BIO 111- Unit 4 Goschke Test: Genetically Modified Organisms

description of the structure of a DNA molecule

-DNA is a double helix. -The inner rungs of the DNA helix are composed of complementary nitrogen bases. -DNA has a backbone of alternating deoxyribose sugars and phosphate groups.

challenges that gene expression must overcome

-The instructions in DNA are coded for with four different nitrogenous bases, but proteins are composed of amino acids. -The instructions for protein synthesis are located within the nucleus, but the ribosomes needed for protein synthesis are located within the cytoplasm of the cell.

GMOs scientists are working on to resist climate change

-wheat plants GM to increase photosynthesis in response to increase carbon dioxide levels in atmosphere -rice adapted to higher salinity levels in water supplies as result of precipitation pattern changes -drought resistant corn and soybeans -research about improving carbon storing capabilities of seagrasses and trees to potentially reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide levels

Cisgenesis

A gene is modified and reinserted into an individual of the same species

Plasmid

A small circular piece of DNA found in prokaryotes, such as bacteria.

Methods of transforming a plant

Agrobacterium tumefaciens, particle bombardment, RNA interference

Climate change effects on ecosystems

Alters temperature and changes precipitation patterns

Challenges with population growth

Amount of arable land is limited so yield per acre must increase to feed more people.

increased nutritional value

Animals are being genetically modified to increase their nutritional value to humans. This can be done by reducing their susceptibility to disease, increasing their rate of growth, or improving the quality of their meat or milk.

What features of CRISPR make it such a powerful tool for editing genes?

CRISPR is a powerful tool for editing genomes, meaning it allows researchers to easily alter DNA sequences and modify gene function. It has many potential applications, including correcting genetic defects, treating and preventing the spread of diseases, and improving the growth and resilience of crops.

Glyphosate Resistance

Concern of genetically modified plants is transfer of genes associated with glyphosate resistance from transgenic crop species to weed species, creating a super weed that can no longer be controlled using herbicides. The weeds are evolving resistance to a form of selection. The major issue is the widespread use of glyphosate, which is driving weed evolution.

DNA structure

DNA is double helix. Nucleotides are the building blocks of the DNA molecule. 4 types of nucleotides adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), guanine (G). Info in DNA stores as combo of four different nucleotides. 2 strands of DNA are complementary. A-T and C-G are connected by weak chemical bonds called hydrogen bonds. 2 strands of DNA oriented in opposite directions, anti-parallel configuration.

Denaturation

DNA is heated to become single stranded

Climate Change

Disruption of global weather pattern

How A. tumefaciensis used in the production of a GMO plant.?

For GM plants, the bacterium most frequently used is called Agrobacterium tumefaciens. The gene of interest is transferred into the bacterium and the bacterial cells then transfer the new DNA to the genome of the plant cells. The plant cells that have successfully taken up the DNA are then grown to create a new plant.

Methods of making copies of a gene

Gene cloning and polymerase chain reaction

process of gene cloning

Genes of interest or segments of DNA are inserted into bacteria so that exact copies of the gene can be created.

the bacterial process used to clone specific genes

In a typical cloning experiment, researchers first insert a piece of DNA, such as a gene, into a circular piece of DNA called a plasmid. This step uses restriction enzymes and DNA ligase and is called a ligation. After a ligation, the next step is to transfer the DNA into bacteria in a process called transformation.

the difference between the concept of selective breeding and a genetically modified organism

In selective breeding, the individuals have to be from the same species. In GMO the scientists create new combinations of genes. In selective breeding, genes combine on their own. The first GMO was produced in 1973.

stages of gene expression

It consists of two major steps: transcription and translation. Together, transcription and translation are known as gene expression. During the process of transcription, the information stored in a gene's DNA is passed to a similar molecule called RNA (ribonucleic acid) in the cell nucleus.

How GMOs can be used in place of insecticides to control pest populations?

Several GM crops have been developed specifically for insect resistance or herbicide tolerance. This is achieved by creating crops that work with current pesticides and herbicides, which reduces the number of times farmers and agricultural operations have to use treatments to manage invasive weeds, bacteria, and insects.

What term best describes a GMO that includes the DNA from a different species?

Transgenic

DNA Probes

Used in DNA microarrays, complementary to the sequence of nucleotides in the gene of interest

First organisms to be genetically modified

bacteria due to small size of bacterial genome, presence of plasmids, and rapid generation time, making them ideal for genetic manipulation

Goal of producing a GMO

modify specific genes within an organism to produce a desired trait

PPO

one of the genes in apples that produces an enzyme involved in the process of fruit ripening and browning

pest control

pest species, such as mosquito Ades aegypti, which causes Zika and dengue fever, can be genetically altered so they are sterile. When released into the wild, these GMO insects disrupt the normal population structure of the pest species, and thus reduce the chances of humans contracting the disease.

Genetically Modified Plants

plants that have undergone genetic engineering -Examples of GM crops include corn varieties containing a gene for a bacterial pesticidethat kills larval pests, and soybeans with an inserted gene that renders them resistant to weed-killers such as Roundup. ... In 2010, more than 80 percent of U.S. corn, soybeans, cotton, and sugar beets were GM varieties.

Positive health benefits of GM plants

reduction in the use of chemical pesticides

transgenic

relating to or denoting an organism that contains genetic material into which DNA from an unrelated organism has been artificially introduced

Historic method for controlling agricultural pests

to apply chemicals, such as organophosphate insecticides, to crops in an attempt to kill the insect population.

Purpose of polymerase chain reaction

to produce many copies of a DNA fragment--PCR, is a laboratory technique used to make multiple copies of a segment of DNA. PCR is very precise and can be used to amplify, or copy, a specific DNA target from a mixture of DNA molecules.

polymerase chain reaction (PCR) steps

Denaturation, Annealing, Extension

AquaAdvantage Salmon

Transgenic salmon that contains genes from two other fish that let it grow faster.

statements that are true and describe examples of genetically modified animal

-Animals may be genetically modified with human genes to study treatments for diseases, including cystic fibrosis and cancer. -Animals may be genetically modified with genes to produce biotechnology products, including proteins or pharmaceutical compounds. -Animals may be genetically modified with human genes for the purpose of growing organs for human organ transplant.

reasons why animals may be genetically modified?

-Animals may be modified with genes for biotechnology products, allowing them to produce these products in their milk, meat, or eggs. -Animals may be modified with human genes, allowing them to act as models of human disease. -Animals may be modified with genes that prevent disease, increase their growth, or improve the quality of their meat, allowing for increased nutritional content per organism.

Which of the following are reasons why animals may be genetically modified?

-Animals may be modified with genes that prevent disease, increase their growth, or improve the quality of their meat, allowing for increased nutritional content per organism. -Animals may be modified with genes for biotechnology products, allowing them to produce these products in their milk, meat, or eggs. -Animals may be modified with human genes, allowing them to act as models of human disease

Which reasons describe why animals may be genetically modified?

-Animals may be modified with genes to make them sterile and then introduced into the wild, interrupting wild populations and preventing the spread of insect-borne disease. -Animals may be modified with genes for insulin, blood clotting factors, hormones, and interferons, allowing them to produce these biotechnology products in large quantities. -Animals may be modified with human genes, allowing them to grow human-like organs to be used in organ transplants.

Which of the following biotechnology products are possible to have resulted from genetically modified bacteria?

-Blood clotting factors -Interferons for cancer treatments -Hormones, including human growth hormone and insulin

Which of the following statements is true regarding genes?

-Genes may produce proteins or other gene products, including RNA. -Genes are specific sections of DNA that control the production of proteins or other products.

Which of the following global challenges has encouraged the development of genetically modified organisms?

-Global climate change, including changes in precipitation creates the need for agricultural crops that can withstand drought and high salt content. -An increasing global human population requires more resources, creating the need for genetically modified organisms that have increased nutritional content or increased yields. -Global warming of surface temperatures creates the need for agricultural crops that can withstand these hotter temperatures.

For which of the following reasons are plants genetically modified?

-Plants may be modified to produce biotechnology products, including vaccines, antibodies, and enzymes. -Plants may be modified to genes for increased nutritional value or decreased acrylamide content.

activities of a cell that are required for life

-Processing of energy and materials -Reproduction -Adaptation to changing environmental conditions -Response to external stimuli

risk of using genetically modified plants

-There is a risk of gene transfer between plants. -There is a risk of adverse human reactions, including allergic reactions. -There is a risk of harming non-target species, especially with GM herbicide resistant and Bt crops.

reasons why bacteria make ideal organisms for genetic modification

-They can be grown in large quantities in a small amount of space. -They divide rapidly, allowing their products to be produced quickly. -They have a small genome and contain plasmids.

Which of the following best describes examples of how bacteria have been genetically modified?

-They can produce biotechnology products, including human insulin, vaccines, blood clotting factors, and hormones. -why it can be modified? Bacteria can be modified to contain enzymes that break down toxic chemicals, allowing it to be used in bioremediation.

Which of the following statement(s) best describes the work of Boyer and Cohen.

-They inserted the genes from a frog into a plasmid and transferred the plasmid into E. coli bacteria. -They used recombinant DNA technology to insert plasmids containing genes for antibiotic resistance into E. coli bacteria.

processes that scientists use to introduce mutations into DNA?

-Using primers to introduce changes to the nucleotide sequence and then replicates the novel sequence in large quantities. -Using the Cas9 enzyme to remove and replace specific sections of nucleotides.

Challenges that must be addressed before a trait can be expressed

-information in DNA and proteins are written in 2 different languages, with DNA written as series of nucleotide bases and proteins as 20 amino acids -machinery of DNA and protein synthesis are located in different places in a cell

Activities of a cell required for life

-processing energy and materials -maintaining an internal environment -responding to stimuli from the environment -reproducing -adapting to changing environmental conditions

summarize the history of humans in their creation of genetically modified organisms

1. Humans first begin to breed plants and animals with desired traits together to obtain sturdier offspring. 2. Researchers James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the molecular structure of DNA. 3. Paul Berg combined genes from two different viruses, creating a virus with a unique combination of genes. 4. Researchers Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen used recombinant DNA technology to insert a gene for antibiotic resistance into E. coli bacteria using a modified plasmid. 5. Boyer and Cohen inserted genes from a frog into a bacterial plasmid, which was transferred into E. coli bacteria. 6. The Flavr-Savr tomato was invented. This marked the first GMO that was approved for human consumption.

Growth rate per year of population

1.05%

How the term genetically modified relates to biological organisms?

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an animal, plant, or microbe whose DNA has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. For thousands of years, humans have used breeding methods to modify organisms. Corn, cattle, and even dogs have been selectively bred over generations to have certain desired traits.

Gene cloning

A target gene is isolated from the cells and used to transform a bacterial cell. Bacteria are used because they can be grown in large quantities and have short generation time. Within bacteria are small circular pieces of DNA called plasmids which are cut with special enzymes to allow a place for the gene of interest to be inserted. The plasmid is resealed using enzyme DNA ligase and is now recombinant RNA cuz it contains genetic material from 2 different organisms. Plasmids are allowed to reenter bacterial cells and as bacteria reproduce, they copt the plasmid and produce multiple copies of the gene. These copies may be used to infect more cells or harvested for use in generating a GMO.

The first GMO approved for human consumption

A tomato called Flavr-Savr to solve the problem of fruit over-ripening, thus going to waste. The researchers were able to disable a gene in the tomato that dissolved the pectin in the skin of the tomato, causing it to soften. This is a cisgenic organism.

GMO

An organism in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination. Variation in a GMO is the result of genetic manipulation in a laboratory environment and not natural processes.

why may animals be genetically modified?

Animals may be modified with genes to make them sterile and then introduced into the wild, interrupting wild populations and preventing the spread of insect-borne disease. Animals may be modified with human genes, allowing them to grow human-like organs to be used in organ transplants. Animals may be modified with genes for insulin, blood clotting factors, hormones, and interferons, allowing them to produce these biotechnology products in large quantities.

First example of genetically modified animal approved for human consumption

AquaAdvantage Salmon

Determining the number of genes in an organism and identifying which ones may be responsible for a trait of interest

Automated DNA sequencing, DNA probe, gene chip

the significance of Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria in the development of genetically modified organisms?

Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria can be modified to produce chemicals toxic to insects. The bacteria can then be introduced into plants, creating plants that produce chemicals that are toxic to insects, preventing insect predation.

How can bacteria be genetically modified to be used to help the environment?

Bacteria can be modified with genes for enzymes that break down toxic chemicals, including mercury and oil, allowing bacteria to be used to remediate contaminated sites.

Protection of plants

Bacteria have been engineered to produce proteins that protect plants from the effects of freezing. Chemicals produced by Bacillis thuringiensis bacteria have been inserted into plants to protect them from insect predation.

Why is bacteria used to create GMOs?

Bacteria were the first organisms to be genetically modified in the laboratory, due to the relative ease of modifying their chromosomes. This ease made them important tools for the creation of other GMOs.

What is being genetically modified to produce biotechnology products such as vaccines, drugs or other chemical products?

Bacteria, plants, and animals

Agrobacterium Tumefaciens

Bacterial pathogen that is a popular method of introducing genetic material into a plant. Within these bacteria is a small plasmid that can be cut with restriction enzymes to have new genes inserted. Agrobacterium with a new gene is used to infect plant cells. The new gene is transferred into plant cell chromosome. Plant is regenerated from infected cells. Once the genes are introduced into plant cells, those calls can be used to produce new plants that will express the gene in all of the cells.

Allergic reactions

Because transgenic organisms contain genes from different species, it is possible that a person can have an allergic reaction if they were already allergic to the product of the gene being inserted.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

Biotechnology procedure in which scientists copy specific segments of DNA in quantities large enough for additional genetic analysis.

Bacillus thuringiensis

Bt. Natural insecticide effective in controlling many species of insects. Natural bacteria that lives in the soil and has no known health consequences to humans or livestock but when the endotoxin is consumed by an insect it causes a metabolic reaction killing it.

DNA probe

Can help identify specific areas of the genome that contain genes of interest. Makes it possible to identify a potential gene by using a segment of single-stranded DNAA that contains a fluorescent label. Works by binding to a complementary DNA. Can target specific areas of the genome for additional analysis.

Future of genetically modified plants

Challenge to withstand climate change is most vital and scientists are working on developing plants that are heat and drought resistant and contain higher nutritional content.Goal to grow more food on less land using less water and fewer chemical insecticides. Edible vaccines from GM plants.

Gene

Containing information that produces a product, which may include proteins or RNA molecules. While genes may contain information for a single trait, genes often create products that interact with each other in complex biological pathways that may be influenced by other genes or environmental conditions. It is not always a simple process of identifying the one gene associated with a single trait.

Restriction enzymes

Cut the DNA at specific patterns of nucleotides to allow researchers to place the DNA in particular locations in a plasmid.

How information is contained within a DNA molecule?

DNA encodes information through the order, or sequence, of the nucleotides along each strand. Each base—A, C, T, or G—can be considered as a letter in a four-letter alphabet that spells out biological messages in the chemical structure of the DNA.

Extension

DNA polymerase copies the indicated segment of DNA by adding complementary bases to each of the single DNA strands, creating a new double-stranded DNA.

Gene Chip

DNA probes can also be used to screen large numbers of DNA sequences, employing DNA microarray, also known as a gene chip. Gene chips are plastic or silicon slides that contain thousands of segments of DNA from an organism of interest. DNA probe is then constructed for the gene of interest and applied across the slide. Brighter areas have locations that match more closely to the sequence of interest, so they can focus their attention there.

The first GMO

E. Coli bacteria by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen. In their research, they were able to insert a gene for resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin into bacteria using a plasmid. When this modified plasmid was placed back in the bacteria they gained the trait of resistance to the antibiotic. They took the experiments further by inserting genes from a species of frog into bacteria, creating the first transgenic GMO.

How does the structure of an enzyme affect its function?

Each enzyme has an area called an active site, this is where a substrate bonds and reacts with the enzyme. ... The binding of the correct molecule/substrate causes the enzyme to become active and perform its function.

How metabolism would be different without enzymes?

Enzymes are incredibly efficient and highly specific biological catalysts . In fact, the human body would not exist without enzymes because the chemical reactions required to maintain the body simply would not occur fast enough.

The role of enzymes in metabolism

Enzymes speeds up the rate of metabolic reactions by lowering the activation energy. When an enzyme binds to a substrate, it stresses and destabilizes the bond in the substrate. This reduces the overall energy of the level of substrate transition state. The reaction rate is the amount of reaction over time.

Who monitors ingredients in our food supplies

FDA and USDA and companies that produce GMO crops must undergo rigorous testing to demonstrate that their product does not have negative effects on health.

Cisgenic GMO

Foreign DNA is not integrated into the target species, but rather the DNA of the target organism is modified to alter the physical characteristics of the target organism.

models for human disease

GM animals make excellent models for studying human diseases. By inserting human genes associated with a disease like cancer or cystic fibrosis researchers are able to develop animal models for use in studying new treatments

biotechnology products

GM animals-such as goats, mice, and chickens- can be developed that express proteins or pharmaceutical compounds in their meat, milk, or eggs

Synthesis of organic chemicals

GM bacteria and algae can produce biofuels and other organic chemicals for use in manufacturing

Production of biotechnology products

GM bacteria have been used in the production of medicine and pharmaceutical compounds since beginning of medically related GMOs. Including human insulin, vaccines for hepatitis B, clotting factors for hemophilia, human growth hormone, and interferons used in cancer treatment.

How RNA interference silences specific genes in a plant

Gene silencing is a result of nucleolytic degradation of the targeted mRNA by the RNase H enzyme Argonaute (Slicer). If the siRNA/mRNA duplex contains mismatches the mRNA is not cleaved. Rather, gene silencing is a result of translational inhibition.

the structure of a gene

Gene structure is the organisation of specialised sequence elements within a gene. ... A gene is transcribed (copied) from DNA into RNA, which can either be non-coding (ncRNA) with a direct function, or an intermediate messenger (mRNA) that is then translated into protein.

Impact of GMOs on non-target species

Generally doesnt appear to be impact on these species and they may be benefitting from the reduction in use of chemical insecticides to to use of Bt endotoxin. But many concerned plants may be harming beneficial insect populations as well.

how are genetically modified bacteria are used to manufacture biotechnology products?

Genes for biotechnology products of interest are removed from their original source, inserted into a plasmid and transferred into bacteria. Bacteria express these gene products during protein synthesis.

Explain the goal of genome editing

Genome editing, also called gene editing, is an area of research seeking to modify genes of living organisms to improve our understanding of gene function and develop ways to use it to treat genetic or acquired diseases.

Transgenic GMO

Has DNA that is across species. The DNA of the target species is modified by the insertion of a gene, or a portion of a gene, from a different species (such as a bacterium).

How was E.coli modified to become the first GMO?

Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen made the first genetically modified organism in 1973. They took a gene from a bacterium that provided resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin, inserted it into a plasmid and then induced other bacteria to incorporate the plasmid.

Gene expression

How the information in a gene is actually used to make a protein.

Selective Breeding

Humans identify some form of natural variation in the trait of a species, such fruit color or size, and then breed individuals with similar characteristics to produce offspring that all possess the trait of interest. Ex. maize/corn, rice, wheat, brussel sprouts, collards, kale, cabbage, and cauliflower, cows, chickens, dogs.

Genetically Modified Animals

In research studies, animals that have been safely genetically engineered (GE) include cattle, pigs, chickens, goats, sheep, dogs, cats, fish, rats, and mice. Why? As scientists have sequenced the genomes of domestic animals, more is known about genes and the traits that they control. By finding genes that control beneficial traits, we are able to precisely introduce those genes into another animal's genome, so the GE animal will possess that trait. One example is the Enviro-Pig™. Through genetic engineering, this animal emits 30 to 60 percent less phosphorus than traditional pigs fed the same conventional diet. This lessens livestock's impact in the environment.

Insect resistance

Insecticides rarely kills all and has survivors resistant to chemical, which pass chemical resistance on to next generation. A form of natural selection and evolution that results in an inability of the chemical to control the pest population.

Sexual Reproduction

Intentionally modifies the genetic material so there is variation in the offspring

Which biotechnology products are possible to have resulted from genetically modified bacteria?

Interferons for cancer treatments Blood clotting factors Hormones, including human growth hormone and insulin

Translation

Interprets the genetic information, now located in the mRNA, into the structure of a protein

Genetically modified plants are accomplished by...

Introducing foreign genes or manipulating genes already within the plant

CRISPR

Method of genome editing. In bacteria, CRISPR normally acts as a form of immune defense against invading viruses. It has been discovered that enzymes in the CRISPR system, (Cas9) are able to identify specific sequences of nucleotides in the invading virus's DNA breaking both of the DNA strands and inactivating the virus. CRISPR can be used to inactivate a gene by causing a break in the structure of DNA. This lets researchers study what the role of the gene is in the target cell. CRISPR may also be used to remove a small section of nucleotides and then insert a new set of nucleotides. It has the potential to target a specific set of nucleotides and replace it with an enhanced version of the gene that provides some benefit. It allows for the direct changing of the DNA (cisgenic).

Particle bombardment

Method of transforming a plant that involves coating very small particles of tungsten or gold with genetically modified DNA. These are then fired at plant tissue using a device called a gene gun. If the DNA successfully enters the tissue, it may enter the plant genome and produce a genetically modified plant.

RNA interference RNAi

Method of transforming plant that silences existing genes. Small pieces of RNA are used to silence the expression of specific alleles. These RNA sequences are designed to be complementary to the mRNA transcribed by a gene of interest. Once the complementary RNA sequence enters the cell, they bind with the target RNA, producing double-stranded RNA molecules. Since RNA is not normally double-stranded these molecules are quickly identified and broken down by a series of enzymes within the cell.

what is micro particle bombardment?

Microparticle bombardment technology has evolved as a method for delivering exogenous nucleic acids into plant cells and is a commonly employed technique in plant science. ... In this manner, transgenes can be delivered into the cell's genome or plastome.

How genetically modified animals may be used?

Models for human disease, biotechnology products, increased nutritional value, xenotransplantation, pest control, ex. transgenic GM chicken producing high-quality human proteins in eggs used to develop anti-cancer drugs that were expensive, GalSafe pig GM pig lacking sugar naturally found on pig cell surface which humans are sometimes allergic to so they are used for human production and production of medical products and human organs

Why are plants genetically modified?

Modified to provide resistance to herbicides. Reduce the impact of pest species, specifically insects, by engineering the plant so it produces a chemical that either deters or kills specific pest species. To increase their nutritional content or reduce spoilage. To better face environmental challenges, such as drought, heat, and the high salt content of water supplies caused by climate change. Also modified to produce biotechnology products, such as antibodies, vaccines, and enzymes, that can be used in the treatment of humans or animals.

How is a gene related to a protein?

Most genes contain the information needed to make functional molecules called proteins. (A few genes produce regulatory molecules that help the cell assemble proteins.) The journey from gene to protein is complex and tightly controlled within each cell.

Why farmers in the United States plant primarily GMO seeds?

Most of the GMO crops grown today were developed to help farmers prevent crop and food loss and control weeds. The three most common traits found in GMO crops are: Resistance to certain damaging insects. Tolerance of certain herbicides used to control weeds.

How are bacteria genetically modified?

Most of the time they are modified by inserting a gene of interest into the bacteria, which gives them the ability to manufacture a specific protein or enzyme, or perform a function not normally associated with that of a species of bacteria.

how scientists introduce mutations into the DNA?

Mutations can be introduced due to mistakes made during DNA replication or due to exposure to mutagens, which are chemical and environmental agents that can introduce mutations in the DNA sequence, such as ultraviolet light.

Pest management Genetic Modifications

Natural insecticides and resistance to viruses

The key steps and components used in PCR

PCR is based on three simple steps required for any DNA synthesis reaction: (1) denaturation of the template into single strands; (2) annealing of primers to each original strand for new strand synthesis; and (3) extension of the new DNA strands from the primers.

What allows geneticists to change a specific area of a gene?

PCR site-specific mutagenesis and CRISPR

Recombinant DNA or rDNA

Paul Berg combined genes from two viruses and because the DNA of the new virus contained a unique combination of genes it was called rDNA.

Intragenic GMO

Pieces of the organisms own genetic information have been rearranged to improve a characteristic.

Future genetically modified plants and animals are being developed to meet what needs of human society?

Prevention of disease, increased food supply, adaptation to the consequences of climate change

Annealing

Primer binds to each of the single DNA strands and primer was designed to specifically target a short segment of the DNA molecule

Future of genetically modified animals

Produce animals that have higher nutritional content, grow faster, resistant to diseases. Pork with higher concentrations of beneficial fats, cattle produce leaner meats, produce products in milk that ,ay be used to construct drugs useful. Cattle that produce less methane, chickens that produce vaccines, mice models for human disease.

How genetically modified bacteria may be used?

Production of biotechnology products, protection of plants, bioremediation, synthesis of organic chemicals, ex. scientists beginning to engineer bacteria to fight human diseases like E.coli bacteria being developed to break down amino acid phenylalanine to create treatment for those with phenylketonuria, modifying lactobacillus lactis to manufacture compounds to protect skin of cancer patients doing chemo, fight tooth decay, and illnesses like Crohn's disease.

Enzymes

Proteins act as catalysts, or accelerators, of chemical reactions. Proteins whose 3D shape determines the types of molecules they interact with. Shape contains an active site, which is the location where the incoming molecule (or substrate) interacts with the enzyme to conduct a chemical reaction. The output is called a product.

What form of transformation does not introduce new genes into the plant?

RNA interference

transform plants into genetically modified plants

RNA interference Microparticle bombardment Using A. tumefaciens as a vector

What causes variation?

Reproduction intentionally modifies the genetic material so there is variation in the offspring. Organisms that don't reproduce sexually, like bacteria, there are random genetic mutations that Introduce variation. GMOs- human introduced modifications to plants and animals.

An example of a GMO animal being developed by scientists

Salmon, for example, has been genetically engineered to mature faster, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has stated that these fish are safe to eat. GMOs are perhaps most visible in the produce section

how bacteria are utilized to incorporate new gene sequences into plants

The agrobacterium cell contains a bacterial chromosome and a Tumor inducing plasmid- "Ti Plasmid ". The Ti plasmid is removed from the agrobacterium cell and a restriction enzyme cleaves the T-DNA restriction site. ... The plant cell is then cultured and results in a new plant that has the foreign DNA trait.

Mutagenesis

The intentional introduction of a change into the genetic material of a cell or organism.

How PCR changed mutagenesis

The invention of the PCR reaction changed the process of mutagenesis and allowed the improvement of site-directed mutagenesis, a method of targeting mutations to specific areas of a gene. During PCR primers are used to determine which area of the DNA will be amplified so if a mutation is introduced to the primer there is a chance it will be introduced into the copies segments and amplified during the remained of the reaction.

Compare and contrast bacterial cloning of genes to PCR

The key difference between gene cloning and PCR is, gene cloning produces the multiple copies of a specific gene in vivo by constructing a recombinant DNA and growing inside a host bacterium while PCR produces millions of copies of a specific DNA fragment in vitro undergoing repeated cycles of denaturation and synthesis.

Gene Transfer/ Horizontal Gene Transfer

The movement of genes between species

Ecosystems

The nature of them are determined by precipitation and temperature, which in turn influences the types of plants and animals that live in them.

Global Warming

There is a direct correlation between the release of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane and the increase in global temperatures

The risk associated with gene transfer

This technique presents the following risks: Unwanted immune system reaction. Your body's immune system may see the newly introduced viruses as intruders and attack them. This may cause inflammation and, in severe cases, organ failure.

process of cloning

To make a clone, scientists transfer the DNA from an animal's somatic cell into an egg cell that has had its nucleus and DNA removed. The egg develops into an embryo that contains the same genes as the cell donor. Then the embryo is implanted into an adult female's uterus to grow.

Purpose DNA

To store the information needed to produce the molecules (primarily proteins) responsible for all the activities of a cell that is required of life

Automated DNA Sequencing

Uses dyes to denote nucleotides. A series of chemical reactions removes one nucleotide at a time from the end of the DNA chai. These are detected using a laser in an automated sequencing machine, which shows the order of nucleotides on a computer screen. Used to determine nucleotide sequence of large portions of the genome or of a specific segment of DNA that may contain a gene of interest. Once the sequence is known it can be compared to databases of similar genes in other organisms to help identify the gene of interest.

Transcription

Uses the information in one of the strands of DNA (template strand) to make a copy of the information needed to make the protein. This information is an intermediary RNA molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA). mRNA allows the information to leave the nucleus (where DNA is located) and enter the cytoplasm of the cell, where the protein machinery is located

Which process allows scientists to transform plants into genetically modified plants?

Using A. tumefaciens as a vector RNA interference Microparticle bombardment

intrageneic

being or occurring within a gene intragenic recombination intragenic mutation.

bioremediation

by enhancing enzymes and other metabolic pathways, GM bacteria can be used to break down toxic chemicals in the environment. Used for oil spills and against toxic levels of mercury.

xenotransplantation

by genetically engineering pigs, scientists are investigating ways of providing organs (such as liver, kidney, and bone marrow) for human transplants

Herbicides

chemicals that kill weeds. Ones like RoundUp contain chemicals that prevent plants from making certain amino acids. Without these amino acids, the plant is unable to make the proteins it needs to function and the plant dies. They also affect non-weed plant species, unless they have been genetically modified to be herbicide tolerant.

Global Challenges GMOs can help with

climate change, loss of agriculture due to insects and pests, needs of increasing human population, production of new drugs and products to enhance human lives.

Within a DNA molecule, information is stored _____.

in the order of nitrogenous bases within the DNA sequence.

Genetically modified Bt plants

incorporate the gene for the endotoxin directly into the plant tissue. Successfully reduced impact of many pest species and resulted in GM Bt variety of corn, soybeans, cotton that are now dominant,

How do we modify a trait

we need to alter the genetic instructions within a gene