Bio 152 Exam 3
Define disturbance and explain why systems that are subjected to disturbance are often considered to be "non-equilibrium."
-A disturbance has effects on populations of interacting species that are independent of their densities. Disturbances usually affect multiple species of the same community, influences the community composition. There are two main types of disturbances: biological and physical. Biological disturbances include disease, insect outbreaks, species introductions, over-exploitation, extinction, and predation. Physical disturbances include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, firestorms, impact events and climate change. -Ecological systems are never really in a steady state, there is always some disturbance occurring but the time between disturbances can vary greatly. Disturbances usually reset the clock on ecological communities
Using the information available in age structure pyramids like those in your text and below, how would you determine which population is most likely to increase in size, remain stable (or increase slowly), and decrease over time?
-Graph A shows a population that is growing/ increasing but to the large number of young people in that population. The fertility rates are high. -Graph B represents a stable/ not growing population. The population is relatively uniform with low birth rates. -Graph C shows a population that is declining/ decreasing. There is a smaller percentage of younger people and higher number of elderly/ old people.
Define keystone species, dominant species, and ecosystem engineer. Come up with examples (not the same ones covered in lecture!) for each of these kinds of species.
-Keystone species have disproportionate effects on communities in relation to their total amount of biomass they have. Sea otters are a keystone species because they consume sea urchins who prey upon the kelp forest. Many animals need the kelp forest to survive so without kelp forest, many animals decline. - Dominant species = Some communities have 1 or 2 species that really dominant not only by the amount of biomass but also dictate the processes in an ecosystem. The dominant tree in wet woodlands of Western Europe is alder - Ecosystem engineers are any organism that creates, significantly modifies, maintains, or destroys a habitat. Elephants dig holes with their front legs, pull up grass, and knockdown large trees
Both the lecture and the text noted that some energy is lost in moving through the different trophic levels. Where does this energy come from? Where does the "lost" energy go? Is it correct to say that the energy is "lost" in these transfers? Are any of the atoms in the food consumed or lost in producing this energy?
-Only 10% of the energy gets transferred to the next trophic level. Much of the energy lost between trophic levels is through wastes, work and heat dissipation. -Primary producers capture energy from sunlight and build chemical bonds that store energy in carbohydrates. Organisms consume the organic molecules and store some of the energy in other molecules but much of their energy to do work and generate heat. Carbon is released during respiration and can be reincorporated into organisms by photosynthesis, but the energy expended as heat or work cannot be recaptured by other organisms- that energy is lost
Which is true for terrestrial trophic levels? -90% of the biomass is transferred to each higher trophic level -10% of the biomass is transferred to each higher trophic level -Herbivores represent the greatest amount of biomass -Carbon and energy flow in opposite directions
10% of the biomass is transferred to each higher trophic level
In a salt marsh on the Pacific coast, an ecologist measures net production at three different trophic levels for a simple food chain: primary producers (plants + algae); primary consumers (periwinkle snails); and secondary consumers (Blue crabs). Here are the data: Primary producers: 4000 g m-2 yr-1 Primary consumers: 420 g m-2 yr-1 Secondary consumers: 38 g m-2 yr-1 A.) What is the trophic efficiency of the herbivores? B.) What is the trophic efficiency of the carnivores?
A.) 10.5% Production efficiency = (net secondary production / assimilation of primary production) x 100 = (420 / 4000) x 100 = 10.5 B.) 0.95% Production efficiency = (net secondary production / assimilation of primary production) x 100 = (38 / 4000) x 100 = 0.95
What kind of dispersion pattern would be expected for each of the following examples? Explain your answers. a. In the dry season, groups of wildebeests in Africa are observed near small water sources that are distributed across the landscape. b. Dandelion seeds blow onto a plot of land that was recently cleared for construction. Dandelions produce many seeds that germinate and grow readily. c. Wolverines (Gulo gulo) are large weasels (Mustelidae family). Each wolverine occupies a home range that is similar in size but overlaps very little with the home range of other wolverines.
A.) Clustered dispersion- resources are clustered or spatial proximity to other individuals enhances fitness, populations may be clustered. Due to the dry season, wildebeests are forced to be near small water sources in order to survive B.)Random dispersion- the distrivution of organisms can appear to be random, with no clear pattern to where they occur. The dandelion seeds where blown onto the plot of land, with no clear pattern of distribution as they fall anywhere. C.) Uniform dispersion- when resources are limited or predators target a sinlge species, an individual might be better off it's as far from others as possible, producing a uniform pattern of distribution. Each wolverine is occupying its own home range, without really overlapping others, producing a uniform distribution
What biomes or vegetation types would most likely be found at the following terrestrial locations? Briefly, what are the key climate characteristics and vegetation in these biomes? Complete the table below. Use your own words. Do not just copy your textbook. a) Near 30 degrees latitude b) Mid-latitudes along coasts c) Very high latitudes and at high elevations at other latitudes d) Mid-latitudes, mostly in the interior of continents
A.) Desert -Water amount is very low -Evolved to have plants with very deep roots (desert soil can be much looser since you don't have shallow roots holding everything together) -Extremely variable -Hot and dry almost all year round B.) Chaparral -Specific set of plants found only in that area -Very dry summer where the sun is actually high and a wet winter when the sun is low -Consistent temperature range -Herbs, evergreen shrubs C.) Tundra -Precipitation is variable -Permafrost -Extremely cold climate -Low biodiversity D.) Temperate Grassland -Too dry for forests but too wet for deserts -Grasses and flowering plants -High abundance and great diversity of large mammals
Two patches of riparian (streamside) forest contain populations of dusky salamanders (Desmognathus fuscus), and the patches are within the dispersal distance of the salamander. A 5-yr study of the populations in each patch reveals that the number of individuals in each population remains the same through time, and the following demographic parameters are estimated: Patch A N = 100 Per capita birth rate (b) = 0.5 Per capita death rate (m) = 0.1 Patch B N = 100 Per capita birth rate (b) = 0.2 Per captia death rate (m) = 0.5 Are the following statements about these patches true or false? Explain your answers fully to receive credit. A.) Patch B is likely a source patch, and Patch A is likely a sink patch B.) Immigration is probably not important for persistence of either population.
A.) False- a source population has higher birth rates than death rates (birth rates > death rates). Patch A has a birth rate of 0.5 and a death rate of 0.1, representing a source population. A sink population has higher death rates than birth rates (birth rates < death rates). Patch B has a birth rate of 0.2 and a death rate of 0.5, representing a sink population. B.) False- immigration is important for both populations because immigration helps with population growth. The death rate is high in both populations so immigration is needed in order to bring in new species that would contribute to population growth.
Given the initial population size, and assuming that the lupine population is experiencing exponential growth at growth rate r, what will the number of plants be in each population in 5 years? (Use the initial population size for each as time zero, and compute to time 5). a. Fort McCoy B. Black River Forest
A.) Fort McCoy: The population will be 1492. 992 600(0.2+1)5 = 1492.992 B.) Black River Forest The population will be 86.615 300(-0.22+1)5 = 86.615
What are the names and key characteristics of the following aquatic biomes? Complete the table below. Use your own words. Do not just copy your textbook. a) Standing bodies of fresh water b) Marine areas associated with structures formed by the calcium carbonate skeletons of specific marine animals c) Transition area between river and sea.
A.) Lakes -Lakes range geographically from the equator to above 80 degrees North -Nutrient levels can vary greatly -Aquatic plants and macroscopic green algae live along the shallow margins -Algae and cyanobacteria are primary producers B.) Coral Reefs -Most diverse biome in the ocean -Most mostly in shallow, tropical or subtropical environments -Nutrients are commonly low but primary producers are high C.) Estuaries -Salinity varies with the rise and fall of the tide -Nutrient rich and highly productive -Contain marine invertebrates and fish
Understand how the exponential population model works! Think it through and make sure you really know the terms and how they work biologically. You must understand how to use population models and solve the kinds of problems covered in Discussion. In the simplest model, dN/dt = rN: a. What do each of the terms stand for? b. What type of population growth does this equation describe? c. What are the assumptions inherent in this equation?
A.) N = total population r = the growth rate per capita (b-m) dN = population change dt = time interval B.)This type of growth is for an exponential population, producing a J shaped graph. C.) Assumptions: -There is unlimited resources -The growth rate is not changing
Check your understanding of species interactions! For the following examples, determine which of the following terms best applies to each example. Explain your reasoning. a. Two species of spiny mouse coexist in the same location. One of the species feeds on insects during the day, and the other feeds on insects at night. b. The geographic ranges of two species of bumblebee overlap in the central US. In these bumblebees, the length of the proboscis is related to the size of the flower corolla length in which the bees can feed. In the areas where the bumblebee species overlap, the length of the proboscis of each species differs. In portions of the range where the bumblebee species do not overlap, the length of the proboscis is very similar. c. Octopuses of the genus Thaumoctopus are able to intentionally alter their body shape and color so that they resemble dangerous sea snakes or lionfish. d. In some areas of tropical rainforest, birds follow the raids of army ants on the forest floor. As the army ant colony marches on, it stirs up various flying insect species. As the insects flee from the army ants, the birds following the ants catch the fleeing insects. The birds do not prey upon the army ants. e. Snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) are white in the winter, when continuous snow cover is common, but brown in the summer, when snow is absent. f. In the ocean, coral reefs are formed by coral polyps (corals are animals) and algae (plants) that live within the polyp and give the coral its color. The coral feeds off the byproducts of the algae's photosynthesis, receiving much of their energy needs from the algae. The algae receive a place to live and certain inorganic nutrients they need to survive.
A.) Resource partitioning- the two species of spiny mouse are dividing the limited resources by feeding at different times of the day to avoid competition in their niche B.) Character displacement- the bumble bees length of proboscis is related to the flow corolla length so in areas where there is overlap the length differs but when there is no overlap, the length is very similar: natural selection favors the divergence in morphology, ecology, behavior, etc., so the overlap regions need to have differing lengths in order to survive together C.) Batesian mimicry- the octopus is a harmless species that has evolved to imitate the warning signals of a harmful species directed to a predator as a way to survive D.) Commensalism- the birds are benefiting from the ants who stir up the flying insects (the birds eat the insects), but the ants do not benefit nor are harmed in this relationship E.) Cryptic coloration- the snowshoe hares are changing colors as a defense or tactic to disguise their appearance to match their environment (white in the winter and brown during the summer)- they are able to survive and hide from predators better F.) Mutualism- both the coral reefs and the algae plants are benefiting from the relations: coral feeds from the byproducts and algae has a place to live and certain nutrients needed to survive from the coral reefs- positive interaction for both species
Choose an organism, anything you like - your favorite plant, your least favorite animal, anything. a. Write that organism's name below. b. Describe how this organism fits into each of the hierarchical scales that Dr. Keefover-Ring talked about during Monday's lecture (organism, population, community, ecosystem, landscape, global). Be sure to answer for each of the six levels. c. Propose six research questions (one for each level) about this organism's relationship to the other biotic and abiotic factors at that level.
A.) Succulents B.) -Organism ecology: Succulents are drought resistant plants in which the leaves, stem or roots have become more than usually fleshy by the development of water-storing tissues -Population ecology: There are around 50-60 families that contain at least one species of succulent plants, the largest being Cactaceae (cactus family) and Aizoaceae (ice plant family) families that contain about 40% of all succulent plants -Community ecology: Succulents are pollinated by bees, butterflies, hummingbirds, moths, flies, wasps, bats, beetles and more. Mealy bugs, aphids, caterpillars, grasshoppers, snails and slugs eat succulents -Ecosystem ecology: Succulents prefer temperatures ranging from 60 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit -Landscape ecology: Succulents come from all around the world including Africa, Central America, the European Alps, South America and South Africa -Global ecology: Succulents help keep air fresh and remove toxins from the environment. They absorb respiratory waste (Carbon dioxide), and they convert it into plant carbohydrates to build strong bodies that in turn create pure, clean, life-empowering oxygen for us to breathe C.) 1. How to their water storing tissues help them survive in hotter, drier climates? What would happen if you put them into a wet, hot climate? How would they react? 2. Do different families that contain succulents have different climates? If so, how different is the climate in comparison to the ideal climate of succulents? 3. How does the predication of mealy bugs, aphids, caterpillars, grasshoppers, and etc. affect the habitat distribution of succulents? 4. How do succulents make such good house plants if their preferred temperature range is 60 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit? 5. Since succulents come from a variety of locations around the globe, do these places vary in climate or is it fairly similar? 6. How can succulents help us tackle climate change? Can succulents be helpful in large scale carbon dioxide removal?
In the United States, temperate broadleaf forest extends from the east coast westward for about 1,200 miles (to the Mississippi River Valley). From there, the forest begins to thin out toward the west into oak savannas, and it finally gives way to temperate grasslands (Great Plains). The grasslands extend 1,000 miles westward to the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. A.) Why do you think grasslands replace forests west of the Mississippi River? B.) What is the rain shadow effect?
A.) This area is under fluence by the wind flow pattern that carries moist air from the Pacific Ocean onto the North America Continent. The wind reaches the Rocky Mountains, and they rise and cool which causes the moisture in the air to condense and fall as rain on the western since of the Rockies. The wind that reaches the eastern side of the Rockies is dry- much of the land in their rain shadow area is desert. As the wind continues, they pick up some water but the area west of the Mississippi receives less rainfall compared to areas east- grasslands are regions where the rainfall average is around 500 to 950 mm. B.) The rain shadow effect is low precipitation on the far side (leeward side) of a mountain when prevailing winds flow up and over a high mountain or range of high mountains. This creates semiarid and arid conditions on the leeward side of a high mountain range.
Understand how the logistic population model works! Think it through and make sure you really know the terms and how they work biologically. You must understand how to use these models and solve the kinds of problems covered in Discussion. Population growth may be represented by the model, dN/dt = rN[(K-N)/K]. a. What is K? b.If N=K, then what is dN/dt? c. Describe in words how dN/dt changes from when N is very small to when N is large relative to K. d. What are the assumptions inherent in this equation?
A.)K is the carrying capacity which is the maximum population size a particular environment can support B.) There is no growth occurring when N = K, dN/dt is 0 so the population is stationary (neither growing nor declining). C.)(K-N)/K acts as a negative feedback to population growth. When N is small, (K-N)/K is very close to K/K or 1 which means the population is not being affected/ influenced by the carrying capacity and there is exponential growth in the population. When N is larger, (K-N)/K becomes very close to 0 which means the population is very close to the carrying capacity and the growth of the population is slowed/ there is a huge decrease in the rate of population growth. D.) Assumptions: -All individuals in the population are equal -All individuals use the same amount of resources -Resources and space limit the growth of the population
All the nonliving parts of an ecosystem are referred to as: -The community -Biotic factors -Abiotic factors -Biomes
Abiotic factors
The moose population on Isle Royale has been regulated by which kind(s) of factors? -Density-neutral -Density-independent -Density-dependent -Both A and B -Both B and C
Both B and C
During a ten-year study it was found that after the American mink (Mustela vison) was introduced to north-eastern Belarus the native European mink (Mustela lutreola) increased in size and the introduced mink decreased in size. What best describes this scenario? -Character displacement -Resource partitioning -Competitive exclusion -Reciprocal transplant
Character displacement
The fundamental niche of a species includes all of the possible places with the correct abiotic conditions that the species needs to exist. The realized niche of a species is where we actually find it. Which factor(s) below can limit a species from using its entire fundamental niche? -Precipitation -Temperature -Competition and dispersal -Dispersal -Temperature and precipitation -Competition
Competition and dispersal
Mark-recapture technique is used to: -Relocate a population to a new habitat -Estimate the size of a population -Catch and mark all individuals in a population -Catalog the number of species in an area -None of the above
Estimate the size of a population
If two species are close competitors, and one species is experimentally removed from the community, the remaining species would be expected to: -decline in abundance -expand its realized niche -become the target of specialized parasites -change its fundamental niche
Expand its realized niche
You and your friends have monitored populations of wild lupine, the plant that is necessary for the endangered Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) to persist, for one entire growing season (i.e., a year), at Fort McCoy and at Black River Forest. By carefully mapping, tagging, and censusing the plants throughout a growing season, you obtain the following data: Fort McCoy: Initial no. of plants - 600 No. of new seedlings established- 150 No. of the initial plants that died- 30 Black River Forest Initial no. of plants- 300 No. of new seedlings established- 24 No. of the initial plants that died- 90
Fort McCoy B (births) - 150 D (deaths)- 30 b - 0.25 (150/600 = 0.25) m - 0.05 (30/600 - 0.05) r - 0.2 (0.25-0.05 = 0.2) Black River Forest B (births) - 24 D (deaths)- 90 b - 0.08 (24/300 = 0.08) m - 0.30 (90/300 = 0.30) r - -0.22 (0.08-0.30 = -0.22)
Which of the following best describes an r-selected organism? -Reproduction late in life -Have few offspring -Found in environments below carrying capacity -Provide parental care to offspring
Found in environments below carrying capacity
In the video showing an encounter between Cape buffalo and lions in Kruger National Park, we saw good examples of all of the following interactions, except... -Prey response -Predation -Herbivory -Competition
Herbivory
How does the "6th extinction" episode differ from past extinction episodes? -Smaller mammals are disproportionally effected -Larger reptiles are disproportionally affected -It is caused by asteroid collision -Humans play a major role -It is caused by climate change
Humans play a major role
If you know the mean annual precipitation and the mean annual temperature of an area, would you be able to accurately predict the type of biome that exists there? Explain.
I think you would be able to accurately predict the type of biome. Mean annual temperature and precipitation are two important factors in determining the distribution of major biomes- no two biomes have the same mean annual temperature and precipitation. You can predict it sometimes but not always accurately. For example, in Madison, WI, it has similar climate to up north (Northern Wisconsin) however the biomes are different.
In an experiment, a researcher fenced off half of a 100-acre grassland and removed all of a grazing species of animal from that half of the area (X1). The animals that were removed were relocated miles away. The existing population of grazers on the other half (X2) was left untouched. Over the following three years, she recorded the number of species on the parcels of the grassland (X1 and X2). If the grazers are keystone species, which line on the graph below (A or B) would most likely represent the number of plant species on X1 (where grazers were removed)? Explain your answer.
If the grazers where keystone species, I would expect the area where grazers were removed to be line B. A keystone species is a species that has disproportionate effects on communities in relationship to the total amount of biomass they have. If the grazers where keystone species, I would expect the area where they were removed to be negatively impacted, decreasing the amount of species present due to the reliance on grazers.
Which of the following best describes a major human alteration of the nitrogen biogeochemical cycle, resulting in huge increases in the amount of reactive nitrogen circulating through the environment? -Thawing of deep permafrost in the Arctic -Drainage of peatlands and cultivation for agriculture -Deforestation of tropical forests for cattle pasture expansion -Invention of the Haber-Bosch process and industrial-scale fertilizer production
Invention of the Haber-Bosch process and industrial-scale fertilizer production
It is not easy to determine whether an interaction between two species is commensalism, because... -None of the options is correct -It can be difficult to see that the relationship benefits one species but has no effect on the other -It can be difficult to see that the relationship is beneficial to both species -It can be difficult to see that the relationship benefits one species but harms the other
It can be difficult to see that the relationship benefits one species but has no effect on the other
Net primary production minus the loss of carbon via consumer and decomposer respiration are the calculation of which of the following measurements? -Autotrophic respiration -Net secondary production -Net ecosystem production -Photosynthesis
Net ecosystem production
What is the name of the single megacontinent (that included all present continents) that was found roughly 250 million years ago? -Gondwanaland -Laurasia -Pangaea -Buckyland
Pangaea
Which of the following is not a type of population dispersion pattern? -Parallel -Uniform -Random -Clumped
Parallel
Why are there fewer organisms at the top trophic levels? -Relatively little of the sun's energy is available to the top level -Organisms at the top have complicated family structures to support -These organisms have the fewest food sources and thus eat the least amount of food -Organisms at the top level live longer than those on lower levels
Relatively little of the sun's energy is available to the top level
What explains observed fluctuations (peaks and valleys) in atmospheric CO2 concentrations within a year? -Seasonal differences in methane production -Seasonal differences in fossil fuel emissions -Seasonal differences in nitrogen fixation -Seasonal differences in photosynthesis
Seasonal differences in photosynthesis
The gradual filling in of a lake and its progression from lake to bog to eventual colonization by shrubs and trees is an example of: -Net ecosystem productivity -Succession -Disturbance regime -Response surfaces
Succession
In a climograph plot, different biomes are characterized by: -Latitude and longitude -Elevation and sunlight -Temperature and precipitation -Slope and aspect
Temperature and precipitation
All the energy in a food web originates from: -Plants -Herbivores -The Sun -The Earth's Core
The Sun
An insectivorous bird is in a field feeding on blue butterflies with white spots. After eating ten butterflies the bird goes to eat another but quickly rejects it after tasting. What best explains this scenario? -The eleventh blue butterfly with white spots is a different species using Müllerian mimicry -The eleventh blue butterfly with white spots is a different species using Freudian mimicry -The population of blue butterflies with white spots varies greatly in its nutritional content -The eleventh blue butterfly with white spots is a different species using Batesian mimicry
The eleventh blue butterfly with white spots is a different species using Batesian mimicry
In general, how is the distribution of major ecosystems or biomes related to climate?
The major distribution of ecosystems or biomes is related to two important factors: mean annual temperature and mean annual precipitation. Latitude and longitude will affect the temperature.
Many people consider disturbances to be "bad" events that have negative impacts on ecosystems. Why do you think this perception developed? Do you agree or disagree with this perception? Explain your answer in terms of biotic community structure and ecosystem function.
The notion of disturbances being bad events, causing negative impacts on an ecosystem was likely due to the negative impacts seen following those disturbances. Disturbances can be biological (disease, insect outbreaks, species introductions, over-exploitation, extinction, and predation) or physical (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, firestorms, impact events, and climate change). Each of the different types of disturbances usually decreases the amount of biodiversity in an ecosystem. Lack of biodiversity means that food security can be at risk to pests and diseases and ecosystems are not as healthy, taking longer to recover from different disasters. I do not necessarily agree that disturbances are always bad. One example of a disturbance are fires. Many ecosystems such as grasslands, chaparral, and boreal forests rely on fires and have become fire adaptive. Fires have the ability to reset the clock on an ecosystem. The problem comes when those fire disturbances occur at a more frequent rate and ecosystems don't have enough time to recover- leading to negative impacts.
The main reason the polar regions are colder than the equator is that ______. -The poles are farther from the sun -The poles always have a shorter day length than the equator -The polar atmosphere is thinner and contains less greenhouse gases -The same amount of sunlight is spread over a large area at the poles, compared to the equator
The same amount of sunlight is spread over a large area at the poles, compared to the equator
How has deforestation indirectly contributed to increased methane concentrations in the atmosphere? -Through the expansion of cattle pastures on deforested land -Through increases in soil erosion after the loss of forest cover -Reduction in photosynthetic capacity of vegetation replacing forests -All of the options listed here are correct
Through the expansion of cattle pastures on deforested land
Ecologists are not interested in metapopulations for one of the following reasons: -To help recognizes dispersal as an important process that links sub-populations -To help explain why populations can, in some cases, appear resilient -To determine the evolutionary relationships between populations of different species -To understand the importance of the spatial configuration of populations
To determine the evolutionary relationships between populations of different species
Populations can be at zero growth, when both birth and death rates are high. -True -False
True
Which of these food chains is in the correct order? -Snake, frog, caterpillar, water lily -Water lily, frog, caterpillar, snake -Caterpillar, water lily, frog, snake -Water lily, caterpillar, frog, snake
Water lily, caterpillar, frog, snake
Define the terms in the mark/recapture model using a sentence or two. Come to discussion ready to use your knowledge in a riveting activity...
When it is too difficult to go out and count each individual by hand, mark-recapture technique is used by first capturing a small number of individuals from the population and tag them with a mark (a label, a tattoo, a marking, etc.) and release them back into the population. You then go back out and sample individuals from the population, counting the amount of individuals with marks on them. You use this data then to estimate the population size.
A keystone species: -has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its abundance -is at the top of the trophic hierarchy -is the most abundant species in the community -has the greatest total biomass in the community -is a theoretical construct in ecology with very little proof
has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its abundance
The Tension Zone in Wisconsin... -is a transition between the boreal and prairie biomes -is another name for the state's boreal forests -is a major cause of migraines in the state -runs directly north from the state's southern border i -s the zone of prairies in the southern part of the state
is a transition between the boreal and prairie biomes
According to the equilibrium model of island biogeography, species richness would be greatest on an island that is: -large and remote -small and close to a mainland -large and close to a mainland -small and remote
large and close to a mainland
Elevation can be considered a proxy for latitude because... -like lower latitudes, lower elevations are cooler -like higher latitudes, lower elevations are cooler -like higher latitudes, higher elevations are cooler -like lower latitudes, higher elevations are cooler
like higher latitudes, higher elevations are cooler
