Bio 212L Practical Study Sheet

Veins

-Carry blood to the heart -have thinner muscle layer in wall -blood is often under low pressure -have valves to prevent backflow

Place the major blood vessels and heart chambers in the order in which blood passes in an adult mammal from the time it leaves the head until it enters the lung.

1) Jugular Vein 2) Brachiocephalic Vein 3) Cranial (or superior) vena cava 4) Right atrium 5) Right ventricle 6) Pulmonary trunk 7) (right or left) pulmonary artery

Place the structures in the order in which an egg passes through from the time it is formed in the ovary until it leaves the body in a non-pregnant woman.

1) Ovary 2) Fallopian tubes 3) uterus 4) Cervix 5) Vagina

Place the structures in the order in which urine passes through from the time it forms in the renal corpuscle until it leaves the nephron through the collecting duct.

1) Renal corpuscle 2) proximal tubule 3) loop of Henle 4) distal tubule 5) collecting duct

Place the structures in the order for the path food takes from the time it enters the mouth until it leaves the body.

1) mouth 2) esophagus 3) Stomach 4) Small intestine 5) large intestine 6) Anus

Does a single axon of a single neuron interact with just one muscle cell, or with more than one?

A single axon will interact with many muscle fibers. We know that muscle cells are controlled in a group type format by the motor neuron. This unit is made up of the motor neuron and skeletal muscle fibers that are innervated with that particular motor neuron's axon terminals. Groups of these units will work together to coordinate the contractions of a single muscle. This grouping of motor units within a muscle can also be referred to as a motor pool.

Are muscle cells controlled individually, or in groups? Hint: consider the relationship between a single axon and how it interacts with muscle cells. Explain your answer.

Again, muscle cells are mainly controlled in groups. For example, when you flex your bicep the motor units within its motor pool will all contract as the tricep motor units will all relax. Remember each unit is made up of the motor neuron and skeletal muscle fibers that are innervated with that particular motor neuron's axon terminals. Groups of these units will work together to coordinate the contractions of a single muscle.

What has thicker muscle layers in walls? Veins or arteries

Arteries

__ carry blood away from heart

Arteries

If your lenses were clouded due to cataracts, what change would you notice in your vision? Why would this change occur?

As we know cataracts affect vision by clouding over our eye lenses. From this, a person would experience blurry vision and faded color inputs, as well as would have more difficulty seeing at night. Because the lens of the eye focuses light onto our retina's which we know transmits the visuals signals through the optic nerve to the brain. So by impairing this function and ability of light to get in a person would have blurry vision and decreased color sensitivity.

How do endoskeletons move?

By contraction and relaxation of flexor and extensor muscles. The muscles are attached to the outside of the skeleton.

How do exoskeletons move?

By contraction and relaxation of flexor and extensor muscles. The muscles are contained inside the skeleton.

What are capillaries and what are their functions?

Capillaries are the smallest type of blood vessels and there are a lot of them. They form the connection between arteries and veins. Their primary function is exchanging of materials between blood and tissue cells. Also capillaries help remove waste products, like carbon dioxide.

What is the function of valves and chordae tendineae in the heart? Why is this important?

Chordae tendineae are often referred to as heart strings. They are crucial for holding the atrioventricular valves in place while the heart is pumping blood. So they make up this suspension like system for these leaflets and help maintain the position and tension of these valve leaflets.Valves are important because they prevent blood from flowing backwards. Valves essentially are important to the flow of blood ensuring it flows correctly.

Cornea

Clear, protective covering on the front of the eye

Which light-sensitive cells (rods or cones) are able to provide better resolution and color information, but only work well during periods of sufficient lighting? What makes them able to do this?

Cones on the other hand are what we utilize to see color and help with our overall visual clarity. When there is a lot of light available cones can form images by utilizing the different wavelengths of light that an object is reflecting into the eye.

In humans, air enters the lungs as a result of contraction of the _______________________ aided by intercostal muscles.

Diaphragm

___ or "inside skeletons" are composed of bones that are separated by joints.

Endoskeletons

What structure functions to keep food and water from entering the respiratory system?

Epiglottis

What is the most common cell type found in blood?

Erythrocytes

True/False? Cones, which are photoreceptor cells found in the eye, are responsible for vision in low light and cannot discriminate between colors.

False

True/False? Gray matter is formed by myelinated axons.

False

True/False? The meninges control the autonomic functions of the body, such as the heartbeat.

False

True/false? Alveoli are microscopic air sacs in the lungs surrounded by thick walls. The thick walls help to trap the oxygen from inhaled breath.

False

Which organ: Stores and concentrates bile

Gallbladder

The ___________ is an opening that allows nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatics to flow through osteons in compact bone.

Haversian Canal

___ occur in diverse animals, such as cnidarians and mollusks.

Hydrostatic skeletons

Where is blood often under much higher pressure?

In arteries

What are the anatomical differences between male and female bodies in relation to how gametes exit the body?

In males, gametes leave the body through the same opening as urine. In females, gametes leave through the vagina and urine leaves through the urethra

What is gray and white matter?

In the spinal cord this white matter surrounds the inner core of gray matter. The white matter doesn't contain neural cell bodies, dendrites or shorter axons. White matter does contain long-range myelinated axons. It does affect learning and brain functions as it is like a relay and coordinates communication between the different brain regions. Gray matter on the other hand is mainly neuronal cell bodies and very few unmyelinated axons. The grey matter is more involved in muscle control and sensory perception (like hearing and seeing). This color difference is mainly produced from the whiteness of myelin. In other words, the white matter sends the information and the gray matter processes the information. So remember white matter is the axons and gray matter is the dendrites and stoma.

Which organ: Removes waste products and excess fluid

Kidney

What are the functions of each type of blood cell?

Leukocyte (white blood cell): -Leukocytes protect our bodies against invasions (specifically from microorganisms and mutated cells). They also help clean up cellular debris. In Immunology I learned that these are our "immune cells" so they are vital for our health. Erythrocyte (red blood cell): -The primary function of erythrocytes is the transfer of gasses. Specifically RBC help transfer both oxygen and carbon dioxide from our lungs and tissues to help our bodies maintain a sort of equilibrium. Platelet: -One function of platelets is to secrete these vasoconstrictors which obviously cause the blood vessels to constrict -They also can form these temporary 'plugs' to stop bleeding -Secrete clotting factors to help our blood clot -*They also help dissolve blood clots when they aren't needed anymore

Smooth muscle

Made up of spindle-shaped cells each of its cells has a single nucleus and no striations

When an electrical current is given at the ___ , the nerve stimulated will cause the skeletal muscle to contract.

Motor Point

What is the filtering structure of the kidney?

Nephron

What is a neuromuscular junction?

Neuromuscular junctions are junctions between nerve fiber and muscle fiber. This specifically is a synaptic connection that is formed between a motor neuron axon and a muscle fiber. The function is this synapse where these neuronal signals from our brain or spinal cord interact with skeletal muscle fibers and cause them to contract.

The retina communicates signals to the brain via the______________.

Optic nerve

What produces eggs and reproductive hormones?

Ovary

Olfactory Bulb

Region of the brain that receives and processes sensations of smell

Medulla Oblongata

Region of the brainstem that controls several autonomic functions

Cerebrum

Responsible for conscious thought

Which light-sensitive cells (rods or cones) are better at providing vision in very low light conditions? What makes them able to do this?

Rods -rod cells respond to light of any color, so they are able to use all available light, but they cannot distinguish colors. The process of convergence (information from several rod cells being sent to the same ganglion) allows light information from a larger area to be collected.

Which organ: Chemically digests food, absorbs nutrients and minerals from food

Small Intestine

What are the differences between the peripheral and central nervous systems?

So the central nervous system is our brain and spinal cord. The major function of the CNS is to organize and analyze all of the information being input from the sensory organs. The peripheral nervous system includes all of the nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord and thus extends to other parts of the body like our muscles and organs. This includes our sensory receptors, sensory neurons, and even the motor neurons. The major function of this system is to transmit sensory information to the CNS and pass out the motor impulses to the effector organs.

In a tracheal system (like that found in insects), the tracheoles open to the exterior through small holes called_____________.

Spiracles

Which organ: Breaks down and physically digests food

Stomach

When all motor units are stimulated and the frequency of stimulation increases to the point that the muscle can only partially relax before it is stimulated again, the contraction force increases. This is called

Temporal summation

What produces sperm and reproductive hormones?

Testis

What is the function of the esophagus?

The esophagus is a muscular tube that assists in moving food (and liquid) from the mouth to the stomach. Without this muscular tube squeezing properly it would be much harder for food and liquids to reach the pig's stomach.

What is the function of the liver?

The liver regulates most chemical levels in the blood and excretes a product called bile. This helps carry away waste products from the liver. All the blood leaving the stomach and intestines passes through the liver. -Storage of bile

If the arteries leading to the kidneys were narrowed due to atherosclerosis, the amount of blood flowing into the kidneys would be decreased. How would the decrease in blood flow affect the function of the kidneys?

The narrowing of arteries leading to the kidneys would cause an increase in blood pressure and could damage kidney tissue. Over time if this blood flow continues to stay decreased would/could lead to kidney failure. Because when kidneys don't get enough blood this disrupts both the blood pressure and fluid balance throughout our bodies. The kidneys would attempt to increase this blood flow by increasing blood pressure and volume. This can happen because the kidneys send out certain hormones and these constricting arteries would be retaining salt and water to assist in increasing blood pressure.

Describe the pathway of a molecule of oxygen from the time it enters your pharynx until the time it enters an alveolus.

The path in order would be as follows: oxygen from the air is brought into the body through our nose (or mouth technically) which would then pass into the pharynx past the epiglottis and go into the larynx and go between the vocal cords into the trachea. As we know the trachea will carry this oxygen to its branches (bronchi) which will carry it into even smaller tubes (bronchioles) and these will end in a tiny duct (alveolar duct) attaching to an alveolar sac and is now in a part of the alveolus.

What is the function of the trachea?

The trachea is also referred to by many as the 'windpipe'. This tube leads from the larynx to the lungs. The importance of this structure is that it is a passage in which air moves to and from the lungs. So, if this pig were alive it would inhale and air would travel through its nose or mouth then go down the trachea and go into the lungs.

What is the blind spot? Why is this area of the retina "blind"?

This blind spot is located on the optic disk within the retina (it is also called the optic nerve head). It is called the blind spot because it doesn't have any photoreceptor cells (such as rods and cones) so there is no image detection in this area.

What is the name of the structure that aids in keeping food/water from entering the trachea when swallowed?

This structure is known as the epiglottis, it is a flap of tissue that is able to seal off the trachea thus preventing food/water from entering.

In the experiment this week, you will have to determine the smallest electrical stimulus required to produce a finger twitch, known as the

Threshold stimulus

___ is the total volume of gas inhaled or exhaled during a normal breath.

Tidal Volume

___ is the sum of tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, and residual volume. It is the total volume of gas that can be contained in the lungs.

Total Lung Capacity

What structure is reinforced with cartilaginous rings to sustain its structure?

Trachea

In a tracheal system (like that found in insects), respiratory gases diffuse through the body in a branching system of gas-filled tubules called ________________________.

Tracheoles

True/False The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron.

True

True/False? Color-blindness results when at least one type of cone is absent.

True

True/False? Insects and other terrestrial arthropods make use of a tracheal system, which allows the exchange of gases to occur independently of the circulatory system.

True

True/False? Lacunae are the locations where osteocytes (mature bone cells) live. Osteocytes are responsible for regulating the deposition and removal of calcium salts.

True

True/False? Reflexes involve input from a sensory receptor and output from a motor neuron to create the response.

True

True/False? When axons are wrapped in myelin sheaths, it causes nervous signals to travel more quickly through the body.

True

Compare and Contrast Veins and Arteries

Veins have 3 distinct layers that are thin and collapsible whereas arteries also have 3 distinct layers but they are rigid, thick and muscular. An important characteristic is that arteries carry pure, oxygenated and nutrient-rich blood. Veins carry the impure deoxygenated blood. Arteries carry the blood away from the heart and veins carry the blood towards the heart.

What are the 3 features that help increase the surface area of the small intestine?

Villi Microvilli Circular folds

What is the purpose of the villi and microvilli in the intestines?

Villi and microvilli in the intestines play a large role in the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of intestinal walls.

Why do you think the veins and arteries leading to and from the kidneys are so large?

We know that kidneys are an important part of our bodies. Not only for urine production, but also for regulating blood. Blood actually comes to kidneys through these large arteries and veins that are part of the ascending aorta. Because kidneys are filtration factories and these arteries and veins will branch smaller and smaller until they make contact with nephrons (the core structure of kidneys). These are what regulate waste, water, and other materials by adjusting to our body's ever-changing needs. The kidneys need high pressure so they also help control blood pressure. They also regulate the production of oxygen delivering red blood cells. They do this when the kidneys are not getting enough oxygen and produce a distress signal hormone erythropoietin which stimulates the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells. Once the kidneys are 'satisfied' with their 'cleaning' filtered blood leaves the kidneys and moves up the inferior vena cava to get back to the heart (to re-start the blood circulation process throughout our bodies).

What problems with digestion and nutrient absorption could be caused if the villi and microvilli were missing from the intestines?

Without the villi and microvilli, there would be a reduction in nutrient absorption because the intestines would no longer have this increase in surface area so the decrease in the absorptive surface would lead to a decrease in nutrient absorbance. So no matter how much food is eaten without the villi and microvilli absorbing these nutrients the pig would become sick (and may even die) due to this 'malnutrition'.

An individual's blood pressure was measured to be 130/85. Answer the following questions for that blood pressure reading. a) 130 is the [ Select ] ["diastolic pressure", "systolic pressure"] b) 85 is the [ Select ] ["diastolic pressure", "systolic pressure"] c) This individual has [ Select ] ["normal blood pressure", "prehypertension", "hypertension"]

a) Cytosolic pressure B) Diastolic Pressure C) Prehypertension

Larynx

air passes through here to travel between the pharynx and trachea Contains vocal cords

Alveoli

air-filled sacs within mammalian lungs where gas exchange occurs

The ___ are microscopic air sacs in which oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the red blood cells and inhaled air in the lungs.

alveoli

Optic nerve

carries visual information to the brain

Pharynx

common area for food/drink and air connects the mouth and nasal cavity to the esophagus or larynx

Retina

contains layers of photoreceptors and neurons

Pons

contains nerve tracts that connect the cerebellum with other parts of the brain and spinal cord

Cerebellum

coordinates complex motor patterns

A dome-shaped muscle that contracts rhythmically and aids in breathing

diaphragm

Diaphragm

dome-shaped muscle located just under the rib cage when this muscle relaxes, it forces air out of the lungs

Epiglottis

elastic cartilage that prevents food and liquid from entering the respiratory system

Arthropods possess an ___ , an exterior skeleton that encloses and protects their bodies.

exoskeleton

The ____________ are cells that support neurons. They wrap around the axon to make the myelin sheath that insulates the neuron.

glial cells

Why is white matter white? What does this indicate about the function of white vs. gray matter?

gray matter is mostly neuron cell bodies and glial cells and is not surrounded by the white myelin so these cells naturally tend to be grayish in color making our "gray matter." The glial cells provide nutrients and energy to neurons. White matter on the other hand has tons of axons to transmit electrical signals that the neurons use to communicate. These axons are wrapped in this fatty myelin layer. This myelin acts as an insulator for the axons and lets them conduct signals more rapidly. The myelin has a certain fat type making it look white so this "white matter" is really just myelin dense, which is why it is more white in color.

Lung

internal organ used for gas exchange encloses alveoli, bronchioles and part of the bronchi

Bronchi

large tubes that carry air between the trachea and lungs

Which Organ: Metabolizes nutrients, detoxifies blood, makes bile

liver

Cardiac muscle

made up of cylindrical cells that branch and join at intercalated discs its cells are striated due to the arrangement of contractile proteins, which contract involuntarily

Skeletal muscle

made up of long, cylindrical cells Each of its cells have many nuclei its cells are striated due to the arrangement of contractile proteins, which contract voluntarily

Esophagus

muscular tube in the thorax that goes to the stomach food and water are transported down this tube when you eat or drink

pupil

opening that allows light to enter the eye

A friend tells you their blood pressure was measured as 138 over 88, and asks you to help them interpret what that means. According to the National Institutes of Health, your friend has:

pre-hypertension

The process of ____ takes place when additional motor units are stimulated and the force of the muscle contraction increases.

recruitment

What are the two types of photoreceptor cells found in the retina?

rods and cones

Bronchioles

smaller tubes that carry air from the bronchi to the alveoli

Trachea

supported by cartilaginous rings that give it structure passage for air between the upper respiratory system and the lungs