) Recall the IV, DV & CV for this case study

- IV: doodling and control - DV: mean correct recall, false alarms and memory scores.

2.2 BARON-COHEN ET AL. (eyes test) Recall the IV, DV & CV for this case study

- IV: four groups of participants (AS/HFA adults, general population, students, matched) - DV: scores on the eyes test and AQ

1.1 CANLI ET AL. (brain scans and emotions) Recall the IV, DV & CV for this case study

- IV: level of perceived emotional arousal. - DV: fMRI measure of level of amygdala activation, memory of scene after three weeks (0-3, not emotionally intense at all to extremely emotionally intense).

1.3 SCHACHTER & SINGER (two factors in emotion) Recall the IV, DV & CV for this case study

- IV: the injection information and physiological effects, two IVs forming seven conditions: 1. Euphoria - Adrenaline (Epinephrine ) : • Informed (Epi. Inf) • Ignorant (Epi. Ign) • Misinformed (Epi. Mis) • Placebo (Saline Injection) 2. Anger - Adrenaline (Epinephrine): • Informed • Ignorant • Placebo (Saline Injection) - DV: measures of pulse rate, self-ratings of side effects and behaviour seen during the observation stage. 1. Observational data: recorded by two observers through a one-way mirror during the emotional arousal element of the experiment (the observers measured to what extent the participant acted in a euphoric or angry way). Euphoric condition categories: • Joins in the activity • Initiates a new activity • Watches stooge • Ignores stooge Anger condition categories: • Agreed with a comment • Disagreed with a comment • Was neutral to a comment • Initiates agreement or disagreement • Watches or ignores the stooge 2. Self-report: participants completed this following the emotional arousal element of the research.

3.1 BANDURA ET AL. (aggression) Define the key terms in this case study

- Imitative (social) learning: the learning of a new behaviour which is observed in a role model and imitated later in the absence of that model - Sex-typed behaviour: actions that are typically performed by one particular gender are seen in society as more appropriate for that gender (e.g. aggression is seen as a masculine-type behaviour and was more commonly imitated by boys)

2.2 BARON-COHEN ET AL. (eyes test) Recall the background information on this case study

- In 1997 a "Reading the mind in the eyes" test was developed to assess a concept called theory of mind. This refers to the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and other people. - This test appeared to discriminate between adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) and high-functioning autistic (HFA) adults from control adults. - The two former groups scored significantly worse than the control group on the test, which asked participants to look at a pair of eyes on a screen and choose, from a forced choice of emotions, which emotion the eyes best conveyed. - However, the researchers were not happy with elements of the original version and wanted to "upgrade" their measure to make it better.

2.1 ANDRADE (doodling) Recall the type of data (results) for this case study

- In the doodling condition, the mean number of shaded shapes on the printed sheet was 36.3, with a range of 3-110 and no participants in the control condition doodled spontaneously. - Participants in the control group correctly recalled a mean of 7.1 of the eight party-goers' names and five people made a false alarm. - Participants in the doodling group correctly recalled a mean of 7.8 party-goers' names and one person made a false alarm. - Overall, the doodling participants recalled a mean of 7.5 names and places, 29% more than the mean of 5.8 for the control group. Recall for moth monitored and incidental information was better for doodlers than controls, even when the participants who suspected a test were excluded (to eliminate effects due to demand characteristics).

2.2 BARON-COHEN ET AL. (eyes test) Recall the type of data (results) for this case study

- In the eyes test the AS/HFA group performed significantly worse than the other three groups. - In general, females scored better than males. - Unsurprisingly, the AS/HFA group scored significantly higher on the AQ than the other groups. - The correlation between the eyes test and AQ was negative. The distribution of scores for the eyes test (all groups merged) formed a normal bell curve.

1.1 CANLI ET AL. (brain scans and emotions) Recall how the LeBar and Phelps (1998) study is related to the Canli et al. study

- LaBar and Phelps (1998) suggested that emotional experiences are often better recalled than non-emotional ones and emotional arousal appears to increase the likelihood of memory consolidation during the storage stage of memory (the process of creating a permanent record of the encoded information). - Brain imaging studies have shown that amygdala activation correlates with emotional memory in the brain. - Previous research by Canli et al. (1999) showed that participants who had a strong amygdala activation in response to a set of emotional stimuli also showed superior memory for those stimuli. - However, Canli et al. (2000) suggested that, because an independent measures design was used for these experiments, there could be other explanations for the findings. - The present study used fMRI in a repeated measures, subsequent-memory design to test the predictions that those emotionally intense stimuli that produce greater amygdala activation would be recalled more easily than stimuli that generate less amygdala activation. - Participants saw neutral and negative scenes and indicated how they experienced the emotional intensity in each case. A separate fMRI response was recorded in the amygdala for each such emotional experience. - Three weeks later, participants' memories for the experiences were assessed to see if those images that generated greater activation of the amygdala were remembered better.

Recall the names of the 3 case studies under the social approach

- Milgram (obedience) - Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) - Yamamoto et al. (chimpanzee helping)

1.3 SCHACHTER & SINGER (two factors in emotion) Define the key terms in this case study

- Nervous system: the brain, spinal cord and all the nerve cells in our body that communicate to control our thinking, behaviour and emotions. - Adrenalin (aka epinephrine): a hormone released from the adrenal glands in response to stress or excitement. Common side effects include shakiness, anxiety, sweating, a fast heart rate and high blood pressure. Strong emotions such as fear or anger can cause epinephrine to be released into the bloodstream. - Placebo: a pill or injection given which the patient or participant believes is a drug but which, in realise, has no effect. - Stooge (aka confederate): a person who appears to be another participant or someone not related to the study, but who is in fact working on behalf of the researcher, used to mislead participants within the study. - Sympathetic arousal: when we are exposed to a stressful situation, the sympathetic nervous system becomes aroused causing the pupils to dilate, an increase in heart rate, digestive activity is inhibited and glucose is released by the liver for extra energy needed to prepare the body to respond to alarm or stress. - Double blind technique: when both the participant and the researcher are unaware of which condition the participant is in to prevent demand characteristics and act as a control to improve the validity of any data collected. - Hormones: chemicals that are released from glands and travel around the body in the blood to communicate messages between organs. - Cognition: the mental processes of acquiring and processing knowledge and understanding through experiences, senses, and thought. - Emotion: the body's adaptive response to a particular situation.

3.1 BANDURA ET AL. (aggression) Recall the hypothesis for this case study

- Observed aggressive behaviour wilt be imitated, so children seeing aggressive models will be more aggressive than those seeing a non-aggressive model or no model; - Observed non-aggressive behaviour wilt be imitated, so children seeing non-aggressive models will be less aggressive than those seeing no model; - Children are more likely to copy a same-sex model; - Boys will be more likely to copy aggression than girls.

2.1 ANDRADE (doodling) Recall the background information on this case study

- People have been known to daydream frequently when presented with something boring. In turn, this leads to them not paying full attention to the task at hand. - It is quite common for people to doodle (draw abstract or concrete symbols, patterns, figures, etc.) in ways not linked to the primary task - Prior to this study it was not known whether the act of doodling impairs attention processes by taking away resources from the primary task or whether it actually aids concentration towards the primary task, additionally maintaining arousal. - It is common in research on attention to set participants dual tasks to monitor performance, then see which cognitive processes are needed to complete these tasks (or which processes contribute to participants failing to complete them). - However, Andrade notes that if the effects of boredom are overlooked, then we cannot form any solid conclusions. Could it be that doodling actually aids concentration?

2.2 BARON-COHEN ET AL. (eyes test) Recall the ethical issues for this case study

- Protection: as the participants in the AS/HFA group scored poorly on the eyes test, completing it may have caused them stress. If they did not understand the emotions portrayed in the eyes the test may have been too difficult, perhaps causing distress.

1.1 CANLI ET AL. (brain scans and emotions) Recall the ethical issues for this case study

- Protection: participants were exposed to emotionally charged imagery which may have stressed some of them. There is no record of participants then being exposed to "happier" imagery to alleviate any negative mental state they may have found themselves in.

1.1 CANLI ET AL. (brain scans and emotions) Recall the background information on this case study

- Psychologists can now study the brains of living people and draw conclusions about the relationship between behaviour and brain structure/activity. - There are two basic types of medical scan: functional and structural. (1) Structural scans: take detailed pictures of the structure of the brain; (2) Functional scans: able to show activity levels in different areas of the brain.

1.2 DEMENT & KLEITMAN (sleep and dreams) Recall the type of data (results) for this case study

- Quantitative data: Dement and Kreitman reported some general findings, such as that all participants dreamt every night, as well as those relating to their three questions. They found that uninterrupted dream stages: • lasted 3-50 minutes (with a mean of approximately 20 minutes) . • were typically longer later in the night • showed intermittent bursts of around 2-100 rapid eye movements. In addition, they observed that: • no rapid eye movements were seen during the onset of sleep even though the EEG passed through a stage of brain waves similar to those produced during REM sleep. • the cycle length (from one REM stage to the next) varied between participants but was consistent within individuals, e.g. between 70 minutes at the shortest and 104 minutes at the longest (with a mean of 92 minutes for all participants). • When woken from nREM sleep participants returned to nREM but when woken from REM sleep they typically did not dream again until the next REM phase (except sometimes in the final REM phase of the night). As a consequence, the pattern of REM and nREM periods was very similar in experimental participants whose sleep was disturbed to those who had an uninterrupted night's sleep. - Qualitative data: narrative of the dreams as described by the participants.

1.1 CANLI ET AL. (brain scans and emotions) Recall the type of data (results) for this case study

- Quantitative data: • Participants' experience of emotional intensity in the present study correlated well with average ratings of emotional valence and arousal. • The average correlation coefficients between participants' intensity ratings, on the one hand, and normative valence and arousal, on the other hand, were -0.66 and 0.68, respectively. • Therefore, participants' ratings of emotional intensity reflected equally well the valence and arousal characteristics of the stimuli. • Amygdala activation was significantly correlated with higher ratings of individually experienced emotional intensity. This provides evidence that amygdala activation is related to the subjective sense of emotional intensity and that the participants' perceived arousal is associated with amygdala activation. • The follow-up memory task indicated that memory performance was significantly improved for scenes that were rated as highly emotionally intense (i.e. rated 3) than for scenes rated less emotionally intense. • Scenes that were rated mild-to-moderate (ratings 0 to 2) had similar distributions of items that were forgotten, familiar, or remembered, whereas scenes that were rated as emotionally highly valiant (rated 3) were recalled better, because fewer items were forgotten and more were familiar and remembered. • For scenes that were rated highly emotional (rated 3), the degree of left (but not right) amygdala activation predicted whether individual stimuli would be forgotten, appear familiar, or be remembered in a later memory test. • Therefore, little amygdala activation when viewing a picture rated as highly emotionally intense was associated with the participant's forgetting the stimulus, but intermediate and high amygdala activation was associated with a participant's later report of familiarity or confident recognition.

3.1 BANDURA ET AL. (aggression) Recall the type of data (results) for this case study

- Quantitative: mean aggression scores from the study; • Children exposed to aggressive models imitated their exact behaviours and were significantly more aggressive, both physically and verbally, than those children in non-aggressive model or control groups. • Children also imitated the model's non-aggressive verbal responses, this effect was greater for boys than girls. • Boys were more likely to imitate physical aggression and girls more likely to imitate verbal aggression. • Boys were more likely to imitate a same-sex model and so were girls (but to a lesser extent). • Mean for imitative physical aggression for male subjects (25.8) is much higher than for female subjects (7.2), indicating boys imitated the physical aggression of a male model more than the girls. • With a female model, girls imitated less (5.5) than with the male model. • Children seeing a non-aggressive model were much less likely than either the aggressive model group or controls to exhibit mallet aggression, and this pattern was especially apparent for girls. • Girls played more with dolls, tea sets and colouring and boys engaged more in exploratory play and gun play. • Both boys and girls seeing the non-aggressive model engaged in more non-aggressive play with dolls than either of the other groups, and spent more than twice as much time sitting quietly, not playing. - Qualitative: any comments noted from the children. • Some comments appeared to be on previous knowledge of sex-typed behaviour (e.g. 'Who is that lady? That's not the way for a lady to behave. Ladies are supposed to act like ladies...' / 'You should have seen what that girl did in there. She was acting like a man. I never saw a girl act like that before.' • Comments about the female model's behaviour were disapproving, whereas those about the male model's behaviour were not (e.g. 'Al's a good soccer, he beat up Bobo. I want to sock like Al' / 'That man is a strong fighter, he punched and punched and he could hit Bobo right down to the floor and Bobo got up he said, 'Punch your nose.' He's a good fighter like Daddy.'

1.2 DEMENT & KLEITMAN (sleep and dreams) Define the key terms in this case study

- Rapid eye movement sleep (REM): a stage of sleep in which our eyes move rapidly under the lids, which is associated with vivid, visual dreams. - Non-rapid eye movement sleep (nREM): the stages of sleep (1 to 4) in which our eyes are still. It is also called 'quiescent' (quiet) sleep. This is not associated with dreaming. - Electroencephalograph (EEG): a machine used to detect and record electrical activity in nerve and muscle cells when many are active at the same time. It uses macro electrodes, which are large electrodes stuck to the skin or scalp. - Frequency: the number of events per fixed period of time (e.g. the number of eye movements per minute (approx. 60/minute in REM sleep) or the number of brain waves (cycles) per second or Hertz (Hz) (e.g. 13-30 Hz for beta waves). - Amplitude: the 'height' of waves, e.g. on an EEG (indicating voltage).

2.1 ANDRADE (doodling) Recall the sampling technique & size and experimental design for this case study

- Sampling technique: - Sampling size: 40 members of a participation panel at the Medical Research Council unit for cognitive research. The panel was made up of members of the general population aged 18-55 years and they were paid a small sum for participation. 20 participants in each group, mainly females, with two males in the control group and three in the doodling group. - Experimental design: independent measures (participants were placed in either the control group or the doodling group).

3.1 BANDURA ET AL. (aggression) Recall the sampling technique & size and experimental design for this case study

- Sampling technique: Opportunity sampling (Stanford University nursery school) - Sample size: 72 children aged 3-6 years (36 boys and 36 girls) - Experimental design: Matched pairs design • Participants were divided into threes, all with similar initial aggression levels. • One of each of these individuals was placed into each of the three different conditions of model type (aggressive, non-aggressive or control).

2.2 BARON-COHEN ET AL. (eyes test) Recall the sampling technique & size and experimental design for this case study

- Sampling technique: opportunity and volunteer sampling - Sampling size: 15 males with either AS or HFA 122 normal adults recruited throughout the adult community 103 normal adults (53 male and 50 female) who were all undergraduates at Cambridge University 14 randomly selected adults who were matched for IQ with group 1 - Experimental design: independent groups

1.2 DEMENT & KLEITMAN (sleep and dreams) Recall the sampling technique & size and experimental design for this case study

- Sampling technique: opportunity sample in the University of Chicago. - Sample size: seven male and two female adults were used, five of whom were studied in detail. The remaining four were used to confirm the results of the first five. - Experimental design: repeated measures.

1.1 CANLI ET AL. (brain scans and emotions) Recall the sampling technique & size and experimental design for this case study

- Sampling technique: volunteer sample - Sampling size: ten right-handed, healthy female volunteers (females were chosen because it was thought that they were more likely to report intense emotional experiences and show more physiological reactions to the stimuli). - Experimental design: repeated measures design (participants contributed to each of the four conditions depending on their rating of each). *note: Participants took breaks between each 'stimuli' they were shown in order to avoid the effects of order effects because otherwise, the participants' response to neutral stimuli may become affected if they are continuously viewing negative stimuli. They may also not be phased by the negative stimuli anymore if they are continuously being exposed to it. - Randomising the order of stimuli helps to overcome order effects, so that seeing one type of stimulus doesn't effect the response to stimuli that follow in a systematic way.

1.3 SCHACHTER & SINGER (two factors in emotion) Recall the sampling technique & size and experimental design for this case study

- Sampling technique: volunteer sample. - Sampling size: 185 male participants, college students taking classes in introductory psychology at the University of Minnesota, of which many received course credit for taking part in the study (university health records were checked prior to the experiment to ensure that no harmful effects would result from the injections. - Experimental design: independent measures.

1.3 SCHACHTER & SINGER (two factors in emotion) Recall the conclusions for this case study

- Schachter & Singer argue that their findings support their Two-Factor Theory of Emotion, which states that: • The physiological arousal in different emotions is entirely the same and we label our arousal according to the cognitions we have available. • Physiological state of arousal + cognitive interpretation (environmental cues) → Explanation for emotions Three hypotheses were supported, therefore the study provides experimental evidence for the Two-Factor theory: 1. Arousal experienced without explanation + Cognitions available → Labelling of arousal based on cognitions available, describing feelings & emotions - Those who did not have an adequate explanation used the current situation they were in to explain their heightened physiological state (EPI Misinformed & EPI Ignorant). 2. Arousal experienced with explanation → Labelling of arousal with the appropriate explanation, describing feelings & emotions (unlikely to label based on alternative cognitions) - When participants had a satisfactory explanation for their physiological state of arousal they do not label this state with alternative information that is available (EPI Informed). 3. Situation + Past experience which led to an emotional arousal → Emotional reaction (only if they are in a state of physiological arousal) (Placebo condition)

1.3 SCHACHTER & SINGER (two factors in emotion) Recall what the Two-Factor Theory of Emotion is

- Schacter and Singer developed what they named the Two-Factor Theory of Emotion. - They suggest that emotional experience comes from a combination of a physical state of arousal and a cognition that makes best sense of the situation the person is in. (e.g. the TFToE argues that when people become aroused they look for cues as to why they feel the way they do from the environment and interpret their arousal in relation to this, therefore any emotional experience is a combination of physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation).

1.2 DEMENT & KLEITMAN (sleep and dreams) Recall the background information on this case study

- Sleep and dreaming are difficult to study as the participant is not responsive. The sleeper can give a description of a dream when they are awake, but to find out about sleep and dream states, physiological measures are needed too.

2.1 ANDRADE (doodling) Define the key terms in this case study

- Social cognition: the study of how people process social information and how this processing might affect how a person behaves towards or around other people. - Attention: the concentration of mental effort on a particular stimulus. It may be focused or divided. - Divided attention: the ability to split mental effort between two or more simultaneous tasks ('dual tasks'). - Daydreaming: a mildly altered state of consciousness in which we experience a sense of being 'lost in our thought', typically positive ones, and a detachment from our environment. - Focused attention: the picking out of a particular input from a mass of information, such as an array or a continuous stream. - Working memory model: this model of memory suggests that two different types of current or 'working' memory can be used at the same time, one is vis spatial and the other auditory. These are governed by an overall 'central executive'.

1.2 DEMENT & KLEITMAN (sleep and dreams) Recall the strengths & weaknesses for this case study

- Strengths: • Level of control: one method used was the laboratory experiment. In this part of the study it was therefore possible to control extraneous variables. If some participants, or participants in different stages of sleep, had woken more slowly they may have forgotten more of their dream, This was avoided by using a loud doorbell that woke them instantly, from any sleep stage. • Demand characteristics avoided: the participants were not told about their EEG Pattern or whether their eyes were moving in order to avoid possible demand characteristics, for example if they expected to remember more detailed dreams in REM sleep they may have made greater effort to do so. • Operationalisation of correlation: the correlation could only demonstrate whether there was a link between variables. In order to explore this link in a more controlled way, Dement and Kleitman conducted the additional experiment comparing 5 and 15 minute REM sleep periods. The definition of a 'dream' was clearly operationalised, as a recollection that included content, rather than just having the impression that they had been dreaming. This helped to raise validity, as Dement and Kleitman could be more sure that the details being recorded were of dreams. • Validity: At the beginning of the study, participants were asked to estimate how long they had been dreaming and although they were roughly (and occasionally exactly) accurate, this task was too difficult, so the method was changed. The task was limited to a choice between 5 and 15 minutes. This also helped to raise validity as it reduced participant variables such as differences in the ability to recall dreams. • Objective data: an EEG is an objective way to investigate dreaming as it is a biological measure. Differences in narrative length, however, depended not only on the length of the REM phase but also how expressive the participant was, making these reports more subjective. Nevertheless, this means that the study collected both quantitative data, from the brain waves, eye movement patterns and REM sleep duration, and qualitative data, which helped to provide insight into the reason for the eye movements detected. The EEG also provides a very reliable measure because it is unaffected by the experimenter's personal view. • Standardisation: the consistent placing of the electrodes ensured that recordings taken from each participant would provide the same information. The reliability of the findings is supported by the similarity of the results to those of previous studies. As there may be differences in the dreaming of men and women, or between the way they report their dreams, it was useful in terms of generalisability that there were both genders in the sample. Weaknesses: • Small sample: there were only nine participants in total, therefore the small size of the sample limits generalisability. • Deception: one aspect of the method that raised an ethical issue was the deception of participant WD who was misled about the stage of sleep he was being woken in. Participants should not be deceived as it can cause distress and means they cannot give their informed consent. However, in some cases the aim cannot be achieved without doing so and in this case it provided a way to test whether expectation of being woken in REM (sometimes) would affect a participant's dream reports.

3.1 BANDURA ET AL. (aggression) Recall the background information on this case study

- The Bandura et al. study is based on social learning theory - The study looked at whether a child would imitate aggressive behaviour if they witnessed such behaviour in an adult.

2.1 ANDRADE (doodling) Recall the ethical issues for this case study

- This study does not cause psychological harm as doodling is an everyday activity that is done by many people. In addition, the quality of the doodling was not judged by the experimenters so the participants should not have felt judged in any way. Participants in the doodling condition were told "It doesn't matter how neatly or how quickly you do this—it is just something to help relieve the boredom': - Deception: there was some deception in the study as the participants were told they would not be expected to remember any of the information on the tape-recorded message. However, when it was over they were given a surprise memory test. The researchers did apologise for this test and did give a full debrief at the end of the study. This is a justifiable breach of the issue of deception as it was necessary for the study to be completed successfully and would not have affected the participants in the study.

1.3 SCHACHTER & SINGER (two factors in emotion) Recall the aim of this study

- To test the Two-Factor Theory of Emotion, which is to prove that emotional experiences are a result of both physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of a situation. - To research if, given a state of arousal for which the individual has no adequate explanation, cognitive factors can lead the individual to describe their feelings with any of a number of emotional labels. 1. To investigate the role cognitive factors have in the experience of emotion when we are in a state of physiological arousal that has no immediate explanation (e.g. how we label that emotion). 2. When we do have an appropriate explanation for feeling a certain emotion, to see whether we always label it as the most appropriate emotion. 3. To see whether a person will react emotionally to a certain situation based on his or her physiology even if the cognitive elements of the situation remain the same.

2.1 ANDRADE (doodling) Recall the procedure (method) for this case study

1. As participants were asked to take part in this research just after they had completed a study they had volunteered for, they were already thinking about going home. 2. It was hoped that this would enhance the boredom of the task. Participants were placed in one of two groups: the doodling condition or a control group. 3. Those in the doodling condition were asked to use a pencil to shade different shapes that were 1 centimetre in diameter on a piece of A4 paper. There were ten shapes per row. Each row alternated between squares and circles. There was a left-hand side margin of 4.5 centimetres so that participants could write down any target information. 4. Participants in the control group were given a piece of lined paper and a pencil. 5. Participants were led into a quiet and visually dull room. 6. All participants were tested individually. The following instructions were read out (Andrade 2009: 2-3): "I am going to play you a tape. I want you to pretend that the speaker is a friend who has telephoned you to invite you to a party. The tape is rather dull but that's okay because I don't want you to remember any of it. Just write down the names of people who will definitely or probably be coming to the party (excluding yourself). Ignore the names of those who can't come. Do not write anything else:' 7. Participants in the doodling condition were told that it did not matter how neat they were when shading their doodle or how quickly they did it. They were told that doing the shading was just to relieve the boredom of the listening task. They listened to the tape, which lasted 2.5 minutes, and wrote down the names as requested. 8. As soon as the recording finished, the researcher collected participants' sheets and talked to them for about one minute. This included apologising for misleading them about the imminent memory test. 9. Half of the participants were then asked to recall as many names as they could of the people who would attend the party, then the places mentioned. 10. The other half did the reverse - they gave place names then names of people attending the party. During the debriefing after the task participants were asked whether they had suspected that they were going to be given a memory test.

1.1 CANLI ET AL. (brain scans and emotions) Recall the procedure (method) for this case study

1. During scanning, participants viewed a series of 96 scenes that were presented via an overhead projector and mirror to allow them to see it while in the fMRI scanner. 2. All of the participants had given informed consent to be involved in the study and were aware of the nature of the experiment. The individuals who were operating the fMRI scanner were fully trained and competent in the safety arrangements that should be followed during a medical scan. 3. All of the 96 scenes were from the 'International Affective Picture System' stimuli set. - For the scenes used in this study, average ratings for valence ranged from 1.17 (highly negative) to 5.44 (neutral). 4. The order of scenes were randomised across the participants, with each picture presented for a period of 2.88 seconds. 5. There was then an interval of 12.96 seconds, where participants viewed a fixation cross. 6. Participants were instructed to view each picture for the entire time that it was displayed, and after its replacement with a fixation cross they were to indicate their emotional arousal by pressing a button with their right hand. 7. Participants had to choose from four buttons to indicate emotional arousal on a scale from 0 Cnot emotionally intense at all') to 3 ('extremely emotionally intense'). 8. To measure activity in the brain, fMRI data were collected by a 1.5 Tesla fMRI scanner, which was used to measure blood-oxygen level-dependent contrast. - Contrast imaging is a method used in fMRI to observe different areas of the brain which are found to be active at any given time. 2.3 1.5T General Electric Signa MR imager as used in the research 9. Three weeks after the first stage, participants were tested in an unexpected recognition test in the laboratory. 10. During this task they viewed all of the 96 previous scenes and 48 new scenes (foils). The foils were selected to match the previously presented scenes in their valence and arousal characteristics. 11. Participants were asked whether they had seen each scene before and for images judged as previously seen, participants reported whether they remembered with certainty ('remember') or had a less certain feeling of familiarity ('know').

2.2 BARON-COHEN ET AL. (eyes test) Recall the procedure (method) for this case study

1. Following the changes that Baron-Cohen et al. made to the original Eyes Task, the revised Eyes Task was used in this experiment as a measure of the theory of mind. This consisted of 36 sets of eyes (18 male, 18 female), each with four choices of emotion on the face of the target (e.g. reflective, aghast, irritated, impatient). 2. For each of the 36 sets of eyes, the target and foil words were developed using groups of eight judges. At least five of the judges had to agree that the target word was the most appropriate for the eyes and no more than two of the judges could select any of the foil words. 3. Participants in all four groups were tested on the revised Eyes Test and participants in the AS/HFA group were also asked to judge the sex of the target in each photo. 4. Pilot tests had shown that 'normal' adults often achieved 100 per cent on this sex-recognition task so asking them was not part of this experiment. 5. Participants in all conditions except the 'normal' adult comparison were also asked to complete the AQ test. Each participant read through a glossary of terms that were to be used throughout the experiment to ensure they knew each word's meaning (Figure 3.7). 6. Throughout the experiment, if a participant did not know the definition of a word, they were asked to refer back to the glossary. 7. Each participant was given a practice item and then presented with the 36 sets of eyes and four possible target words for the emotion shown. Participants were allowed as long as they needed on each set of eyes. 8. Considering the ethics of the research, all participants consented to take part in the study and were aware of the nature of the research. 9. Those participants in the AS/HFA condition had all been diagnosed in specialist centres using established APA criteria. 10. Baron-Cohen et al. also anonymised the data that was collected so that it was not possible to identify any individual from their scores.

1.2 DEMENT & KLEITMAN (sleep and dreams) Recall the procedure (method) for this case study

1. On each day of the study participants ate normally, excluding caffeine-containing drinks (such as coffee) and alcohol. 2. They arrived at the laboratory just before their normal bedtime. The participant went to sleep in a dark, quiet room with electrodes attached beside the eyes and on the scalp (the EEG), which fed into the experimenter's room. 3. The wires were gathered together into a single cord from the participant's head (like a pony-tail) so they could move easily in bed. 4. Participants were woken (by a door bell) at various times during the night, asked to describe their dream if they were having one, then returned to sleep. 4. They were not told about their EEG pattern or whether their eyes were moving, The procedure for the three questions differed Study 1: Participants were woken either from REM or nREM sleep but were not told which. The choice of REM or nREM waking was decided in different ways for different participants: • using a random number table (participants PM and KC • in groups of three REM then three nREM (participant DN) • by telling the participant that they would onlybe woken in REM but actually waking them in REM or nREM randomly (participant WD) • in no specific order, the experimenter just chose (participant IR). Immediately after being woken, the participant stated whether they were having a dream or not and then, if appropriate, described the content of the dream into a recorder. When the participant had finished, the experimenter occasionally entered the room to ask further questions about the dream. There was no other communication between the experimenter and the participant. Study 2: Participants were woken after either 5 or 15 minutes they had been dreaming for. The participant guessed which duration they had been dreaming for. Longer REM periods were also allowed. The number of words in the dream narrative was also counted. Study 3: - The direction of eye movements was detected using EEG electrodes around the eyes. - Participants were woken after a single eye-movement pattern had last for more than one minute and asked to report their dream. - The eye-movement patterns detected were: 'mainly vertical', 'mainly horizontal', 'both vertical and horizontal' and 'very little or no movement'. - Comparison EEG records were taken from awake participants, 20 naive ones and five of the experimental sample, who were asked to watch distant and close-up activity.

3.1 BANDURA ET AL. (aggression) Recall the procedure (method) for this case study

1. Prior to the experimental part of the study, the children were observed in their nursery school by the experiments and a teacher who knew them well. - They were rated on four five-point scales measuring physical aggression, verbal aggression, aggression to inanimate objects and aggression inhibition (anxiety). 2. They were then assigned to three groups, ensuring that the aggression levels of the children in each group were matched. 3. 51 children were rated by both observers (the rest were rated by only one observer), similar ratings were generally produced. Their ratings were compared as a measure of 'inter-rater reliability'. 4. 12 boys and 12 girls were allocated to control groups who saw no model. 5. The remaining children were divided equally by sex between aggressive and non-aggressive model groups and within those, between same and opposite-sex models. 6. The experimental procedure started with all participants being deliberately mildly annoyed. This was done for two reasons: - Because watching aggression may reduce the production of aggression by the observer (even if it has been learned) and it was necessary to see evidence of learning; - To ensure that even the non-aggressive condition and control participants would be likely to express aggression, so that any reduction in that tendency could be measured. 7. Each individual child was shown to a room with attractive toys such as a fire engine and a baby crib but after about 2 minutes of play, they were told that these were the best toys and were to be kept for other children. 8. The experimenter and child then moved to the observation room, where the experimenter showed the child to a table and chair in their 'play area', where they were shown how to make potato prints and sticker pictures - activities previously identified as interesting for children. The opposite corner of the room also contained a table and chair, a Tinkertoy set, a mallet and a five foot (152 cm) Bobo doll - an inflatable clown-like doll which bounced back when hit. 9. This is where the model sat, in those conditions where there was one. The experimenter remained in the room so that the child would not refuse to be alone or try to leave early but they appeared to be working quietly at their desk. 10. The three groups were then treated differently. - In the non-aggressive condition, the model assembled the Tinkertoys (a wooden building kit) for ten minutes. - In the aggressive condition this lasted only one minute after which the model attacked the Bobo doll. The doll was laid on its side, sat on and punched in the nose, picked up and hit on the head with a mallet, tossed up in the air and kicked. This sequence was performed 3 times over 9 minutes accompanied by aggressive comments such as 'Kick him' and two non-aggressive comments such as 'He sure is a tough fella'. 11. Of children in the model groups: - Half saw a same-sex model, the others saw a model of the opposite sex. - A control group did not see any model, and therefore saw no aggression. 12. A test of the child's aggression then followed in which the child was observed for 20 minutes using a one-way mirror. 13. For the aggressive model group, this was a test of delayed imitation. This experimental room contained a three foot (92 cm) Bobo doll, a mallet and peg board, two dart guns and a tether ball with a face painted on it which hung from the ceiling. It also contained some non-aggressive toys (e.g. a tea set, crayons and colouring paper, a ball, two dolls, three bears, cars and trucks, and plastic farm animals). These toys were always presented in the same order. 14. The children's behaviours were observed in five second intervals (240 response units per child). There were three 'response measures' of the children's imitation, with a range of possible activities in each: - Imitation of physical aggression: striking the Bobo doll with the mallet, sitting on the doll and punching it in the nose, kicking the doll, and tossing it in the air. - Imitative verbal aggression: repetition of the phrases, 'Sock him, 'Hit him down', 'Kick him', 'Throw him in the air' or 'Pow. - Imitative non-aggressive verbal responses: repetition of 'He keeps coming back for more' or 'He sure is a tough fella'. 15. Partially imitative aggression was scored if the child imitated these behaviours incompletely. The two behaviours here were: - Mallet aggression: striking objects other than the Bobo doll aggressively with the mallet; - Sits on Bobo doll: laying the Bobo doll on its side and sitting on it, without attacking it. Two further categories were: - Aggressive gun play: shooting darts or aiming a gun and firing imaginary shots at objects in the room. - Non-imitative physical and verbal aggression: physically aggressive acts directed toward objects other than the Bobo doll and any hostile remarks except for those in the verbal imitation category (e.g. 'Shoot the Bobo', 'Cut him', 'Stupid ball', 'Horses fighting, biting"Knock over people'. 16. Finally, behaviour units were also counted for non-aggressive play and sitting quietly not playing at all, and records were kept of the children's remarks about the situation. 17. One male scored all the children's behaviours and, except for those conditions in which he was the model, he was unaware of which condition the child had been in (although this was typically obvious in the case of the aggressive model children as they performed the very specific behaviours exhibited by the model). 18. To test his reliability, a second scorer independently rated the behaviour of half of the children and the reliability was high, around r= 0.9 for different categories of behaviour.

2.2 BARON-COHEN ET AL. (eyes test) Recall the aim of this study

1. To test a group of adults with AS or HFA on the revised scale of the eyes test. This was to check whether the same deficits seen in the original study could be replicated. 2. To test a sample of normal adults to see whether there was a negative correlation between the scores on the eyes test and their autism spectrum quotient (AQ). 3. To test whether females scored better on the eyes test than males.

1.3 SCHACHTER & SINGER (two factors in emotion) Recall the procedure (method) for this case study

1. When the participants arrived at the laboratory they were told that the aim of the experiment was to test the effects of vitamin supplements on vision. 2. A doctor then entered the room, repeated some instructions, took the participant's pulse and injected the participant with 'Suproxin'. The participants were actually injected with either adrenalin or a placebo (saline solution) The dosage that the participants were injected with should have caused them to experience the side effects within thr to five minutes and these could last up to an hour. 3. Those participants who were injected with adrenalin were then put into one of three experimental conditions: - informed - ignorant - misinformed - placebo 4. Participants in the informed condition were told that they could expect some side effects of the injection and these were that 'your hand will start to shake, your heart will start to pound, and your face may get warm and flushed'. These are the side effects of an injection of adrenalin so the participants would have an explanation for any feelings. 5. - In the misinformed condition (control condition) the participants were told that they could expect some side effects of the injection and these were that 'your feet will feel numb, you will have an itching sensation all over parts of your body, and you may get a slight headache'. These are not the side effects of an injection of adrenaline so the participants would not have any explanation for the actual side effects they would experience. - In the ignorant condition were told that they would experience no side effects from the injection. Therefore, these participants would also not have an explanation for the actual side effects that they would experience as a result of the injection of adrenalin. 6. Participants were then exposed to one of the two emotional states at this point: euphoria or anger. 7. In the euphoria condition when the experimenter departed, he apologetically added that if they needed any rough paper, rubber bands or pencils they should help themselves. The waiting room had been arranged to look in a state of disarray. As soon as the experimenter left the room the stooge introduced himself again, made a few ice-breaker comments and then began his routine which consisted of playing with items (paper, rubber bands, pencils, folders and hula hoops) left in the room. The stooge suggested that the participant join in while he used the items. The routine was standardised as far as was possible. The stooge never knew which condition any particular participant was in. 8. In the anger condition, after the injection the experimenter introduced a stooge and explained that it was necessary to wait 20 minutes to let the Suproxin enter the bloodstream and that the participants had to complete a questionnaire during this time. The stooge was instructed to create a feeling of anger in the room and this was achieved through a variety of comments that he made as the 20 minutes passed: - `...it's unfair for them to give you shots' - `This really irritates me' The hell with it!' - 'I'm not wasting any more time' These increased in intensity and were linked with the questions in the questionnaire. As the participants worked through the questionnaire the questions became more personal, and the stooge became increasingly irate in his behaviour. 9. When the participants' session with the stooge was complete, the experimenter returned to the room, took the pulses, and told them there was one final questionnaire. This was used as the self-report measure for the dependent variable. 10. When the participants had completed these questionnaires, the experimenter announced that the experiment was over, explained the deception and its necessity in detail, answered any questions, and swore the participants to secrecy to protect future runs of the experiment. All participants gave their consent to take part in the study. 11. To further protect the participant, the injection was administered by a trained doctor who was around for the duration of the experiment to monitor the participants.

1.1 CANLI ET AL. (brain scans and emotions) Recall the aim of this study

General aims: - Canli et al. aimed to show that emotive images will be remembered better than those that have little emotional impact on an individual. - The central questions addressed by this study were whether the amygdala is sensitive to varying degrees of emotional intensity to external stimuli and whether the level of intensity enhances memory for the stimuli. Specific aims: 1. To investigate whether an area of the brain called the amygdala is sensitive to different levels of intensity to emotions based on subjective emotional experiences. 2. To investigate whether the degree of emotional intensity affects the role of the amygdala in aiding memory recall of stimuli classed as being "emotional".

2.2 BARON-COHEN ET AL. (eyes test) Recall the research method used for this case study

Laboratory experiment

1.3 SCHACHTER & SINGER (two factors in emotion) Recall the research method used for this case study

Laboratory experiment, as the environment in which the participants are tested was not comparable to an everyday situation and it was highly standardised (participants were exposed to the same environment with a scripted response from the stooge).

2.1 ANDRADE (doodling) Recall the research method used for this case study

Laboratory experiment, the environment was not the normal place in which people would respond to telephone messages and the situation was controlled.

1.1 CANLI ET AL. (brain scans and emotions) Recall the research method used for this case study

Laboratory experiment: fMRI scanner used to track the activity of the amygdala (the part of the brain that is largely associated with emotion and memory). It can thus be described as a laboratory experiment because we are in control of tracking the actual activity of the participant's brain and also the fact that they are in an unusual environment that is different to average day-to-day life.

1.3 SCHACHTER & SINGER (two factors in emotion) Recall the strengths & weaknesses for this case study

Strengths: - Standardisation: Schachter and Singer's laboratory experiment exerted a large amount of control through their standardised procedure. For example, they were able to randomly allocate different participants to the different conditions, they were able to deceive the participants of the real nature of the experiment and standardise the procedure as much as possible. They even ensured that the stooge did not know which condition the participant was in (double blind technique). The use of questionnaires as a method to operationalise the dependent variable allowed Schachter and Singer to further standardise the collection of the data within the experiment. - Double blind technique: when both the participant and the researcher are unaware of which condition the participant is in to prevent demand characteristics and act as a control to improve the validity of any data collected. Weaknesses: - Sample: the sample in this research consisted of university students and introduced participant variables that could distort the outcomes of the research reducing the validity of the research. Also, the sample consists of only male participants which further impacts on our ability to generalise the results to all; males could experience emotion differently to females and this has been ignored in this research. - Methodological issues: adrenalin does not affect everyone in the same way, for example five of Schachter and Singer's participants were excluded from analysis because they experienced no physiological symptoms. - Baseline comparison unavailable: a further problem with the procedure is that no assessment was made of participants' mood before the injection to gain a baseline from which to measure any change as a result of the stooge. - Ecological validity + mundane realism: people do not usually experience emotions in the way in which Schachter and Singer induced them and are often aware of events before the onset of arousal giving us information to interpret our physical cues. - Social desirability: questionnaires allow researchers to collect quantitative data quickly from participants that can be easily analysed and used to compare results across two conditions. Completing a questionnaire may not give the participants the same freedom to express their feelings as a discussion therefore we could argue that there is little ecological validity in this research. However, Schachter and Singer also use other measures such as observation and physical measures to assess both the physical and psychological impact of the arousal.

1.1 CANLI ET AL. (brain scans and emotions) Recall the strengths & weaknesses for this case study

Strengths: - Standardisation: the main method was a laboratory experiment as all of the participants were tested in a standardised environment and given the same items to rate in each condition. The procedure was incredibly standardised to the level of the time that each item was presented for and the duration of the interval between presentations. This means that the research has internal validity as the researcher can be more confident that there are fewer confounding variables affecting the variables that they are measuring. - Rich in data: the use of an fMRI scanner to measure one of the dependent variables provided the researchers with vast amounts of quantitative data relating to the activation of the amygdala, enabling them to carry out statistical analyses such as correlational analysis about the level of activation and subsequent memory of the scene. - Objective data: Using fMRI scanners to measure the biological response on the brain of the different images gives an objective finding for each participant as it does not need the research to interpret any results. However, we need to be careful that we do not infer too much from fMRI results as there are still many unknowns about locations of specific behaviours in the brain. - Small sample (reductionist): The sample in this research consists of right-handed females only and therefore introduces participant variables that could distort the outcomes of the research reducing the validity of the research. Therefore, we must be cautious in generalising the results of this to males and to left-handed individuals, as they may respond differently, for example females were chosen rather than males exactly because they were thought to be more emotionally reactive. Weaknesses: - Low in ecological validity: although the task of being scanned in an IMRI scanner is hardly ecologically valid it would not be possible for the participants to respond to demand characteristics, which increases the validity of the data collected and allows for very sophisticated analysis. - Uncertain validity: although most fMRI research uses contrast imaging as a method to determine which parts of the brain are most active, because the signals are relative to the individual rather than measured against a baseline, some question the validity in comparisons across individuals. (However in this research, a repeated measures design was used to minimise the impact of this, as participants' scores were compared against themselves.)

1.2 DEMENT & KLEITMAN (sleep and dreams) Recall the aim of this study

The aim of this study was to find out more about dreaming. This included three specific research questions: 1. Does dream recall differ between REM and nREM stages of sleep? 2. Is there a positive correlation between subjective estimates of dream duration and the length of REM period before waking? 3. Are eye movement patterns related to dream content?

2.2 BARON-COHEN ET AL. (eyes test) Recall the conclusions for this case study

The revised version of the eyes test could still discriminate between AS/HFA adults and controls from different sections of society as it replicated previous findings. The new eyes test appeared to overcome the initial problems of the original version and the research team stated "... this therefore validates it as a useful test with which to identify subtle impairments in social intelligence in otherwise normally intelligent adults" (Baron-Cohen et al 2001: 246).

2.1 ANDRADE (doodling) Recall the aim of this study

To test whether doodling aided concentration in a boring task.