Becoming Human Final

Oldowan technology

Definition: Earliest stone tool technology Significance: oldest tool technology dating back to 2.5 mya and was used by Homo habilis, the earliest evidence of cultural behavior

Hyoid bone

Definition: a U-shaped bone in the neck that supports the tongue. Significance: Certain shape of hyoid bone has a direct connection to language production, and therefore it's presence/lack of in certain ancestors dictates whether or not they would have had the capacity to produce speech. it was found in a neanderthal so means they could have had ability to speak.

effects of rise of cities

-rise of cities led to problems of sanitation, food supply, and social order -Urban Revolution led to easier transmission of diseases

how do we study health in human history?

1. paleopathology: study of ancient skeletal material to reconstruct age and cause of death, assess health and lifestyle 2. using living groups as proxies (like modern hunter gatherer)

Early states responses to dealing with sickness

1. rudimentary public health measures 2. emergence of medical specialists 3. development of state religion 4. folk medicine

Ju/hoansi

1960s hunter gatherers. They were relatively healthy. They believed sickness was caused by supernatural powers. Their healers possess lots of herbal medicines In 1980s they were forced to settle in villages which led them to ban on hunting, alcoholism, aids

Mitochondrial DNA

A small amount of DNA that is located in the mitochondria of cells. We have been able to compare mtDNA from different living populations and see that Africans have a greater amount of unique variation and supports out of africa model.

Shanidar cave

Definition: A cave found in Eastern Iraq where the remains of 10 Neanderthals have been found dating from 60,000-35,000 years ago. Significance: provides us information on how neaderthals did their burial of the dead. there were flowers next to the bodies suggesting perhaps a burial ritual. Also the fossil showed it had an arm amputation so they cared for their injured.

Chauvet cave

Definition: A cave in southeast France that contains the Great Wall of murals. Significance: Murals are 32,000 years old - one of the earliest pieces of art in the world and some of the best preserved cave paintings in the world. shows symbolic origins of humans

anatomically modern human

Definition: A term used to distinguish the "anatomically modern" homosapiens from archaic humans. species who look similar in appearance to living humans today Significance: The beginning of the consistency of traits that we currently see in modern humans. Serves as the basis of what we compare to other ancient humans. Earliest examples are from 195,000 years ago in Africa. Earliest modern humans in Europe were about 60,000 years ago. Large brains, lighter build of skeleton, smaller teeth, smaller jaws, smaller brow ridge, high vertical forehead. The term refers to those that did not live during modern times but anatomically had the same features as us, which is key to understanding their behavior and our evolution.

Homo heidelbergensis/Archaic Homo

Definition: An early human species that lived in Europe and in eastern and southern africa - possible lived in Asia. Lived about 700,000-200,000 years ago Significance: Thought to be the oldest human species to live in colder climates. Very large brow ridge, larger braincase an a flatter face than early human species. their body shape and hunting ability greatly increased their fitness and these traits were seen in following archaic homo sapiens, Neandertals.

Denisovans

Definition: An extinct species or subspecies of archaic humans in the genus Homo. Middle paleolithic, 70,000 YA Significance: Lived in the range from Siberia to South East Asia. Interbred with ancestors of modern humans. Their dna was sequenced and seen that they are related to neanderthals and called them denisovans. denisovans at some point mixed with modern humans.

Chris Stringer

Definition: British paleoanthronpologist noted for his work on human evolution Significance: He is a leading proponent of the Out of Africa theory (single origins theory) that modern humans originated in Africa. back in 1970s he thought that he proved that Neanderthals and humans were not connected at all and did not interbreed but aDNA proved him wrong.

Ancient DNA

Definition: DNA preserved in prehistoric material such as fossil bones Significance: Ancient DNA differs from modern DNA because for a long time it was extremely difficult if not impossible to analyze and being able to analyze it has led to a lot of key discoveries about our lineage and when certain populations/species migrated / how they are connected to one another. showed us that modern humans spread out of africa and migrated into parts of the old world.

Endocasts

Definition: Natural or human-made casts of the inside of a skull. The cast reflects the surface of the brain and allows us to study the brains of even extinct species. Significance: provide some idea about the brain of ancient humans; allows comparison of brain size. Allows us to see if ancient species had broca or wernickes area.

Kebara cave

Definition: Neandertal Cave site in Northern Israel Significance: The Neanderthal bones found here included a hyoid bone, which indicated that Neanderthals probably had the capacity to produce speech. also was in a burial position so showed burial of dead

La Chapelle-aux-Saints

Definition: Neanderthal site in France. Significance: One of the most complete skeletons of a Neanderthal was found here. skull was 60,000 years old. he was an old man so evidence that neanderthals had a deliberate burial and possibly cared for elders

Homo Habilis

Definition: One of the earliest member of the genus homo that lived in eastern and southern Africa. Lived 2.4-1.4 million years ago. Larger brain and smaller teeth than australopithecine Significance: Had a larger brain case than the australopithecus or older hominin species. Known as the 'handyman' and was thought to represent the first maker of stone tools.

Gran Dolina

Definition: One of the major sites in the Sierra de Atapuerca that contains human remains dating to about 800,000 years ago Significance: Very important to studying human evolution during the paleolithic era. Contains human remains and some of the earliest tools found in western Europe. homo heidelbergensis found here

Svante Paabo

Definition: Swedish geneticist who has worked extensively on the Neanderthal genome Significance: He showed that Neanderthals and Eurasians share 1-4% of the same DNA, indicating that the species has interbred

Assimilation Model

Definition: The Assimilation model has always asserted that modern humans likely arose in Africa [...] modern humans evolved specifically in East Africa, and then spread, with their distinct morphological makeup from this homeland to other parts of the Old World and ultimately beyond. Out of Africa + interbreeding Significance: Assimilation Model (mixing) Out of Africa + Mixing (proof in DNA): Homo Sapiens come out of Africa, spread around the world, but also interbred with Denisovans and Neanderthals. This is the theory most anthropologists agree w, bc it is supported by morphological evidence that humans arose in Africa and genetic evidence that gene flow occurred between pops outside of Africa.

Lunate sulcus

Definition: The front border of the main visual cortex in apes at the back of their brain Significance: This feature shows there has been a makeup in the human brain because the lunate sulcus is now in the back of the brain and some humans don't even have it

Agriculture

Definition: The practice of farming and the cultivation of the soil for growing crops. Significance: Plant domestication started about 10,000 years ago, animal domestication shortly thereafter. Agriculture caused permanent settlements, large population sizes, full time craft occupations, defense of the land and the narrowing of food choice. Agriculture began independently in several parts of the world at the end of the last Glacial. Different plants were domesticated:Wheat and rye in near east.Rice in Asia.Squash, beans and then Maize in Mexico.

Hominoidea

Definition: The taxonomic group (family) that includes the human and ape members of the primates, both fossil and modern forms. Significance: These are our closest living relatives and therefore their behavior and evolutionary characteristics can be used to say significant things about those of humans.

Nariokotome Boy

Definition: Turkana boy found in Kenya, a nearly complete homo erectus skeleton of a young boy Significance: 1.5 - 1.6 mya. it is one of the most complete skeleton fossils found and we can use it to compare to other fossils. has large brain, small teeth, and is relatively tall

Genetic drift - bottleneck event and Founder's effect

Definition: Variation in the relative frequency of different genotypes in a small population, owing to the chance disappearance of particular genes as individuals die or do not reproduce. Bottleneck: when a population's size is reduced for at least a generation, Founder's: when new colony is started by a few members of the original population Significance: All of these things reduce variation because of smaller populations

Zhoukoudian

Definition: a cave system in Beijing, China Significance: has given us lots of fossils dating back to 400,000-700,000 years ago, mainly of homo erectus. fossil found here was Peking Man and was one of the first homo erectus fossils found. Found burnt bones which indicated fire.

occipital bun

Definition: a prominent bulge of the occipital bone at the back of the skull Significance: Neanderthals had an occipital bump and is one of the ways to distinguish a Neanderthal from other fossils

Mousterian technology

Definition: a stone tool technology that used the Levallois technique to produce a variety of specialized flake tools Significance: these tools were used by neanderthals. they were more advanced than older tools used in past like olduwan and shows that there may have been increase in cognitive abilities

Homo Erectus

Definition: ancient hominid species that means upright man. Olduvai Gorge, Lake Turkana, South Africa -dated 1.8 - 1.9 mya -large brains and small chewing teeth. Significance: Spread out around the whole world, Particularly in Africa and Asia (important early skeletons in S.E. Asia (Indonesia). Some gave rise to heidelbergensis. They had a low sloping braincase, their brain is smaller than humans but still big. They had pronounced brow ridges, no forehead, and a large skull. Bifaced tools associated with homo erectus. Homo erectus is an older member of the human lineage (1.8 - 1.9 mya) and its definitive characteristics began to show the evolution of humans towards what they are today.

La Ferrassie

Definition: cave site in France where most complete Neanderthal fossil was found in 1909. Significance: showed that Neanderthals were intentionally buried. They found a male and female skeleton were found and saw sexual dimorphism in neanderthals.

Skhul

Definition: cave site in Israel from 115,000 years ago Significance: earliest evidence of burial of the dead.

Omnivory

Definition: diet that consists of plants and animals Significance: all members of the Hominidae family are omnivorous. Being omnivorous led to a varied diet and to becoming gatherer-hunters

Fox P2

Definition: gene required for proper development of speech and language Significance: Neanderthals have been known to have this gene too. Having a mutated gene means you won't be able to speak FOXP2: a key gene in human evolution (language and speech)?Mutation of this gene leads to deficits in "linguistic processing" and "orofacial movements"Two specific mutations in FOX2P are "fixed" in humans compared to chimpanzeesThere was a relatively recent (200,000 years ago) "selective sweep" in the FOX2P region of the human genome (selective sweep: a region of the genome that stays relatively unchanged because of selective pressure on beneficial mutations within that region)

Multi Regional Model

Definition: homo sapiens evolved independently all over the world. homo erectus left africa 1.8 mya and started to populate the rest of the world and create regional populations. Humans evolve through adaptations and gene flow through populations. gene flow and regional contact kept species in a singular line Significance: the evidence that supports it is the regional differences between people. (more pronounced brow ridges in australia, flatter faces in Asia).

Homo sapiens

Definition: modern humans, also known as "wise man" Significance: emerged 400,000 years ago, split up into archaic and modern homo sapiens. Study of human evolution seeks to understand how we became humans. large brains, smaller teeth. evolved in africa

Red ochre

Definition: natural earth pigment used by early neanderthals Significance: It was used in burial, body ornamentation, and cave art. shows cultural behavior

Sima de los huesos

Definition: one of the major sites in the Sierra de Atapuerca, means "Pit of the bones" where thousands of bones have been found dating back to 500,000 years ago. Significance: this is the richest hominin site ever found. Gave us a nearly complete human skeleton of a homo heidelbergensis named Atapuerca 5.

Lascaux cave

Definition: paleolithic cave site in France where 600 paintings were found Significance: paintings were from 15,000 years ago. reflects development of "symbolic life". consists images of large animals

Cerebellum

Definition: part of the brain that coordinates muscle activity Significance: Grew in size rapidly during human evolution, and this change may be linked to higher brain function and processing capacity in modern humans.

Acheulean technology

Definition: production of stone tools, in particular hand axes, associated with Homo erectus from 1.6 million years ago. Significance: shows us the adaptations of the homo erectus. we are able to see how tools got better over time. There is debate about the precise level of neurological abilities necessary to produce stone tools made to a pattern.

Browridge / supraorbital torus

Definition: refers to a bony ridge located above the eye sockets of all primates. In Homo sapiens (modern humans) the eyebrows are located on their lower margin. Significance: The brow ridge changed and became less pronounced throughout human evolution as the features overall became less robust, and human ancestors developed a larger forehead/frontal lobe. modern humans really dont even have this

Broca's area

Definition: region in the frontal lobe linked to speech production Significance: important in understanding evolution of language. if neanderthals/hominids had this and maybe could have been capable of speech

Shovel shaped incisor

Definition: shovel shape of the back of the teeth typical in Asian populations Significance: an example of a feature that differs by region and supports the multi regional theory. found on molars in Zkoukoudian and Dali

Kabwe

Definition: site in Zambia where Kabwe 1 fossil was found Significance: archaic sapien, homo heidelbergenis. Dated to about 200,00 yrs,it is one of the few fossil humans for which we have a good idea of the cause of death, died of infection

Lake Turkana

Definition: site in the Kenyan Rift Valley where many hominid fossils have been found Significance: Turkana Boy, homo erectus dating 1.5 mya was found here. there are fossils dating back to 4 mya which showed that origins of human were in Africa

Chin

Definition: the protruding part of the face below the mouth, formed by the apex of the lower jaw. Significance: The chin is a distinctly human feature that differentiates us from all of our ancestors, but there is no unanimous hypothesis on why this is. differentiates modern homo from neandethals bc neadnerthals had no chin

Domestication

Definition: the taming of animals for human use, such as work or as food Significance: This represents the important shift of human civilization from hunter gatherers to farmers. Domesticated plants and animals differ genetically and morphologically from their wild counterparts, often in ways that make them more useful to humans. For example, wild sheep are hairy, but domesticated sheep are woolly

Out of Africa Model

Definition: theory that says modern humans evolved in Africa and then 200,000 years moved out of Africa in a second wave. They replaced all the archaic sapiens that already were around the world. Significance: this opposes the multi regional model. The evidence to support it is fossil and genetic. We can all be traced back genetically to Africa. There are fossil specimens in Africa that possess features of modern humans that are dated to 100,000 years ago

Gene Flow

Definition: transfer of genetic variation from one population to another Significance: can reduce or increase variation; we often talk about gene flow when thinking about whether ancient populations were interbreeding and transferring genes to one another out of africa vs multiregional

Describe the biology of early homo- what are three aspects that arose in the genus?

Early homo evolved from gracile australopithecines around 2- 2.5 mya. Three features of our biology are: 1. molars and pre moral are smaller than those of australopithecines 2. the mandible and maxilla (jaw) smaller 3. Brain volumes vary (500-800 ml) but are generally larger and housed in a brain case with a higher more round shape

homo neanderthalensis

Fossil hominins who occupied Europe and the Middle East from about 150,000-30,000 years ago, when they disappear from the scene Significance: Morphologically, they possessed large brain cases, with low and long skulls and large projecting faces lacking a chin. They were capable of very complex behavior, including the deliberate burial of their dead. Bred with humans, were initially thought to be the direct ancestors of living humans but this perspective has since changed.

The fossil record--what are its strengths and weaknesses? How do we draw conclusions from it, and how are these processes potentially flawed?

Fossil records strengths: give us morphology of ancient people, shows us what they look like. It's important because sometimes its the only evidence that anthropologists have to work with. The weaknesses are that they cant show the full picture. The fossil record doesn't account for genetic variation in people. For example, Chris Stringer examined bones and thought that Neanderthals were different from us completely, but Svante Paabo showed that we actually are through genetics.

Discuss the first H. erectus migration out of Africa. What are the major sites and what is the time frame?

Homo erectus migrated out of Africa around 1.8 mya. Some possible explanations as to why they left Africa was an increase in cultural complexity, or the breakdown of a barrier at the Suez bottleneck. Some of the earliest sites in Eurasia were Ubeidiya, a site in Israel, there were many Olduwan style tools dated 1.5-1.6 mya. Another site was Dmanisi in the Republic of Georgia where fossils are dated about 1.5-1.8 mya. Another is Perning, a site in the island of Java where a child's skull was found dated 1.6-1.8 mya.

Language - what is it? why is it important? how does it fit in in human evolution? Use evidence to support your claims

Language is a method of communication that is biologically based. It is phonemes strung together into words and organized by grammar. We have specialized structures in the brain including those that control muscles in the mouth which provide the basis for speech sounds (Broca's area, Wernicke's area). It's important because speech is one of the major distinguishing features of humans. It fits into human evolution because we want to know when we evolved to have this behavior. Scientists try to figure out based on the evidence when speech began by looking at fossil records. For example, Neanderthals in the Kebara cave had hyoid bones and they think Neanderthals had foxp2 gene which suggests that they may have had speech. It's also important to understand language because that informs us more about our brains because language requires mental capabilities to store large vocabularies, etc.

Lumpers/ Splitters

Lumpers: two things are in the same category unless there is a reason to divide them. Splitters: two things are in different categories unless there is a reason to unite them Significance: When you lump, there are a lot less species and you focus on variation within the species. When you split theres more species and you focus on the differences between them

what are the differences between lumping and splitting human species? what are the arguments for each side? what are the consequences?

Lumping: putting fossils together that have similar characteristics. Argument: We should lump them because because genetic variation, or other factors, might cause organisms to look different. Consequences: Reduces the number of genus and species terms. helps people understand better if theres not a million different names Splitting: separating species into different groups. Argument: argument for splitting is morphological, if groups are anatomically different then split them up. Consequences: increases the number of genus and species terms. also sometimes scientists want to split just so that they can be the first to find a species

discuss the evolution of brain size from Australopithecus to early Homo, from early homo to late homo, and from late homo to homo sapiens. Make sure to discuss which parts of the brain are becoming reorganized and how we see this in the skull.

One of the biggest distinguishing features of humans is our large brain. Australopithecine: 400-500 ml. small brain case, large jaw early Homo: 500-800ml a low sloping brain case; case with a higher and more round shape Late homo (homo heidelbergensis): 1200 ml; had more of a forehead ; large brow ridges; head is larger and rounder Homo sapien- 1200-1400 Human skulls have a high and vertical forehead. There is a depression above the canine teeth (canine fossa) and the mandible has a chin. Note the high and rounded shape of the skull. depression above canine teeth From australopithecine to early homo there was increase in brain size and cranial capacity suggesting an increase in intelligence which we can see through toolmaking. There was an expansion of parietal association areas. There is a expansion of cerebral area which changed the size of the visual cortex.

Long essay question: There will be a long essay on this exam, worth 17 points. For each model as you compare and contrast, make sure you are touching on the three types of evidence- archaeological, genetic, fossil, using examples from class. Even if one form of evidence isn't sufficient for one of the models it would be good to mention that that form of evidence doesn't support the model and why. It's a good way to demonstrate that you understand the limits of each model as well as the support for it. The question is: Discuss the Single Origins (Out of Africa) Model, Assimilation Model, and Multi-Regional Models of modern human origins. What do these theories (above) have to do with modern human variation? What do they say about our relationship with Neanderthals and other archaic hominins?

Single Origins Model- This model was introduced by Chris Stringer. It says that modern humans arose 130,000 only in Africa and then went out and migrated to different parts of the world and replaced all the archaic sapiens. There was no interbreeding. The evidence for this is there are fossil specimens in Africa that possess features of modern humans but are dated to more than 100,000 years ago, a time when Neanderthals were still in Europe (fossil). Second piece of evidence is comparative of the genetic materials of living people suggest that modern originated in Africa and spread out from there (genetic). Extractions from Neanderthal bones of both mtDNA and nuclear DNA have been interpreted as documenting varying levels of evolutionary distance between this group and living humans. Multi-Regional Model- states that after the original migration of homo erectus around 2 mya, those regional populations evolved into modern homo sapiens. There is gene flow between populations. One piece of evidence is that in China, it is suggested from the time of the Zhoukoudian fossils through Dali, there is a continuity of flat faces that we have still seen today in Asian populations. (fossil) Assimilation Model- This model is an amendment to the Out of Africa model. Believes everything about Out of Africa but it adds that there was interbreeding with the Neanderthals and the Denisovans. The evidence for this is the same as the Out of Africa evidence and also DNA evidence that shows that Neanderthals and Denisovans and Homo sapiens have interbreeded at least once.

Are humans and Neanderthals separate species or the same? Use evidence to support your answer.

Some people view Neanderthals as a subspecies of Homo sapiens, (Homo sapien neanderthalensis). Some people think they are there own separate species. Neanderthals have long brain cases with low and long skulls. They have large projecting faces and no chin. They have complex behavior such as burying their dead, making complex tools and creating art. I think that they are more likely a subspecies because they had similar complex patterns to humans and because the aDNA evidence shows that they have interbred and species are defined and being able to interbreed.

What do tools and art say about their creators? Use evidence in your discussion.

The ability to make tools and create art indicates their creators have increased brain capacity to be able to think technically and symbolically. For example, the Levallois technique used to produce Mousterian tools indicated that Neanderthals had the ability to visualize the shape and size of a tool from a stone core which was an advanced cognitive ability. Also, the wall art like in the Chavaut Cave show the ability to create detailed figures, which takes cognitive ability

Deliberate burial of the dead - who did it? what does the evidence look like? why is it important? Use evidence to support your claims

The earliest evidence of burial of the dead was at the Skhul cave 115,000 years ago. Modern humans and Neanderthals did intentional burial of their dead. Neanderthals are the first to have burial of their dead. The was evidence is in La chappelle aux saints were an old man was buried. There is evidence in the Shanidar cave where they found flowers surrounding a burial. It's important because this is evidence of our ancestors beginning to have a culture and exhibit symbolic behavior. It also could be an indicator of them having religious beliefs

The fossil record represents the only direct evidence for the evolution of modern humans. What does the record tell us about the general course of human evolution since the appearance of Homo? What does it now tell us? Why are there so many debates and controversies about this evidence?

The fossil record shows us how we have evolved over time once fossils are dated. For example we can see bipedalism evolve over time based on pelvic bones. We can see larger brains evolve through skull fossils. We can also use fossils to try and get out aDNA and see things such as our relation to Neanderthals. There are many debates because sometimes the fossil evidence points to many possibilities on what something could mean. For example, different interpretations of fossil evidence leads to different theories like the multi regional vs. out of africa

Migration--how did early humans (H. sapiens) expand across the globe? How did this expansion affect their evolution? How can we see this genetically?

The world population of modern Homo sapiens began to grow rapidly after 50,000-40,000 years ago. It was around this time they expanded their territory by migrating into new regions. By 60,000 years ago, modern humans moved into Australia for the first time via boats. Around 35,000-30,000 years ago, they moved into Northeastern Siberia. Possibly as early as 30,000 years ago and certainly by 11,500 years ago, they migrated into North America via the Bering Land Bridge (or Beringia ). Those who went to cold areas developed shivering, differen blood flow patterns and different fat deposition patterns. Those in hot areas developed things like sweating. Those in high altitudes developed different chest size and number of red blood cells. People developed different skin colors whether the area they were in had too much or too little sunlight.

Behavior doesn't fossilize. But, some things that do preserve or fossilize give insight into the behavior of extinct hominins. What are these things and what can they tell us?

Tools, cave art, burial of the dead. Blombas Cave - block of red ochre ~800,000 y/o. Serues of incised lines in an organized geometric pattern. This drawing done on the ochre is the earliest known drawing in the world. Tools became more complex from Oldowan to Acheluan to Mousterian and shows how hominins neurological capabilities must have increased. Cave art: Cave art shows humans becoming capable of symbolic life and increasing intelligence. The drawings that they depict give insight into what their lives were like. Chauvet Cave - 32,000 year old cave painting, one of the best preserved discovered cave paintings in the world Burial of the Dead: Shanidar Cave: flowers placed around grave. Burial of the dead means that ancient people may have had a concept of religion or at least a concept of self. - burn marks indicate use of fire

Variation within humans and recent human adaptation--how are we different from the earliest Homo sapiens? What prompted these changes?

We have a chin and forehead. Our skull is more round and globular, this came from increase in frontal lobe. Heidelbergensis had large brow ridge and neanderthals had wider noses. our jaw/face has changed due to agriculture and preparing/cooking foods.

Human diet - what evidence do we have for human diet in the fossil record or human physiology? How has diet changed over time? How has agriculture affected this?

We see that humans developed canines to complement their incisors, facilitating omnivory. Anthropologists can use dental microware to reconstruct diets. We know that they were gatherer-hunters with the large part of the diet coming from the gathering part and less of it was hunting. Agriculture developed 10,000 years ago and then animals were domesticated. This led to a narrowing of food choice for people. They domesticated different plants in different areas such as wheat, rice, and maize.

Lactase persistence

definition: the continued activity of the enzyme lactase in adulthood Significance: The ability to consumer lactase past childhood is rare and wasn't typical until modern times because we didn't have dairy products. explains why so many humans are lactose intolerant.

Our knowledge of human evolutionary history is imperfect. The ability to make inferences concerning the course of human evolution rests upon discoveries made in the fossil record, the accuracy of certain dating techniques, and research in the field of genetics, to name but a few factors. How would you "fix" the field of human evolutionary studies to not only make it more scientifically rigorous, but to expand our knowledge of the course of human evolution? Be sure to explain why the particular issues you are choosing to fix are problematic in the first place - cite specific examples to illustrate your points.

lumping/ splitting

tools

oldowan- australopithecines and early homo Acheulian- homo erectus Mousterian- Neanderthals modern humans - began using blades and bones