BCOR 2202: Motivation

goal specificity (SMART)

specific measurable ambitious/achievable realistic/relevant time-specific

porter-lawler model

this model predicts that satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for performance, performance eventually leads to satisfaction

all be well above zero

According to the basic expectancy theory framework, in order for a person to be motivated to act in a certain way, the effort-to-performance expectancy, performance-to-outcome instrumentality, and sum of the outcome valences need to:

sandy will be motivated to maintain the status quo

Bella and Sandy both work as retail clerks in a clothing store. One day, they discover that Sandy has a higher salary than Bella. Bella thinks they both do about the same amount and quality of work, and the fact that Sandy has been working at the store a year longer doesn't cross Bella's mind. According to the equity theory of motivation, which of the following might happen? Bella will be motivated to maintain the status quo. Sandy will start working harder. Sandy will be motivated to maintain the status quo. Bella will start working harder.

specifity

Goal _____ is the clarity and precision of a goal.

difficulty

Goal _____ is the extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.

commitment

Goal _____ is the extent to which a person is personally interested in reaching a goal.

value of

In expectancy theory, a valence is the _____ an outcome.

achieve

In goal-setting theory, goal difficulty is the extent to which a goal is challenging to _____.

variable-ratio

Matthew plays an online role-playing game. Every time Matthew defeats a certain type of enemy, there is a small chance of getting a very rare and very valuable item. Matthew continues slaying these enemies in hopes of getting the item even though the work is boring and hours pass before the item finally appears. This example illustrates the power of which type of reward schedule?

what are the stimuli that motivate people?

Process-based theories of motivation attempt to answer each of the following questions EXCEPT: What are the stimuli that motivate people? How do people evaluate their levels of satisfaction after achieving their goals? Why do people satisfy their needs the way they do? How does motivation occur?

overpayment inequity

a person's outcomes to inputs ratio is greater than the referent outcomes to inputs ratio (ex. an engineer perceives that he contributes the same inputs but receives more outcomes than his referent)

underpayment inequity

a person's outcomes to inputs ratio is less than the referent outcomes to inputs ratio (ex. an engineer perceives that he contributes more inputs but receives the same outcomes as his referent)

learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavioral potential) that results from direct or indirect experience

partial reinforcement schedule

a schedule in which the desired behavior is reinforced only part of the time

direction

action is ideally consistent with organizational goals

outcome

anything that might potentially result from performance

goal setting theory (locke)

assumes that behavior is a result of conscious goals and intentions; by setting goals for people in the organization, a manager should be able to influence their behavior

expectancy theory, VIE theory (victor vroom)

basic premise is that motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we think we are to get it; effort (an important input) + expectancy (a person's perception about the extent to which his or her effort will result in a certain level of performance, "i can do it if i try") + performance + instrumentality (a person's perception about the extent to which performance at a certain level will result in the attainment of outcomes, "if i do it, there will be an outcome/reward") + valence (how desirable each of the outcomes available from a job or organization is to a person, "do i want it? how much?") = outcomes; like equity, perception is key, reality means little; from a manager's perspective: what rewards do employees value? what are the job objectives? are the rewards linked to those objectives? do employees believe you will deliver those rewards?

process-based perspectives/cognitive theories

concerned with how motivation occurs, focus on why people choose certain behavioral options to staidly their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained these goals; equity and expectancy theories

intrinsic motivators

enjoyment, autonomy, interesting work, achievement, development, recognition, responsibility, advancement, growth

learning theories

operant conditioning and social learning

expectancy theory guidelines for a practicing manager

1. Determine the primary outcomes each employee wants. 2. Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals. 3. Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible. 4. Link desired outcomes and desired performance. 5. Analyze the situation for conflicting expectancies and instrumentalities. 6. Make sure the rewards are large enough. 7. Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.

bonus versus raise

-bonus can be tied directly to performance -employee stock option: pay based on organizational performance

equity theory (j. stacey adams)

-comparing inputs and outputs: are they perceived to be the same from employee to employee or employees; people strive to maintain equity in their outcomes to inputs ratio in comparison to others' outcomes to inputs ratio -perceived inequity: a feeling of unfairness; people try to restore a perceived sense of equity -perceived equity: a feeling of fairness; people are satisfied and don't change -the rub: every has a different perspective on what is fair

basic expectancy framework

-effort-to-performance expectancy must be well above zero -performance-to-outcome instrumentalities must be well above zero -sum of all the valances for the potential outcomes relevant to the person must be positive

pay and motivation

-equity theory: pay is given in proportion to inputs -expectancy theory: pay has high valence for many people -goal-setting theory: pay is linked to attainment of goals -learning theory: outcomes (pay) should be contingent on the performance or organizationally functional behaviors

social learning theory

-individual motivation is not just from direct experience of rewards/punishment, but by observing others through vicarious or observational learning -an individual sees others perform certain behaviors and get rewarded for doing so -reinforcement sources: managers, individuals -self-efficacy: belief about ability to perform a behavior -self-reinforcement: rewarding one's self for motivation

operant conditioning (bf skinner)

-people learn to behave to get or avoid something -behavior changes occur when behavior is reinforced, and when behavior is not reinforced or is punished, it will eventually cease -reinforcement strengthens a behavior and increases the likelihood it will be repeated -lack of reinforcement or use of punishment weakens a behavior and lessens the likelihood that it will be repeated -the vast majority of rewards are extrinsic

non-monetary motivators

-the need for work life balance: work-life benefits, flex-time, vacation time -the need to expand skills: studying coworkers, tuition reimbursement and training -the need for a positive work environment: employee engagement, social support, recognition, surroundings and an understanding boss -the need to find meaning in work

six methods to reduce inequity

1. change our own inputs (ex. put more or less effort into the job) 2. change our own outcomes (ex. demand a pay raise, seek additional avenues for growth and development) 3. alter our perception of ourselves and our behavior 4. alter our perception of the comparison-other's inputs or outcomes 5. change the object of comparison 6. simply leave the situation

satisfaction

According to Locke's goal-setting theory of motivation, what is the final stage of employee motivation?

fixed-interval

According to a _____ reward schedule, desired behavior is reinforced after a certain amount of time has passed.

fixed-ratio

According to a _____ reward schedule, desired behavior is reinforced after a specified number of correct responses.

variable-interval

According to a _____ reward schedule, desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time has passed.

we are being treated fairly in relation to others

According to equity theory, "equity" is the belief that:

evaluating equity using a ratio other than inputs/outcomes

According to equity theory, each of the following is a method for dealing with perceived inequity EXCEPT: evaluating equity using a ratio other than inputs/outcomes. changing one's outcomes. altering one's perception of oneself. changing one's inputs.

adding an additional comparison-other

According to equity theory, each of the following is a method for dealing with perceived inequity EXCEPT: selecting a different comparison-other. adding an additional comparison-other. altering one's perception of the comparison-other. leaving the situation.

outcomes/inputs

According to equity theory, which of the following ratios do people consider when deciding whether they are being treated equitably?

effort-to-performance expectancy

According to expectancy theory, _____ is a person's perception of the probability that effort will lead to successful performance.

performance-to-outcome instrumentality

According to expectancy theory, _____ is a person's perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain other outcomes.

pride and shame

According to social learning theory, people are motivated to achieve goals by feelings of _____.

work harder

Bella knows that Sandy makes more money than she does, yet Bella thinks they both do about the same amount and quality of work. According to the equity theory of motivation, Bella might do any of the following to correct the inequity EXCEPT: quit her job. work less hard. ask for a raise. work harder.

rationalize that sandy is just the boss's pet

Bella knows that Sandy makes more money than she does, yet Bella thinks they both do about the same amount and quality of work. According to the equity theory of motivation, Bella might do which of the following? Decide that Sandy doesn't work as hard as she originally thought Rationalize that Sandy is just the boss's pet Decide that she works harder than she originally thought Work harder

social cognitive theory

Ernest is a new employee at Epoch systems, a software company with a strict dress code. One of his coworkers, Amin, hates the dress code and arrives to work one day in a pink tuxedo to try to have a little fun. Amin's boss scolds him in front of the entire office and sends him home to change into more proper attire. This is how Ernest learns to never, ever mess around with the dress code. Ernest's learning process most clearly fits which theory of learning?

acceptance

Esteban tries to achieve the goals his manager sets, but he does so merely out of obligation. According to goal-setting theory, Esteban's goals lack _____.

performance-to-outcome instrumentality

Gene is a part-time teacher for a test-prep company. His manager alerts him to a full-time teaching position that has just opened up. The application process is rigorous, and Gene knows that he'll face stiff competition for the spot if he applies. After doing some research, Gene discovers that he won't actually make any more money working full-time, so he decides not to bother applying. Gene's decision is based on the perception of a low:

attachment

Goal _____ is the extent to which a person accepts a goal as his or her own.

reduce the flawed chip rate to 30 per thousand

Goldie takes over as the floor manager of a computer chip processing plant. She immediately discovers that the plant's workers allow way too many flawed chips to leave the plant—a whopping 44 chips per thousand do not function. Which of the following would be the most valuable goal Goldie could put forth to her employees for the next quarter? "Reduce the flawed chip rate to 0." "Reduce the flawed chip rate to 43 per thousand. "Reduce the flawed chip rate to 30 per thousand." "Try harder not to let so many flawed chips through."

its specificity

In a meeting with Duke, her manager, Marcie says that one of her goals is to think about ways to improve customer-client relations. Which of the following aspects of this goal could Duke rightly criticize?

jorge tells linda that is she doesn't stop taking overly long lunch breaks, he will stop being friendly with her

Jorge wants to motivate Linda to stop taking overly long lunch breaks. Which of the following would serve as an example of extinction? Jorge tells Linda that if she doesn't stop taking overly long lunch breaks, he will stop being friendly with her. Jorge tells Linda that if she refrains from taking a single overly long lunch break for the next three months, he will give her a raise. Jorge tells Linda that if she stops taking overly long lunch breaks, he will exempt her from cleaning duty. Jorge tells Linda that if she takes another overly long lunch break, he will fire her.

extinction

No longer laughing at a coworker's inappropriate jokes so that he will stop telling them is an example of what?

jorge tells linda that if she stops taking overly long lunch breaks, he will exempt her from cleaning duty

Jorge wants to motivate Linda to stop taking overly long lunch breaks. Which of the following would serve as an example of negative reinforcement? Jorge tells Linda that if she doesn't stop taking overly long lunch breaks, he will stop being friendly with her. Jorge tells Linda that if she refrains from taking a single overly long lunch break for the next three months, he will give her a raise. Jorge tells Linda that if she stops taking overly long lunch breaks, he will exempt her from cleaning duty. Jorge tells Linda that if she takes another overly long lunch break, he will fire her.

jorge tells linda that if she takes another overly long lunch break, he will fire her

Jorge wants to motivate Linda to stop taking overly long lunch breaks. Which of the following would serve as an example of punishment? Jorge tells Linda that if she doesn't stop taking overly long lunch breaks, he will stop being friendly with her. Jorge tells Linda that if she refrains from taking a single overly long lunch break for the next three months, he will give her a raise. Jorge tells Linda that if she stops taking overly long lunch breaks, he will exempt her from cleaning duty. Jorge tells Linda that if she takes another overly long lunch break, he will fire her.

effort-to-performance expectancy

Monica is a part-time teacher for a test-prep company. Her manager alerts her to a full-time teaching position that has just opened up. The application process is rigorous, and Monica knows that she'll face stiff competition for the spot if she applies. Because Monica is sure that many of the applicants will be much better teachers than she is, Monica doesn't bother to apply. Monica's decision is based on the perception of a low:

difficulty

Ned is a technical writer. His manager asks him to come up with a goal to improve his performance in the next quarter. The goal Ned comes up with is to turn on the grammar checking feature in his word processor so that grammar will be automatically checked with spelling. What is the most significant deficiency in Ned's goal that his manager should criticize?

commitment

Rita works at a sunglass kiosk in a rundown mall. The owner of the kiosk gives her the goal of improving sales by 5 percent in the next month. Rita, who hates her job, plans to quit the moment her rich uncle dies, which will be any day now, and leaves her with a million dollar inheritance. Rita is unlikely to achieve the goal set by her manager because the goal lacks _____.

equity theory

The idea that employees compare their own inputs/outcomes ratio with the inputs/outcomes ratios of others is a key component of which theory?

equity theory

The idea that people want to be treated fairly lies at the core of which theory of motivation?

learning

What term refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs because of experience?

negative reinforcement

What term refers to the removal of current or future unpleasant consequences to increase the likelihood that someone will repeat a behavior?

to weed out underperforming employees

Which of the following is NOT one of the primary purposes of goals in an organization? To act as a control device. To weed out underperforming employees. To monitor the organization's longer-term performance. To provide a framework for managing motivation.

classical conditioning

Which theory holds that a given response can be linked with an unrelated stimulus?

expectancy theory

Which theory holds that motivation is a function of how much we want something and how likely we think we are to get it?

reinforcement theory

Which theory holds that people consciously explore different behaviors and systematically choose those that result in the most desirable outcomes?

social cognitive theory

Which theory holds that people observe the behaviors of others, recognize their consequences, and alter their own behavior as a result?

classical conditioning

Which theory is the least useful to the study and application of OB?

the cognitive view of learning

Which theory serves as the foundation for most contemporary learning theories and holds as its central tenet that people are active, conscious participants in how they learn?

variable-ratio

Which type of reward schedule is generally the most effective at influencing behavior over a long period of time?

self-efficacy

_____ is the extent to which people feel that they can still meet their goals even if they failed to do so in the past.

challenge, acceptance, feedback

a challenging task leads to the greatest motivation and performance; can't be too easy/hard, must have resources and ability; accept and understand: what happens when someone sets your goals for you or you don't understand them?; feedback: how well am i doing?

management by objectives (MBO)

a collaborative goal-setting process through which organizational goals systematically cascade down through the organization; encompasses specific goals, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress

merit pay plan

a compensation plan that bases pay on performance -commission: employee's pay is based on a percentage os sales that the employee makes -piece-rate pay: employee's pay is based on the number of units that the employee produces -profit sharing; employee receives a share of an organization's profits -scanlon plan: focuses on reduced expenses or cutting costs

equity

a person's outcomes to inputs ratio is the same as the referent outcomes to inputs ratio (ex. an engineer perceives that he contributes more inputs (time and effort) and received proportionally more outcomes (a higher salary and choice job assignments) than his referent)

effort-to-performance expectancy

a person's perception of the probability that effort will lead to performance; if we believe our effort will lead to higher performance, this expectancy is very strong; of we believe our performance will be the same no matter how much effort we make, our expectancy is very low

performance-to-outcome instrumentality

a person's perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain other outcomes; if a person thinks a high performer is certain to get a pay raise, this instrumentality is close to 1.0; if a person believes raises are entirely independent of performance, this instrumentality is close to 0

classical conditioning

a simple form of learning in which a conditioned response is linked with an unconditioned stimulus; in organizations, however, only simple behaviors and responses can be learned in this manner; this form of learning is obviously simplistic and not directly relevant to motivation; relies on simple cause-and-effect relationships between one stimulus and one response; it cannot deal with the more complex forms of learned behavior that typify human beings; ignores the concept of choice; it assumes that behavior is reflexive, or involuntary; this perspective cannot explain situations in which people consciously and rationally choose one course of action from among many

fixed-interval

desired behavior is reinforced after a certain amount of time has passed (ex. receiving weekly paychecks); produces high performance near the end of the interval but lower performance immediately after the reinforcement occurs

variable-interval

desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed (ex. not knowing when a regional supervisor will visit your location for an inspection); the behavior of the individual does not influence the availability of the reinforcement so it has a minimal effect on motivation

variable-ratio

desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of behaviors (ex. a supervises praises a call representative after the third call, then the seventh call after that, then the fourth call after that); produces a high, steady rate of responding with desired behaviors and the behaviors are difficult to extinguish

fixed-ratio

desired behavior is reinforced after specified number of correct responses (ex. receiving pay bonuses for every ten error-free pieces made per hour); produces a high, consistent rate of responding with desired behaviors but with fast extinction when the reinforcement stops

mastery

the urge to get better, or develop skills

motivation

forces, internal and/or external to a person, that arouse enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action

effort/energy

how hard people work

intrinsic rewards

intangible, a feeling of accomplishment, a sense of achievement

intrinsic motivation

modern psychology leans towards; behavior for its own sake, satisfaction, learning, improving abilities, prosocial motivation: behavior performed to benefit or help others

extrinsic motivators

money, working conditions, relationship with subordinates/supervisor/peers, company policy, job security, supervision, personal life, status

social learning (social cognitive theory)

occurs when people observe the behaviors of others, recognize their consequences, and alter their own behavior as a result; individual behavior is determined by a person's cognitions and social environment

learning as a cognitive process

people are conscious, active participants in how they learn; people draw on their experiences and use past learning as a basis for their present behavior; people make choices about their behavior; people recognize the consequences of their choices; people evaluate those consequences and add them to prior learning, which affects future choices

goal-setting theory

people are motivated to the extent to which they accept specific, challenging goals and receive feedback that indicated their progress; important factors: specific (SMART), challenging, acceptance, provide feedback

valence is high

people desire the outcomes that result from high performance

instrumentality is high

people perceive that high performance leads to the receipt of certain outcomes

expectancy is high

people perceive that if they try hard, they can perform at a high level

job performance equation

performance - motivation x ability x environment (situational constraints)

punishment

presenting something negative or withdrawing something positive following an undesired behavior (ex. the US DOT fines airlines $27k per passenger for planes left on the tarmac for more than 3 hrs); use as a last resort, but quickly, to prevent unlawful, dangerous, or unethical behavior, never in public

reinforcement theory

suggests that behavior is a function of its consequences; behavior that results in pleasant consequences is more likely to be repeated and vise versa; in any given situation, people explore a variety of possible behaviors, future behavioral choices are affected by the consequences of earlier behaviors; people consciously explore different behaviors and systematically choose those that result in the most desirable outcomes

extrinsic rewards

tangible, such as pay or promotion

behavior modification

the application of reinforcement theory to influence the behaviors of people in organization settings; for reinforcement to work, people must associate the reward with the behavior (the reward should come as quickly as possible after the behavior)

goal specificity

the clarity and precision of the goa

autonomy

the desire to direct our own lives

positive reinforcement

the use of positive consequences to strengthen a particular behavior (ex. bonuses are given to the employee who sells the first car each month); use often and right after the desired behavior

goal difficulty

the extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort; if people work to achieve goals, it is reasonable to assume that they will work harder to achieve more difficult goals, but a goal must not be so difficult that it is unattainable

the goal-setting theory of motivation

the interaction of goal-directed effort, organizational support, and individual abilities and traits determines actual performance

purpose

the need to do what we do for reasons bigger than ourselves

valence

the relative attractiveness or unattractiveness (the value) of that outcome to the person; strength varies from person to person

negative reinforcement

the strengthening of a desired behavior by withdrawing something negative (ex. a manager ceases sending harsh reminder emails once a report is turned in); use sparingly because it can cause an unpleasant work environment/culture

extrinsic motivation

traditional business leans towards; behavior to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment

most effective schedule for sustaining behavior

variable reinforcement, requires reinforcing the desired behavior every few times it occurs, around some average number of times, rather than every time it occurs (ex. slot machine)

extinction

weakening of behavior by ignoring it or making sure it is not reinforced (ex. a new employee regularly asks for feedback, and when she gets none, she stops seeking it); use when you have control over the reinforcers and when you have time

persistence

whether, when faced with roadblocks and obstacles, people keep trying or give up