BIO 50B LAB TEST 1, BIO 50B Exam 1, DIGESTIVE/ URINARY EXAM, Respiratory & Urinary Exam (Bio 50B), Heart Exam, BIO 50 B TEST 2
Auricles
"Flaps" on the atria to increase the volume of the chamber
Cauda Equina
"Horse's tail", a fan of nerve fibers below the spinal cord.
Arterioles are Arranged in Parallel
"Path of least resistance" Decrease in flow 1 arterial = increase of flow in other arterioles.
Spermatic cord and contents
"Players Don't Contribute To A Good Sex Life" -Pampiniform Plexus -Ductus Deferens -Cremasteric Artery -Testicular Artery -Artery of the Ductus Deferens -Genitofemoral Nerve -Sympathetic Nerve Fibers -Lymphatic vessels
Ampulla of ductus (vas) deferens
#1
Dura mater (model)
#10
Dorsal root ganglion (diagram)
#2
Parieto-occipital sulcus (median sagittal view)
#2
Auditory association area
#22 Permits the perception of the sound stimulus, which we "hear" as speech, music, thunder, etc. Memories of sounds heard in the past appear to be stored here for reference.
Ductus (vas) Deferens
#4. Muscular passageway conveying sperm to the ejaculatory duct; in the spermatic cord
Dorsal root
#5
Posterior Fornix
#6
Temporal lobe
#7 Hearing.
Anterior Fornix
#8
Lateral sulcus
#8 Separates temporal lobe from parietal and frontal lobes
Alveolar Ventilation Rate
(TV - total dead space) x respiratory rate
AV node (atrioventricular node)
(atrioventricular node) region of the heart between the right atrium & right ventricle from which electrical impulses spread to the ventricles during a heartbeat
substances transported by blood
* Nutrients (glucose, fatty acids, amino *acids and vitamins) * Waste products of metabolism (urea, uric acid) * Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2) *Hormones
The difference between gray horns and the white column?
*Gray matter:* - Neuron cell bodies, dendrites, & SHORT unmyelinated axons. *White matter:* - Mostly myelinated axons
Dartos muscle (scrotum)
*smooth muscle *wrinkles scrotal skin - Superficial fascia containing dartos muscle
Autorhythmic cells in cardiac muscle
- "Pacemaker cells" sets the pace of cardiac muscle contraction - Modified muscle cells BUT.. - Do not contract (noncontractile) - VERY Unstable membrane potential - Depolarize @ a very regular rate - Clustered in two 'nodes' 1. Atrioventricular nodes (AV) 2. Sinoatrial node (SA)
Capillary beds
- Afferent arteriole - Efferent arteriole - Vasa recta
Mechanics of Breathing
- Air is a fluid - Flow is proportional to difference in pressure / R
Pacemaker cells have an unstable membrane potential
- At - 60 mV (RMP), IF ion channels open (NA+ influx and K+ efflux passage) ** Movement of Na+ is greater b/c there are more (depolarization) - At -40 mV, IF channels close & CA2+ channels open. - At +20 mV, CA2+ start to close and K+ channels open causing repolarization *does NOT need a nerve to do the rhythm (on its own)
Erythrocytes must be replaced continually
- Because they lack organelles, they cannot divide (no centrioles). - An individual RBC falls apart after about 100 to 120 days. - They are replaced pretty much continuously, synthesize massive amounts of hemoglobin, ejecting nucleus and organelles. - An immature red blood cell is called a reticulocyte (still contains some rough ER). - Reticulocytes function normally (like mature RBCs), and within 2 days have ejected with remainder of the rough ER. - Rate of red blood cell production is governed by the glycoprotein erythropoietin
Ventricular Systole (Events During Cardiac Cycle)
- Begins as the atria go into diastole (relaxing state) - AV and semilunar valves are closed until pressure forces semilunar valves open and blood is pushed from ventricles into pulmonary trunk and the aorta. - Duration is 0.3 seconds.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Brain + spinal cord. - Controls the entire organism. - Integrating center.
Broca's area & Wernicke's area
- Broca's area (motor speech area) - Wernicke's area (recognition & interpretation of words)
Cardiac muscles rely on CALCIUM
- CA2+ enters the cell and directly affects the SR (stores CA2+) - Triggers release of CA2+ from SR - Ryanodine Receptor Channels release the CA2+ from the SR into the cell. - After CA2+ is released, it allows action to bind to myosin -> CA2+ binds to troponin -> Sliding Filament Theory
Purkinje fibers (Intrinsic Conduction System of the Heat, PART 5)
- Carry impulses from bundle branches to the heart apex, ventricle walls, and papillary muscles. - Supply the papillary muscles before supplying lateral walls of ventricles, thus ensuring closure of the AV valves.
Myenteric plexus (muscularis externa)
- Circular and longitudinal smooth muscle - Provides motility (movement and breakdown of food)
Muscular externa (small intestine)
- Circular muscle layer - Longitudinal layer
Muscularis External (large intestine)
- Circular muscle layer - Tenia coli (longitudinal muscle bands)
Leukocytes and Platelet Production
- Colony-stimulating factors (CSF) regulate the production of leukocytes. - Leukocyte production is governed by existing white cell count, so each type is made based on demand. The proportions of white cells are always changing. Thrombopoeietin (TPO) regulates growth and regulation of megakaryocytes, which fragment, giving rise to platelets . Megakaryocytes get quite large, often undergoing mitosis 7 times before fragmenting! TPO agonists are a class of drug that are sometimes used to stimulate platelet production in patients with inadequate clotting ability. Platelets contain serotonin, ADP, calcium, and PDGF.
Endocrine System Facts
- Composed of glands - Glands produce hormones - Hormones are chemical messengers that are released directly into the blood (no ducts) - Hormones work at specific locations (targets) - Receptors may be on target cell membrane or inside the cell (intracellular) - The pituitary is often called the Master Gland of the Body since it oversees much of the action of other glands - The pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus - The pituitary gland is functionally and structurally related to the hypothalamus - Structural relationships include direct axonal connections between the hypothalamus & the posterior pituitary & a specialized "portal" system (a capillary network) - Functional relationships include release of releasing and inhibiting hormones by the hypothalamus which affect the anterior pituitary & the production of oxytocin & ADH by the hypothalamus which are stored & released as needed by the posterior pituitary.
Mucosa
- Consists of a layer of epithelial cells, lamina propia, & a layer of smooth muscle (muscularis mucosae) The wall is heavily folded: these folds produce RUGAE in the stomach, & PLICAE in the small intestine. In addition, the wall invaginates to form glands & crypts.
Erectile tissue of penis
- Corpus cavernosum (outer) - Corpus spongiosum (close to spongy urethra)
Meninges purpose?
- Cover & protect CNS - Protect blood vessels & enclose venous sinuses. - Contain cerebrospinal fluid. - Form partitions in the skull. Leather-like covering.
Nephrons
- DCT is next to the renal corpuscle - Efferent arteriole goes to peritubular capillaries that surround the structure; close association w/ blood & urine.
Muscles that contract to cause inspiration ?
- Diaphragm (mainly) - External intercostal muscles In forced inspiration, - Scalenes - Sternocleidomastoid - Pectoralis minor
Hematopoiesis occurs in red bone marrow
- Each blood cell type is produced in response to different demands and stimuli. - All of the formed elements come from a type of stem cell called a hemocytoblast. As a cells change and become differentiated, their feet cannot be changed.
Heart Valves
- Ensure unidirectional blood flow through heart - Open & close in response to pressure changes
Neural Crest Cells
- Found at the tip of each neural fold. - Migrate outward to form the peripheral nervous system.
Metabolism
- Glucose is the only fuel the brain uses. - The brain consumes about 120 g of glucose/day, or about 420 kcal - This is 60% of your entire glucose per day. - 70 % of your brain's metabolism is to power Na+/K+ ATPase. - 420 x 70% = 294 kcal is needed to run Na+/K+ ATPase.
Homologous structures
- Gonads (ovaries/testes) - Penis/ clitoris - Scrotum/ labia = Same embryonic tissue
Liver lobules
- Hepatocytes The basic functional units of the liver Each lobe is divided by connective tissue About 100,000 liver lobules 1 mm diameter each Hexagonal in cross section With six portal areas (portal triads) One at each corner of lobule
Multiple Integrating Centers
- If something goes wrong it gives the body time to regulate hormonal release.
Things to remember about gametogenesis
- In males, spermatogenesis proper (meiosis) does not begin until puberty, under the direction of gonadotropins (FSH, LH) and testosterone. - Inhibin is released when sperm count is around 20 million/ml and above (prevents too much sperm). - In females, oogenesis (meiosis) begins before birth and is halted before birth, leaving primary oocytes "frozen" in the ovaries until puberty. - Beginning at puberty, once a month, one primary oocyte goes through its second meiotic division, and will finish meiosis only if fertilized by a sperm.
Other structures
- Interatrial septum - Interventricular septum - Ligamentum arteriosum
Eosinophil (granulocytes)
- Kills parasitic worms - Destroys antigen-antibody complexes - Inactivate some inflammatory chemicals of allergy • Blue-purple, bilobed nucleus • Coarse red-orange cytoplasmic granules • 10 - 14 micrometers • 100 - 400 (cells/microliter of blood) D: 6 - 9 days LS: 8 - 12 days
Arachnoid granulations
- Large clusters of villi - Absorbs CSF into venous circulation.
High O2 Levels
- Left ventricle - Left atrium - Aortic arch - Pulmonary veins - R coronary arteries - L coronary arteries - R marginal artery - Anterior interventricular artery - Posterior interventricular artery - Circumflex artery
Diaphragma sellae
- Lines the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone - It anchors the dura mater to the sphenoid bone - It encases the pituitary gland
Protein Hormones
- Lipophobic (hydrophilic) - Bind to extracellular receptors - As a result, they activate molecules called 2nd messengers w/in the cell. - Cyclic AmP (CAMP) - ALTER activity of PROTEINS that already exist in the cell. - ms to minutes for a response! - Soluble in blood, short-half life in blood.
Protein hormones have EXTRACELLULAR RECEPTORS
- Lipophobic molecules tend to act on existing proteins, thus they have fast response time (ms to seconds) - Polar (dissolve in blood plasma) - Not soluble in plasma membrane - Need receptors
Steroid Hormones
- Lipophylic (hydrophobic) - Bind to receptors in the cell - The hormone-receptor complex acts as a transcription factor - Steroid hormones results in PRODUCTION of NEW PROTEINS. - NOT soluble, longer half-life b/c of carrier proteins.
Atrioventricular (AV) node (Intrinsic Conduction System of the Heat, PART 2)
- Located just above the tricuspid valve in the inferior interatrial septum. - Depolarization wave passes from SA node throughout the atria to the AV node - Passes impulses to AV bundle
Juxtamedullary nephrons
- Long nephron loops deeply invade medulla - Ascending limbs have thick and thin segments - Important in production of concentrated urine
Cause of abnormally low hemoglobin reading?
- Low iron in diet - Anemia - Lack of intrinsic factor (low B12)
Erythrocytes Carry O2 to Our Cells
- Mature erythrocytes have no nucleus and very few organelles. - The only thing present is hemoglobin (hG), a protein whose job is to carry oxygen. - Small biconcave discs present at a density of about 5 million/mm3 of blood - the major contributor of blood viscosity. - Each erythrocyte carries about 250 million hemoglobin molecules. - Each hemoglobin molecule can carry 4 oxygen molecules. - Each erythrocyte can carry 1 billion O2 molecules - Normal blood contains: 12 - 18 g of hemoglobin / 100 mL of blood
Arachnoid Mater
- Middle meninx. - Forms loose brain covering. - Collagen fibers are loosely packed. - Looks like spiderweb. - Has open space. - Surrounds the brain & spinal cord.
Lymphocyte (agranulocyte)
- Mount immune response by direct cell attack or via antibodies (ANTIBODY FORMATION) • Deep blue or purple spherical or indented nucleus • Pale blue cytoplasms • 5 - 17 micrometer (small to large) • 1,500 to 3,000 (cells/microliter of blood) D: days to weeks LS: hours to years
Ventricular Diastole (Events During Cardiac Cycle)
- Occurs following ventricular contraction. - Ventricles relax. - AV valves reopen and filling begins.
Leukocytes defend us against disease
- On the whole, the account for about 1% of blood volume (4,000 to 11,000/ mm3). - They are "normal cells"- have a nucleus and organelles. - Have a unique ability to move into & out of cells > diapedesis. - Have the ability to move towards areas of damage > positive chemotaxis. - Move by ameboid motion in non-blood tissues. - Classified as granulocytes or agranulocytes depending on the process of granules in cytoplasm.
Juxtaglomerular Complex (JGC)
- One per nephron - Involves modified portions of Distal portion of ascending limb of nephron loop - Afferent (sometimes efferent) arteriole - Important in regulation of rate of filtrate formation and blood pressure 1. MACULA DENSA 2. Juxtaglomerular (granular) cells
Important Factors Chemoreceptors Are Looking For
- PO2 - PCO2 - pH pH = Most Important! It is tied to CO2, but the receptors are the most sensitive to pH. Proteins are sensitive to pH too, can cause damage.
Erection & Emission
- Parasympathetic vasodilation is stimulated by nitrous oxide. - Vasodilation passively compresses veins draining blood from penis, "flooding" the penis with blood. - This accumulation of blood in the penis leads to erection in 5-10 seconds - Emission = movement of sperm out of vas deferens into the urethra, where secretions from accessory glands make semen Average ejaculatory semen volume is 3 ml - During ejaculation, semen is expelled to the outside by a series of rapid muscular contractions
Parietal vs Chief cells
- Parietal cells = Lighter (like egg) More on time, but is intermixing - Chief cells = Darker b/c basophil stain Strongly basophilic cells. Granules that are basophilic w/in the chief cells that contain things like pepsinogen & different enzymes responsible for digesting proteins.
Right Atrium
- Pectinate muscles - SA & AV nodes - Coronary sinus orifice - SVC & IVC orifice - Fossa ovalis (foramen prior to birth) - Auricle
Monocyte (agranulocyte)
- Phagocytosis; develop into macrophages in tissues. - Active during chronic infection • Blue or purple, kidney shaped or U-shaped nucleus • Large blue-gray cytoplasm • 14 - 24 micrometers (LARGEST WBC)
Atrial Systole (Events During Cardiac Cycle)
- Pressure in the heart is low, and blood returning from circulation is flowing passively through atria and into ventricle. - Aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves closed. - AV valves (tricuspid and bicuspid) are open. - Atria contract propelling blood into ventricles - Duration is 0.1 seconds.
Diffusion Plays a Role!
- Propagation of AP in neurons. - Gases movement in/out of blood stream.
Defacation Reflex
- Rectum gets filled - Stimulates stretch receptors - Sends signal to CNS to relax the rectum.
Kidneys
- Regulate ECF volume and blood pressure - Regulation of osmolarity (Na+, K+, and Ca2+) - Regulation of blood pH + Excrete bicarbonate ions & H+ ions. Not as fast as Respiratory System. - Excretion of wastes + Nitrogenous wastes, when we metabolize proteins or break down nucleic acids. We're left w/ amino groups, -NH2 - Production of chemicals involved with erythropoiesis and vitamin D3 metabolism. + renin = regulated blood pressure
Basophil (granulocytes)
- Release histamine and other mediators of inflammation - Contain HEPARIN (anticoagulant) • Blue-black, bilobed nucleus • Large blue-purple cytoplasmic granules • 10 - 12 micrometers • 20 - 50 (cells/microliter of blood) D: 3 - 7 days LS: ?? (few hours to a few days)
Bundle Branches (Intrinsic Conduction System of the Heat, PART 4)
- Right and left bundle branches course along the interventricular septum towards the apex of the heart.
Low O2 Levels
- Right ventricle - Right atrium - Pulmonary trunk - Superior vena cava - Inferior vena cava - Great cardiac vein - Middle cardiac vein
Atrioventricular bundle (Bundle of HIS) (Intrinsic Conduction System of the Heat, PART 3)
- Runs from AV node to the interventricular septum where it branches into right and left bundle branches. - From AV node, the impulse sweeps to the AV bundle.
Hormones (chemical messengers)
- Secreted by the blood - Secreted by cells or groups of cells (endocrine organs) - Often have distant organs - Often present in low concentrations in blood -picomolar range - Act by binding to receptors - Activity needs to be terminated. Varies on their mechanism of action! Mediate interactions WITHIN an individual.
Visceral Sensory neurons
- Send info about chemical changes, stretch, or irritation of the viscera. - Almost all receptors for theses visceral senses are free (nonencapulated) nerve endings that are widely scattered throughout the visceral organs - Cell bodies are located in cranial nerve sensory ganglia or dorsal root ganglia of cord
All characteristics of the sympathetic nervous system.
- Short preganglionic fibers - Origin from thoracolumbar region of spinal cord - Collateral ganglia - Innervates adrenal medulla
Epidural Space
- Space b/n vertebrae & dura mater. Anesthesia injected. - Contains blood vessels, areolar CT, & fat.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- Spinal nerves + cranial nerves - Link b/n CNS, body & environment. - Carriers msg to and from the spinal cord and brain.
Response Pathway (Response loop and feedback loop)
- Stimulus (external or internal) - Sensor - Input signal (afferent) - Integrating center (may be endocrine gland itself) - Output signal (hormone release) - Target (organ) = receptors are either extracellular or intracellular depending on hormone. - Response (varies on hormone)
Blood enters the right atrium from the:
- Superior vena cava; returns blood from body regions superior to the diaphragm. - Inferior vena cava; returns blood from body areas below the diaphragm. - Coronary sinus; collects blood draining from the myocardium.
Variscosities (& what do they contain/do?)
- Swellings of the neuron that are in close proximity to the sheets of smooth muscle - Contain neurotransmitters in vesicles - Release neurotransmitters into diffuse junctions when stimulated AP, Ca2+ rushes in, exocytosis, release neurotransmitters.
What affects the curve?
- Temperature - pH, Bohr Shift when from pH - PCO2 Goes to right when: - High temperature - Low pH (acidic) - High PCO2 P50 value increases as we move curve from L to R. Shift curve to right = Low affinity for O2 (easier release to tissues) Shift curve to left = High affinity for O2 (binds stronger) LUNGS = Need HIGH affinity TISSUES = Need LOW affinity
Erythrocyte
- Transports CO2 and O2 (MOLECULES) - Hemoglobulin production • Biconcave, anucleate disc • Salmon-colored • 7 - 8 micrometer (av. 7.5) • 4 - 6 million (cells/microliter of blood) D: 5 - 7 days LS: 100 - 120 days
Right and left atria
- Two superior chambers - Receive blood returning to heart - Auricles (seen on surface) enlarge chamber
Alveolus
- Type 1 (epithelial cells) - Type 2 (surfactant secreting cells) - Macrophages - Blood capillaries surrounding = 80-95% of outer alveolar surface.
Nasopharynx
- Uvula - Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) - Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube
Nasal conchae
- superior, middle, and inferior - protrude medially from lateral walls - increase mucosal area - enhance air turbulence
Resting membrane potential (RMP)
-70mV
Beginning of repolarization
-Na+ channels are closing -K+ channels are opening -K+ ions flow out of cell -net charge is returning to negative direction
Normal duration of one complete cardiac cycle
0.8 seconds.
Bipolar Neurons
1. 1 axon & 1 dendrite 2. Very rare 3. Found in special sensory organs (olfactory mucosa & retina.
Unipolar Neurons
1. 1 extension serving as axon & dendrite 2. Mostly afferent sensory 3. Found in PNS (dorsal root ganglia & sensory ganglia on cranial nerves)
The Axon Terminal
1. A.P. reaches axon terminal. 2. Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open and Ca2+ enters the cell. -> Causes depolarization b/c it's a positive ion. 3. Ca2+ triggers exocytosis of vesicles containing neurotransmitters. (dopamine, serotonin, etc.) ( goes to the synaptic cleft ) 4. Neurotransmitter binds receptors on target cell -> RESPONSE. ---- When bound to receptors on postsynaptic neuron, the neurotransmitter can either excite or inhibit the post synaptic neuron.
How does a visceral reflex differ from a somatic reflex?
1. ANS has a 2 neuron efferent chain, SNS has 1. 2. ANS has visceral afferents rather than somatic afferents. 3. The effectors of the ANS are smooth/cardiac/glands/adipose tissue. SNS are skeletal.
2 Types of Signals in Neurons
1. Action Potential (AP) - Never loses strength. ( As it travels it stays at the same strength throughout the neuron. ) - Neuron uses to move muscle cells (neurons & muscles only). - Activated by graded potentials (dendrites/soma. 2. Graded Potential - Signal in neuron that can VARY in strength. - Can be weak or strong - Can be ADDED together (SPATIAL SUMMATION)! - Can potentially die out (decremental)
Neurotransmitters
1. Bind receptors on target tissue 2. Diffuse away (in blood vessels) 3. Reuptake by neuron - Recycled or Broken Down Neurotransmitter Breakdown: NE- Monoamine oxidase (MAO) Ach- Acetylcholine Esterase MORE = THE STRONGER TISSUES REACT
CSF Circulation
1. CSF is produced by choroid plexus in each ventricle. 2. CSF flows from lateral ventricles and 3rd ventricle through the cerebral aqueduct into the 4th ventricle. 3. CSF in 4th flows into subarachnoid space by passing through openings in the roof of the 4th ventricle. These openings are the paired lateral apertures and the single median aperture. CSF also fills the central canal of the spinal cord. 4. As it travels through the subarachnoid space, CSF removes waste products and provides buoyancy for the brain and spinal cord. 5. CSF accumulates w/i the suarachnoid space, it exerts pressure w/i the arachnoid villi. This pressure exceeds the pressure in the venous sinuses. Thus, the arachnoid villi extending into the dural venous sinuses provide a conduit for a one-way flow of excess CSF to be returned into the blood within the dural venous sinuses.
Efferent (Motor) Neurons
1. Carry outgoing information from CNS to effector organs of body (away from CNS). 2. Mainly MULTIPOLAR.
Afferent (sensory) Neurons
1. Carry sensory information in skin, internal organs, joints, and skeletal muscle TOWARD CNS 2. Mainly UNIPOLAR.
3 main regions of the cerebral hemispheres
1. Cerebral cortex, made of gray matter (cell bodies) 2. White matter (tracts) 3. Basal nuclei
Ependymal Cells (CNS) LAB
1. Ciliated Cells. 2. Line brain ventricles. 3. Cilia circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Astrocytes (CNS) LAB
1. Cling to neurons & capillaries. 2. Help w/ the exchange between neurons & capillaries. 3. Pick up excess K+ 4. Recycle neurotransmitters.
What test could you perform to help determine which of the causes you listed w/ large buffy coat?
1. Complete blood count (CBC) 2. Differential White Blood Cell Count
Thyroid Functions
1. Controls the rate at which glucose is oxidized or burned. 2. Regulates tissue development. 3. Helps maintain blood pressure.
Cortisol protect from hypoglycemia (low blood sugar)
1. Cortisol promotes gluconeogenesis 2. Cortisol breaks down skeletal muscle proteins (to provide substrate for gluconeogenesis 3. Cortisol promotes lipolysis 4. Cortisol suppresses the immune system Cortisol is secreted continuously and has a very strong (& predictable) circadian rhythm. It's a lipid soluble hormone ! - Need Coricol-binding Globulin to be in the blood (only 5% are free)
Pathway of the spinal cord
1. Decussation (crossing over) occurs in almost every pathway. - Any sensory info coming in from the right side will be processed by the left side of the brain (& vice versa) 2. The spinal cord consists of chains of neurons that relay info to each other. 3. The spinal cord is symmetrical. 4. The mapping of the body remains consistent in the spinal cord, as it does in the brain. SOMATOTOPY.**
Action Potentials of Contractile Cardiac Muscle Cells
1. Depolarization opens a few fast voltage gated NA+ channels in the sarcolemma, allowing extracellular Na+ to enter. This influx initiates a positive feedback cycle that causes the rising phase of the action potential (and reversal of the membrane potential from −90 mV to nearly + 30 mV). The period of Na+ influx is very brief, because the sodium channels quickly inactivate and the Na+ influx stops. 2. When Na+ -dependent membrane depolarization occurs, the voltage change also opens channels that allow Ca2+ to enter from the extracellular fluid. These channels are called slow CA2+ channels because their opening is delayed a bit. The Ca2+ surge across the sarcolemma prolongs the depolarization, producing a plateau in the action potential tracing. Not many voltage-gated K+ channels are open yet, so the plateau is prolonged. As long as Ca2+ is entering, the cells continue to contract. 3. After about 200 ms, the slope of the action potential tracing falls rapidly. This repolarization results from inactivation of Ca2+ channels and opening of voltage-gated K+ channels. The rapid loss of potassium from the cell through K+ channels restores the resting membrane potential. During repolarization, Ca2+ is pumped back into the SR and the extracellular space. ● It ensures that there is a long refractory period, so that tetanic contractions cannot occur & the heart can fill again for the next beat.
4 Basic Functions
1. Digestion: breakdown of food into component macromolecules. 2. Absorption: transfer of substances from lumen of gastrointestinal (GI tract) to blood (body) 3. Motility: movement of material through GI tract 4. Secretion: movement of water and other materials from blood -> GI tract lumen (opposite of absorption). Motility & secretion = Tightly Regulated 7 L of fluid = Secreted in GI tract!
Synapse Types (2)
1. Electrical synapse - Go to the next w/ no effort. 2. Chemical Synapse
Functions of Hypothalamic Nuclei
1. Emotional responses to stimuli. 2. Body temperature (our body's thermostat) 3. Regulation of food intake 4. Release of pituitary hormones (produces pst. pituitary hormones, regulate ant. pituitary) endocrine system. 5. Regulates biological rhythms.
Ovaries hormones
1. Estrogen 2. Progesterone
Stomach
1. Gastric Pits 2. Gastric Glands = deep
Sperm
1. Head = nucleus acrosome 2. Midpiece = mitochondia 3. Tail
Portal Triad (liver)
1. Hepatic artery 2. Hepatic portal vein 3. Bile duct
CAMP Signaling Mechanism
1. Hormone binds receptor. The hormone, acting as the FIRST MESSENGER, binds to its receptor in the plasma membrane. 2. Receptor activates G protein. Hormone binding causes the receptor to change shape, allowing it to bind a nearby inactive G PROTEIN. The G protein is activated as the guanosine diphosphate (GDP) bound to it is displaced by the high-energy compound (guanosine triphosphate). The G protein behaves like a light switch: It is "off " when GDP is bound to it, and "on" when GTP is bound. 3. G protein activates adenylate cyclase. The activated G protein (moving along the membrane) binds to the effector enzyme ADENYLATE CYCLASE. Some G proteins (Gs) stimulate adenylate cyclase, but others (Gi) inhibit adenylate cyclase. Eventually, the GTP bound to the G protein is hydrolyzed to GDP and the G protein becomes inactive once again. (The G protein cleaves the terminal phosphate group off GTP in much the same way that ATPase enzymes hydrolyze ATP.) 4. Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP. For as long as activated Gs is bound to it, adenylate cyclase generates the second messenger cAMP from ATP. 5. Cyclic AMP activates protein kinases. cAMP, which is free to diffuse throughout the cell, triggers a cascade of chemical reactions by activating protein kinases. are enzymes that PHOSPHORYLATE (add a phosphate group to) various proteins, many of which are other enzymes. Because phosphorylation activates some of these proteins and inhibits others, it may affect a variety of processes in the same target cell at the same time.
Pancreas hormone
1. Insulin (Beta) 2. Glucagon (Alpha)
Association (Interneurons) Neurons
1. Link other neurons together. 2. Mainly multipolar. 3. Confined to CNS.
Multipolar Neurons
1. Many dendrites & 1 axon 2. Motor neurons 3. Associate neurons 4. Most common type in CNS
Three features of cardiac muscle that allows you to distinguish it from skeletal muscle
1. Mononucleated or binucleated 2. Intercalated discs (gap junctions) 3. Branching fibers
Four basic layers
1. Mucosa 2. Submucosa 3. Muscularis Externa 4. Serosa
2 Main Systems of the Homeostasis
1. Nervous System 2. Endocrine System
Autonomic postganglionic fibers release 2 transmitters
1. Norepinephrine (NE), sympathetic 2. AcH, parasympathetic Type of receptors on organ, effects if its excitatory or inhibitory.
Blood flow Through the heart
1. O2 poor blood from the body returns to the heart via the superior vena cava & inferior v. c. which then empties to the RIGHT ATRIUM. 2. As the right atrium fills, it presses open the tricuspid valve and blood flows into the right ventricle. 3. Contraction of right ventricle forces pulmonary semilunar valve open. 4. Blood flows through the pulmonary semilunar valve into pulmonary trunk. 5. Blood is distributed by right and left pulmonary arteries to the lungs were in unloads CO2 and load O2. 6. O2 rich blood from the lungs enters the LEFT ATRIUM via the 4 pulmonary veins to the left atrium. 7. O2 rich blood in the LEFT ATRIUM flows the Mitral (bicuspid) valve into the LEFT VENTRICLE. 8. Contraction of LEFT VENTRICLE (simultaneous with step 3 forces the aortic semilunar valve open). 9. O2 rich blood flows through aortic semilunar valve into the ascending aorta. 10. O2 rich blood from aorta is delivered to all body tissues through the network of systemic capillaries, where it unloads O2 and loads CO2. 11. O2 poor blood returns to the heart through network of veins via the vena cava.
Posterior Pituitary hormones (lab)
1. Oxytocin - Paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus 2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - Supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus
Pericardium (2 layers of serous membrane)
1. Parietal layer 2. Visceral layer (epicardium) B/n is pericardial cavity filled w/ serous fluid.
Orientation is Aligned
1. Pineal gland 2. Hypothalamus 3. Pituitary 4. Thyroid 5. Parathyroid 6. Thymus 7. Adrenal 8. Pancreas 9. Ovary 10. Testes
Choroid Plexus of each ventricle
1. Produces CSF. 2. CSF flows through the ventricles & into the subarachnoid space via the median & lateral apertures. 3. CSF flows through the subarachnoid space. 4. CSF is absorbed into the dural venous sinuses via the arachnoid granulation.
Hormones can be CLASSIFIED by their CHEMICAL STRUCUTURE
1. Protein/peptides. 2. Steroids (derived from cholesterol) -> stick in blood longer b/c they bind to receptors. 3. Amines (single A.A)
Functional Classification of Neurons
1. Sensory (afferent) 2. Motor (efferent) 3. Interneurons (association) ---- Link motor & sensory neurons w/in CNS. Make up 99% of neurons in body.
3 Overlapping Functions of the Nervous System
1. Sensory input - Sensing stimuli to monitor changes both inside & outside the body. 2. Integration - Processing & interpreting input, then decide what needs to be done. ex: ignore or respond? 3. Motor output - Effecting a response by activating muscles or glands.
Anatomic Differences of Parasympathetic & Sympathetic Division
1. Site of organ P: Craniosacral part: CN III, VII, IX, X (3, 7, 9, 10); spinal cord segments S2 - S4. S: Thoracocolumbar part: Lateral horns of gray matter of spinal cord segments T1 - L2. 2. Location of ganglia P: Ganglia (terminal ganglia) are within the visceral organ (intramural) or close to the organ served S: Ganglia are within a few centimeters of CNS: alongside vertebral column (sympathetic trunk ganglia) & anterior to vertebral column (collateral ganglia). 3. Length of pre-/post- fibers P: Long, short (not chained) S: Short, long (close, not chained) 4. Degree of branching of preganglionic fibers P: Minimal S: Extensive 5. Functional Role P: Maintenance functions, conserves/stores energy S: Prepares body for activity 6. Neurotransmitters P: All pre- & post- release AcH S: All pre- release AcH. Post- release Norepinephrine. Post- serving sweat glands release AcH. Neurotransmitter activity is augmented by release of adrenal medullary hormones (epinephrine & norepinephrine).
Sensory input
1. Somatic sensory organs (smell, touch, vision) 2. Visceral sensory organs (blood pressure, glucose, pH) Send Info to: - Limbic system (paleomammalian) - Cerebrum (neomammalian) Generate Behavior Responses. 3. Hypothalamic sensors (hypothalamic clusters of nuclei) Send info to: Pons, Medulla -> Limbic Hypothalamus -> Cerebrum "cross-talk" Generates Autonomic Response, Endocrine Response, Behavioral Response.
Microglia (CNS) LAB
1. Special type of macrophage. 2. Migrate to damaged area & engulf invading organisms & cell debris.
Spermatogenesis Process
1. Sperm production takes place in tubules in testes. 2. Here diploid cells divide by mitosis to produce numerous spermatogonia. 3. Spermatogonia grow to form diploid primary spermatocytes. 4. First division of meiosis takes place forming two haploid secondary spermatocytes. 5. Second division of meiosis the produces haploid spermatids. Spermatids mature into spermatozoa.
Corpora quadrigemina (midbrain/reptilian)
1. Superior colliculi (visual reflex centers) 2. Inferior colliculi (sensory receptors... startle reflex)
Innervated only by sympathetic
1. Sweat glands. 2. Hair-raising arrector pili muscles of the skin. 3. Smooth muscles in the wall of all arteries & veins, both deep/superficial. ALSO, adrenal medulla, kidneys, and most blood vessels.
Thymus hormones
1. Thymosin 2. Thympoietins
Blood- Brain Barrier (BBB)
1. Tight junctions b/n capillary endothelial cells 2. A very thick basal lamina 3. Astrocytes Help create distance b/n blood & neural tissue. Discourages diffusion! 5,000 miles of capillaries in the brain. IMPERMEABLE CAPILLARIES!
Thyroid hormones
1. Triiodothyronine (T3) 2. Thyroxine (T4) 3. Calcitonin
4 Overlapping Function (RESPIRATORY SYSTEM)
1. Ventilation - Exchange of gas b/n lungs and atmosphere. 2. Exchange of O2 & CO2 b/n lungs and blood. 3. Transport of O2 & CO2 by blood. 4. Exchange of O2 & CO2 b/n blood & tissue.
Summary of Cardiac Cycle
1. Ventricular filling: mid-to-late diastole. - Pressure in the heart is low, blood returning from the circulation is flowing passively through the atria and the open AV valves into the ventricles, and the aortic & pulmonary valves are closed. More than 80% of ventricular filling occurs during this period, and the AV valve flaps begin to drift toward the closed position. (The remaining 20% is delivered to the ventricles when the atria contract toward the end of this phase.) Now the stage is set for atrial systole. Following depolarization (P wave of ECG), the atria contract, compressing the blood in their chambers. This causes a sudden slight rise in atrial pressure, which propels residual blood out of the atria into the ventricles. At this point the ventricles are in the last part of their diastole and have the maximum volume of blood they will contain in the cycle, an amount called the END DIASTOLIC VOLUME (EDV). Then the atria relax and the ventricles depolarize (QRS complex). Atrial diastole persists through the rest of the cycle. 2. Ventricular systole (atria in diastole). As the atria relax, the ventricles begin contracting. Their walls close in on the blood in their chambers, and ventricular pressure rises rapidly & sharply, closing the AV valves. The split-second period when the ventricles are completely closed chambers & the blood volume in the chambers remains constant as the ventricles contract is the ISOVOLUMETRIC CONTRACTION PHASE. Ventricular pressure continues to rise. When it finally exceeds the pressure in the large arteries issuing from the ventricles, the isovolumetric stage ends as the SL valves are forced open and blood rushes from the ventricles into the aorta and pulmonary trunk. During this ventricular ejection phase, the pressure in the aorta normally reaches about 120 mm Hg. 3. Isovolumetric relaxation: early diastole. During this brief phase following the T wave, the ventricles relax. Because the blood remaining in their chambers, referred to as the ENDING SYSTOLIC VOLUME (ESV), is no longer compressed, ventricular pressure drops rapidly & blood in the aorta and pulmonary trunk flows back toward the heart, closing the SL valves. Closure of the aortic valve raises aortic pressure briefly as backflowing blood rebounds off the closed valve cusps, an event beginning at the DICROTIC NOTCH shown on the pressure graph. Once again the ventricles are totally closed chambers. Different Pressure/ Same Volume. Typical systolic & diastolic pressures for the pulmonary artery are 24 and 10 mm Hg, compared to systolic & diastolic pressures of 120 and 80 mm Hg, respectively, for the aorta. However, the two sides of the heart eject the same blood volume with each heartbeat.
All muscle cells must contract in unison to be efficient (must coordinate)
1/ Node system 2/ Gap junctions 3/ Modified nerve fibers All help to sync
Astrocytes (CNS)
1/2 of all neural tissue. Support neurons & connect them w/ capillaries, by making the exchanges for them (this keeps the brain safe from potential blood pathogens) * B/n blood cap. + neurons *
Blood supply to Kidneys
1/4 of blood is filtered by the kidneys every minute - Entire blood every 4 minutes We produce wastes at a fairly HIGH rate, so a HIGH filtration is essential. Kidneys are partly responsible for blood composition (ions, toxins, water, etc)
Postganglionic sympathetic axon (2)
10, 13
At a PO2 of 100 mmHg, what percentage of the total hemoglobin is saturated with O2?
100%
Prevertebral (collateral) ganglion
11
Ventral root
14
Gray ramus communicans
15
Preganglionic sympathetic axon (2)
16, 18
White ramus communicans
17
Dorsal ramus of spinal nerve
19
How many cell types make up the Islets of Langerhans?
2
Normal Clotting Time? Test?
2 - 6 minutes. Capillary Tube Test
Muscularis Externa
2 layer of smooth muscle : inner circular layer & longitudinal layer (+ oblique layer in stomach) Myenteric plexus (other 1/2 of enteric N.S) is located b/n circular & longitudinal. In the gut, motility serves 2 purposes: to mix food up, & to move it through the gut.
Afferent cell body
20
Dorsal root ganglion
21
Sensory (afferent) axon
22
Synapse
23
Dorsal funiculus
24
Association neuron cell body
25
Heart weight
250-350 grams, less than a pound.
Dorsal median sulcus
26
Posterior gray horn
27
Central canal
28
Lateral funiculus
29
Tenia coli
3 bands of smooth muscle in the muscularis externa that pucker the LI into haustra
Major vessels that branch off the aortic arch in humans?
3 branches. Brachiocephalic Left common carotid Left subclavian
Triune Brain
3 parts of the brain 1. Reptilian brain 2. Paleomammalian brain 3. Neomammalian brain
Meninges (membrane surrounding the brain & spinal cord)
3 protective membranes that surround the brain & spinal cord. 1. Dura mater - Periosteal layer - Meningeal layer 2. Arachnoid mater 3. Pia mater (follows the contours of the brain)
How many zones are present in the cortex?
3 zones; Zona Glomerulosa C Zona Fasciculata D Zona Reticularis E F= Adrenal Cortex G= Medulla cells
Lateral gray horn
30
Somatic motor cell body
35
Somatic motor neuron axon
36
Ventral gray horn
37
Ventral funiculus
38
Ventral median fissure
39
Normally, how many parathyroid glands are there?
4, but there can be as many as 8.
Preganglionic sympathetic cell body
40, 41
Ventral ramus of spinal nerve
42
Gray commissure
43
Preganglionic parasympathetic cell body
44
Preganglionic parasympathetic axon
45
Parasympathetic (intramural) ganglion
46
Postganglionic parasympathetic cell body
47
Postganglionic parasympathetic axon
48
Sympathetic splanchnic nerves
49
How many lobes are in the brain?
5 lobes Insula = W/in temporal lobe. (Not including the limbic system)
Sympathetic trunk
50
Dorsal root
51
Paravertebral (sympathetic chain) ganglion
52
Blood Composition
55% plasma, 45% formed elements
Palatine tonsils
6. Located on the left and right sides of the throat in the area that is visible through the mouth
CO2 Transport
7% is dissolved in blood plasma. - 23% is bound to hemoglobin Carboxyhemoglobin - 70% is converted to Carbonic acid CO2 to RBC (CO2 + H2O carbonic anhydase to H2CO3 (carbonic acid) goes to blood. Quickly disassociates: H2CO3 -> H+ + HCO3- 1 million x per second! Lungs= Reversed
pH of blood
7.35 - 7.45 (slightly alkaline/basic)
At a PO2 of 40 mmHg, what percentage of the total hemoglobin is saturated with O2?
74%
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)
756 mmHg
Intrapulmonary pressure (Ppul)
760 mmHg
Atmosphere gases
79% nitrogen 21% oxygen <1% inert gases (CO2, argon, etc.) 760 mmHg @ sea level. % of gases @ high altitude = SAME. Gas = matter.
Cortical nephrons
85% of nephrons; almost entirely in cortex
Postganglionic sympathetic cell body (2)
9, 12
Blood Plasma
90 % water Over 100 different substances dissolved in your blood plasma - Nutrients - Salts - Resp. Gases - Hormones - Plasma proteins - Waste products Of all these PLASMA PROTEINS ARE THE MOST ABUNDANT - serve a wide variety of functions. The composition of blood plasma changes continually.
Low Hematocrit
<35% in Females and < 42% in Males. Possible causes for abnormality: - Anemia (reduced RBC production) - Blood loss - RBC destruction
Increased PCO2 (hypocapnia)
= Acidosis Hypoventilate Respiratory acidosis if b/n not enough gas exchange.
Decreased PCO2
= Alkalosis Hyperventilate Respiratory alkalosis
Dorsal funiculus
A
Hard palate
A
Ion
A + or - charged molecule.
What does the difference b/n the percentages represent (reg. questions about 40 and 100 mmHg)?
A 25-26 % difference means that hemoglobin gives up only about 25% of its O2 to body cells as it passes by.
Glomerulus
A ball of capillaries surrounded by Bowman's capsule in the nephron and serving as the site of filtration in the vertebrate kidney.
Pons
A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain
Axon Collateral
A branch of an axon from a single neuron.
Leydig Cells
A cell that produces testosterone (sperm production, facial hair, etc) and other androgens and is located between the seminiferous tubules of the testes.
Ion channel
A channel w/in the plasma membrane that allows the movement of ions into or out of the cell.
Aortic arch
A curved blood vessel from which arteries branch to the head & neck.
Fissure
A deep sulcus.
Limbic system
A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem & cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression & drives such as those for food & sex. Includes the hippocampus (memories), amygdala, and hypothalamus.
Perirenal fat capsule
A fatty mass that surrounds the kidney and cushions it against blows
Round ligament (Ligamentum teres)
A fibrous remnant of the fetal umbilical vein.
node of Ranvier
A gap in the myelin sheath of a nerve, between adjacent Schwann cells.
Prostate gland
A gland surrounding the neck of the bladder in male mammals and releasing prostatic fluid.
ECG (electrocardiogram)
A graphic recording of the heart's electronic activity.
Cerebellum
A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills.
Poiseuille's Law
A law of physiology stating that blood flow through a vessel is directly proportional to the radius of the vessel to the fourth power R is directly proportional to Ln/pi r^4 - Length of tube & viscosity remain relativity fairly constant. - Radius is more likely to change.
Neurilemma
A layer of cells that encases many axons.
Epididymis
A long, coiled duct on the outside of the testis in which sperm mature.
Membrane Potential
A measure of the relative difference in electrical charge across a plasma membrane.
Mons pubis
A mound of fatty tissue covering the pubic area in women
Anus
A muscular opening at the end of the rectum through which waste material is eliminated from the body.
Spinal nerve
A peripheral nerve attached to the spinal cord. #7
Short loop negative feedback
A pituitary hormone feeds back to decrease hormone secretion by the hypothalamus.
Cecum
A pouch connected to the junction of the small and large intestines.
Clotting Factor
A protein essential to the thickening of plasma during the clotting process; most produced by the liver and carried in the plasma.
Gyrus
A ridged or raised portion of a convoluted brain surface.
What does it mean to shift the curve to the right and what is the result of doing so?
A shift to the right reflects decreased oxygen saturation for a given PO2. Hemoglobin is more likely to release oxygen. Increased temperature, acidosis, and high CO2 can all cause a shift to the right.
Rectum
A short tube at the end of the large intestine where waste material is compressed into a solid form before being eliminated.
Atrioventricular (AV) node
A small mass of specialized cardiac muscle fibers, located in the wall of the right atrium of the heart, that receives heartbeat impulses from the sinoatrial node and directs them to the walls of the ventricles.
Midbrain
A small part of the brain above the pons that integrates sensory information & relays it upward. Contains: - Corpora quadrigemina (exterior dorsal side) + Superior colliculus - Visual reflex centers that coordinate head & eye movements when we visually follow a moving object (even if unconsciously looking at it). + Inferior colliculus - Cerebral peduncles (ventral side) Part of the auditory relay from the hearing receptors from the hearing receptors of the ear to the sensory cortex. + Cerebral aqueduct.
Subarachnoid space
A space in the meninges beneath the arachnoid membrane & above the pia mater that contains the cerebrospinal fluid. + the largest blood vessels serving the brain (poorly protected).
Schwann Cell Nucleus
A special type of cell organelle in the Schwann cell that acts as the cell's "control center". It contains the cell's genetic information in the form of DNA chemicals packaged into chromosomes.
Sinoatrial (SA) node
A specialized area of cardiac tissue, located in the right atrium of the heart, which initiates the electrical impulses that determine the heart rate; often termed the pacemaker for the heart.
Atrial (Bainbridge) reflex
A sympathetic reflex initiated by increased blood in the atria. Increases HR.
Zona pellucida
A thick, transpartent coating rich in glycoproteins that surrounds an oocyte.
Anastomosis
A union or joining of blood vessels; allows collateral routes if a vessel is blocked
Inferior vena cava (v)
A vein that is the largest vein in the human body and returns blood to the right atrium of the heart from bodily parts below the diaphragm Runs from junction of common iliac veins at L5 to R. atrium of heart
Superior vena cava (v)
A vein that is the second largest vein in the human body and returns blood to the right atrium of the heart from the upper half of the body. Runs from union of brachiocephalic veins behind manubrium to R. atrium.
Type of antibodies found in type O- Negative Blood?
A, B, and Rh antibodies.
Protein/Peptide Hormones
AA seq. are CLEAVED OFF through steps. Secretion = EXOCYTOSIS - Hydrophilic - Large - Can't fit through membrane - Second messenger mechanism of action - Most hormones - Example: Insulin
Supraoptic nucleus
ADH
Spinal nerves are?
ALL MIXED. Because each spinal nerve is the sum of a dorsal and ventral root, they all contain both sensory & motor nerve fibers. From the head down, spinal nerves innervate our whole body.
Myelin is made of the membranes of?
ANSWER
What do cranial nerves oculomotor, facial, vagus, and accessory have in common?
ANSWER
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
ARE NEUROHORMONES: 1. ADH (vasopressin)- Supraoptic nucleus - Conserve H2O 2. Oxytocin - Paraventricular nucleus - Powerful muscle contractor - Uterus - Mam. glands - Plays a role in social bonding: "love hormone" + jealously + greed
Water-soluble hormones
ARE all amino acid-based hormones except thyroid hormone act on receptors in the plasma membrane. These receptors are usually coupled via regulatory molecules called G proteins to one or more intracellular second messengers which mediate the target cell's response.
Spinocerebellar tracts
ASCENDING / SENSORY 1. E = DORSAL Spinocerebellar tracts 2. F = VENTRAL Spinocerebellar tracts
Dorsal White Column; fasciculus cuneatus and fasciculus gracilis
ASCENDING / SENSORY 1. Fasciculus cuneatus (outer) 2. Fasciculus gracilis (middle)
Spinothalamic tracts
ASCENDING / SENSORY 1. G = LATERAL Spinothalamic tracts 2. H = VENTRAL Spinothalamic tracts
What powers the movement of the tail/flagellum?
ATP from the mitochondria.
Second-Degree Heart Block
AV node fails to conduct some SA node impulses. More P waves than QRS waves.
Order of kidney blood flow
Abdominal aorta Renal arteries Segmental arteries Interlobar arteries Arcuate arteries Cortical radiate arteries Cortical radiate veins Arcuate veins Interlobar veins Renal veins Inferior Vena Cava
Female anatomy
Abdominal pelvic cavity
Posterior cricoarytenoid muscle
Abducts vocal folds -the ONLY abductor muscle Starts out at cricoid and connects to muscular processes Arytenoids move, once you shorten muscles, muscular process is pulled open (abduct) the glottis
Tachycardia
Abnormal fast heart rate, more than 100 BPM.
How many mV (approx) would the RMP need to move in a positive direction before the electrically-gated sodium channels in the axon hillock would open to initiate an A.P?
About 15 to 20 mV. -70 mV to - 55 mV.
How does action potential propagate in one direction?
Absolute refractory period: During this time it is absolutely impossible to send another action potential. The inactivation gates of the sodium channels lock shut for a time, & make it so no sodium will pass through. No sodium means no depolarization, which means no action potential. Absolute refractory periods help direct the action potential down the axon, because only channels further downstream can open & let in depolarizing ions
Continuous capillaries
Abundant in the skin and muscles. Have a wall where the endothelial cells fit very tightly together. - Leaky junctions (except BBB, neural tissues) - Most capillaries are this.
Which nerve innervates the trapezius & sternocleidomastoid muscles?
Accessory (XI)
Axillary vein
Accompanying vein of axillary artery, located medial & superficial to axillary artery
Vagus nerves
Account for 75% of all preganglionic parasympathetic fibers in body. Provide fibers to the neck & to nerve plexuses (interweaving networks or nerves) that serve virtually every organ in the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Note: These nerve plexuses contains BOTH para & symp divisions. Cardiac plexus - slow heart rate / Pulmonary plexus- serves the airways of the lungs/ Esophagus plexus- serves esophagus & part of stomach. Innervate the lungs, liver, gallbladder, stomach, pancreas, upper large intestine, small intestines.
Evolution
Accounts for many of the differences b/n us (eye color/blood type), but also b/n us and other species, because over long periods of time, large changes can accumulate. Ex: Snow, river, etc. EVOLUTION AFFECTS POPULATIONS, NOT INDIVIDUALS.
Parasympathetic NS
Acetylcholine binds to CHOLINERGIC RECEPTORS Subtypes: NICOTINIC RECEPTORS - excitatory MUSCARINIC RECEPTORS - inhibitory
Neurotransmitter Breakdown
Ach- Acetylcholine Esterase NE- Monoamine oxidase (MAO) - inhibit to prevent depression.
Dietary Habits that cause Acidic / Basic urine?
Acidic - High protein foods - Acid foods Basic - Vegetarian diet
Lipid-soluble hormones
Act on receptors inside the cell, which directly activate genes.
Respiration AP
Action potentials arise in pons, smooth out in medulla, and then that central pattern being generated (this normal breathing rate of 12 breaths/minute) is going to be modulated by multiple factors (receptors)
Chemoreceptors
Activated when they interact w/ specific chemicals. Often these chemicals are dissolved in solution: we often detect changes in our internal environment (blood, interstitial fluid, CSF) w/ chemoreceptors. EX: - Ach in muscles - Blood glucose levels - Major arteries have to detect change. Moths have in their antennas to sense external environ.
Spatial summation
Adding together action potentials from multiple points on a neuron. Multiple stimuli can increase stimulus.
What region does the obturator nerve supply?
Adductor muscles (medial thigh)
Obturator nerve
Adductors of thigh.
ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
Adrenal cortex
Adrenal Medulla
Adrenal medulla (neural embryonic origins) Modified Soma: Chromaffin cells - Secretes epinephrine (E) in the bloodstream Surrounded by adrenal cortex (epithelial origin; glandular)
Our life cycle consists of a haploid (gametes) phase and a diploid phase (2 sets of genetic info)
Adults make sex cells (gametes; sperm & ovum), which contain one half of the donor's genetic information; these gametes contribute genetic information to the next generation. We reproduce sexually. Humans are sexually dimorphic, just like most other animals.
Intropic agents (any chemical agent)
Affects the contractility of the heart. - NE and E increase SV. - Digitalis Symp. NS.
Mandibular division (V3) Function
Affects the muscles of the chin & lower lip/teeth.
Synonyms for sensory and motor?
Afferent & Efferent.
Significance of a PO2 of 100 mmHg?
After a PO2 of 100 mm, hemoglobin will no longer saturate. It is already 100% saturated (PO2 is over 100 in the lungs).
Sinuses
Air-filled spaces in the skull that open into the nasal cavity. 1. Lighten skull 2. Allow sounds to resonate; assist with sense of speech, hearing, and smell. 3. Fluid flow around the respiratory tract. Sick - clogged sinuses
Bronchioles
Airways in the lungs that lead from the bronchi to the alveoli.
Blood Function
Albumin: Contributes to colloid osmotic pressure, carries varies substances. pH buffering. Globulins: Clotting factors, enzymes, antibodies, carries various substances (defense antibodies; and lipid transport) Fibrinogen: Forms fibrin threads essential to blood clotting. (clotting of blood) Transferrin: Iron transport Lymphocytes: Produce specific immune response Monocytes: Phagocytic; develop into macrophages in tissues Neutrophils: Mobile phagocytes Eosinophils: Produce toxic compounds directed against pathogens Basophils: Tissue basophils are called mast cells
Steroid Hormones are derived from cholesterol
Aldosterone (released w/ humoral stimuli due to low NA and high K) + Cortisol = Involved w/ stress response. Steroid Hormones Are Found In: - Adrenal Cortex (aldosterone or cortisol) - Gonads (estrogen or testosterone)
Quiescent Period
All four chambers relaxed at same time. All under diastole. Follows the T Wave.
Thoracolumbar division (sympathetic division)
All preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic division arise from cell bodies of preganglionic neurons in spinal cord segments T1 - L2. The numerous cell bodies of preganglionic sympathetic neurons in the gray matter of the spinal cord form the lateral horns. No lateral horns in the sacral region of the spinal cord.
Dual innervation
All visceral organs are served by both divisions, but these divisions cause opposite effects.
Sinusoids
Allow for fluid flow and movement of nutrients (small passageways)
Action potential ?
Allows looks the same.
Adrenergic Receptors (NE binding)
Alpha & beta (a1, a2, b1, b2, b3) Receptor sites for the sympathetic neurotransmitters norepinephrine & epinephrine. NE or epinephrine can be either excitatory or inhibitory depending on which subclass of receptor predominates in the target organ. Ex: NE bending to the B1 receptors of cardiac muscle prods the heart into vigorous activity.
Cell Type in Islet/ Specific Hormones Produced
Alpha cells/ Glucagon Beta cells/ Insulin
What structures are most prominent in the anterior gray horn?
Alpha motor neuron cell bodies.
Ventral (anterior) gray horns contain?
Alpha motor neuron cell bodies. Somatic. (multipolar motor neurons)
Difference between alveolar ventilation and minute respiratory volume?
Alveolar ventilation is a more accurate measurement of usable air because it takes into account dead space.
With the exception of thyroid hormone...
Amino acid-based hormones exert their signaling effects through intracellular 2nd messangers (CAMP) generated when a hormone binds to a receptor in the plasma membrane.
Protein & Nucleic Acids to NH2- Amino groups to
Ammonia (very toxic) - Fish Urea (less toxic) - Mammals Uric acid (not toxic, not soluble) - Birds/reptiles
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
Amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation. Female = 700 mL Male = 1200 mL
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
Amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation. Female = 1900 mL Male = 3100 mL
Cardiac Output (CO)
Amount of blood pumped out by EACH ventricle in 1 minute. Heart Rate (HR) x Stroke Volume (SV)
Venous Return
Amount of blood returning to the heart. 1. Skeletal Muscle Pump - Contracting muscles "push" blood veins to the heart. 2. Respiratory Pump - Small vacuum / take blood to heart. 3. Sympathetic Nervous System - Vasoconstriction (more during exercise) - Squeeze blood vessels
Osmorality
Amount of stuff dissolved in a solution. - Takes into account NaCl that dissociate in solution.
Acini (pancreas)
Amylase, lipase, carboxypeptidase, elastase
What is Rh factor? What does it mean to be positive?
An antigen on the RBCs of some blood types; RBC carry the Rh antigen
Medulla Oblongata (book)
An autonomic reflex center involved in maintaining body homeostasis (cardiovascular center; respiratory centers; centers for sneezing, vomiting, hiccupping, swallowing, and coughing)
Neural Tube Expands & Constricts to form the 3 Primary Brain Vesicles
An embryonic structure with subdivisions that correspond to the future Prosencephalon (forebrain) Mesencephalon (midbrain) Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)
An excitatory depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button Na+ into cell. Does not go over the threshold voltage of - 55 mV.
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)
An inhibitory hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button. K+ out of the cell. Makes it harder to be depolarized.
Median aperture
An opening in the roof of the fourth ventricle that connects to the subarachnoid space.
Pancreas
An organs in the abdominal cavity with two roles. The first is an exocrine role: to produce digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are delivered to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. The second is an endocrine role: to secrete insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream to help regulate blood glucose levels.
Renal Fascia
Anchoring outer layer of dense fibrous connective tissue.
Suspensory ligament
Anchors ovary laterally to pelvic wall.
Ovarian ligament
Anchors ovary medially to uterus.
What vertebral level and into what region is an epidural administered?
Anesthetic injection in the epidural space of L3-L4 region. Result in numbness of lower limbs.
General Visceral Motor System
Another name for ANS. IT indicates the location of most of its effectors.
Involuntary Nervous System
Another name for of the autonomic nervous system
PTH and calcitonin are
Antagonistic hormones: Calcitonin = DECREASE in blood Ca2+ levels PTH = causes INCREASE in blood Ca2+ levels
Deep fibular (peroneal) nerve
Anterior & lateral lower leg Dorsiflexors & toe extensors
Musculocutaneous nerve
Anterior brachium (elbow flexors)
How can one distinguish between the anterior and posterior pituitary. Why?
Anterior pituitary contain dark staining, densely packed cells because hormone production is taking place. Posterior pituitary is lightly colored w/ few cells, mostly neuron axons.
Trace blood flow through the kidney
Aorta, renal artery, segmental artery, interlobar arteries, arcuate arteries, cortical radiate artery, afferent arterioles, glomerular capillaries, efferent arterioles, peritubular capillaries and vasa recta, cortical radiate veins, arcuate veins, interlobar veins, segmental veins, renal vein, inferior vena cava.
Blood enters the myocardium of the heart by coronary vessels that originate from the __________.
Aorta. The coronary artery branches from the aorta near the base.
What structure allows passage of the CSF back in the circulatory system?
Arachnoid granulations (villi).
Olfactory bulbs
Are the only major sense organs connected directly to the limbic system. - It is no surprise that our sense of smell is tied to EMOTION.
Cerebrum
Area of the brain responsible for all voluntary activities of the body
Premotor cortex
Area of the frontal cortex, active during the planning of a movement. Coordinates the movement of several muscle groups either simultaneously, mainly by sending activating impulses to the primary motor cortex.
Dead space
Area where air fills the conducting respiratory passageways and never contributes to gas exchange. Such as the trachea and bronchi.
Vasa nervorum (projector)
Arteries of the spinal cord.
Posterior tibial artery
Artery supplying the foot, behind the medial ankle. One of the popliteal arteries.
Axillary artery
Artery that carries oxygenated blood to the axilla (armpit) area. Axillary artery. As it runs through the axilla accompanied by cords of the brachial plexus, each axillary artery gives off branches to the axilla, chest wall, and shoulder girdle. These branches include the thoracoacromial artery, which supplies the deltoid muscle and pectoral region; the lateral thoracic artery, which serves the lateral chest wall and breast; the subscapular artery to the scapula, dorsal thorax wall, and part of the latissimus dorsi muscle; and the anterior and posterior circumflex humeral arteries, which wrap around the humeral neck and help supply the shoulder joint and the deltoid muscle. As the axillary artery emerges from the axilla, it becomes the brachial artery.
Common Carotid Artery
Artery that supplies blood to the face, head, and neck.
3 K+ & 7 Na+ w/ a potassium channel. Caused membrane potential number to ?
As K+ moves out, the # gets more negative!
Information carried along these pathways is either?
Ascending sensory or descending motor.
Epithalamus (Book)
Associated with the pineal gland; secretes melatonin to induce sleep.
Bronchodialation
Asthma inhaler
P wave
Atrial depolarization (atrial contraction)
Valves open during SA node depolarization?
Atrioventricular Valves (bicuspid & tricuspid) are OPEN. Aortic and Pulmonary semilunar valves are CLOSED.
Where on the neuron would you find the ion channels? D
Axon hillock through entire axon.
Where are voltage gated channels located?
Axon hillock. They open & close depending on changes of the membrane potential. NA+ opens @ - 55 mV.
Returns blood from thoracic regions to SVC
Azygos vein
Soft palate
B
Ventral funiculus
B
Parietal cells (mucosa layer)
B. Secrete HCL, Intrinsic factor (B-12 absorption)
Fetal Affinity
B/C of GAMMA HEMOGLOBIN! Fetal blood = High affinity for O2 so when maternal blood passes through the placenta, the fetal blood on opposite side of the membrane is going to be able to collect as much blood as possible. In some mammals, not primates, mom will create increased 2, 3 DPG so more O2 can go to the fetus. Why? PO2 @ placenta = 50 mmHg Fetal hemoglobin to Adult hemoglobin = after birth!!
Male histology
B/n seminiferous tubules = interstitial cells (in the interstitial tissue) Tunica albuginea = thick C.T.
Nasal meatuses (superior, middle, inferior)
B/n the nasal concha
Trigeminal V (Cranial Nerve)
BOTH. Fibers run from the face to the pons via the superior orbital fissure (V1), the foramen rotundum (V2), and the foramen oval (V3).
Facial VII (Cranial Nerve)
BOTH. 2/4 of Autonomic! - Salivary glands (submandibular & sublingual) Motor: Muscles of facial expression. Sensory: Taste from 2/3 of anterior tongue. Parasympathetic innervation of salivary glands (submandibular & sublingual).
Glossopharyngeal IX (Cranial Nerve)
BOTH. 3/4 of Autonomic! - PAROTID SALIVARY GLANDS. GOES: Fibers emerge from medulla, leave the skull via the jugular foramen, & run to the throat. Function: Motor: to muscles of the pharynx for swallowing. Sensory: - Tongue (taste for posterior 1/3), tonsils, Eustachian tubes. - Carotid arteries regarding blood pressure & chemistry. Parasympathetic innervation of the PAROTID SALIVARY GLANDS.
Vagus X (Cranial Nerve)
BOTH. 4/4 of Autonomic! - Heart, lungs, smooth muscles of pharynx, larynx, thoracic & abdominal viscera. The only cranial nerve that extends beyond the head and neck. GOES: Fibers emerge from the medulla via the jugular foramen. Function: Motor: to muscles of the pharynx & larynx. Sensory: from the posterior tongue & pharynx, thoracic & abdominal viscera. Parasympathetic innervation of heart, lungs, smooth muscles of pharynx, larynx, thoracic & abdominal viscera.
Mandibular Division V3 (Cranial Nerve)
BOTH. Motor to muscles of mastication (chewing) Conveys sensory impulses form lower teeth, gum, lip, skin of jaw, & temporal region of scalp.
Reptilian Brain (Brain Stem)
BRAIN STEM INCLUDES: 1. Medulla oblongata. 2. Pons. 3. Midbrain The majority of the function of our reptilian brain is involuntary, and simply keeps us alive. PRIMITIVE PORTION OF OUR BRAIN.
Which structure is the only electrical connection between the atria and ventricle?
BUNDLE OF HIS (Atrioventricular (AV) bundle)
Vestibular branch (VIII) Function
Balance & equilibrium.
Purpose of PRECAPILLARY SPHINCTER?
Band of smooth muscle that controls blood flow into capillary bed.
What specific receptors were most likely responsible for triggering the change in pulse rate as a body position changed? Where in the body can you find these receptors
Baroreceptors (as blood pressure drops when position changes -> baroreceptors stop firing -> no longer inhibit vasomotor center -> sympathetics cause constriction of blood vessel walls -> increase in blood pressure) Carotid sinus; aortic arch; & where vena cava enters atrium and pulmonary veins enter LEFT atrium (Bainbridge or atrial baroreceptors)
Least numerous cell type?
Basophils
Allergic Reaction
Basophils (formed element that elevates in number)
Spinal nerve facts
Because each spinal nerve is the sum of a dorsal & ventral root, they all contain both sensory & motor fibers. From the head down, spinal nerves innervate our whole body.
Why are the lumbar and sacral plexus often grouped together as the lumbosacral plexus?
Because of the the intermingling of fibers (carried by the lumbosacral trunk)
3L/day are lost in capillaries
Becomes problematic b/c if we want to maintain a constant cardiac output. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM - Lymphatic vessels return it to our circulatory system.
Cephalic Phase (digestion)
Begins before you take a bite of food. Smelling food, thinking about food, or seeing food can start this phase of digestion. These are called FEEDFORWARD REFLEXES & are a type of long reflex. In the mouth: We chew our food (mechanical digestion) We secrete saliva: - softens & moistens food - contains salivary amylase (break down long chains of glucose; starch to disaccharides (maltose) - enhances taste - contains lysozyme (w/ antibodies to interfere w/ invaders)
Gastric Phase (Digestion)
Begins when food arrives in the stomach, it starts preparing itself via the vagal reflex. Once food arrives in the stomach it is stored, and distention of the stomach (enhances what's seen from vagus nerve) causes several things to be secreted.
Retroperitoneal
Behind or deep to the peritoneum.
Masseter muscle
Behind parotid glands.
Sternocleidomastoid
Below parotid glands.
Absolute Refractory Period
Between 1 to 2 milliseconds after the initiation of an action potential during which it is impossible to elicit another action potential in the same neuron. NO MORE ADDITIONAL A.P. - Cannot allow another A.P. to begin, so Na+ cannot go backwards. ONLY 1 DIRECTION.
Relative Refractory Period
Between 3 to 4 milliseconds after firing when a neuron is returning to its normal polarized state & will fire again only if the incoming message is much stronger than usual. Can have more A.P., BUT must be stronger than normal stimulus.
Distal convoluted Tubule
Between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct; Selective reabsorption and secretion occur here, most notably to regulate reabsorption of water and sodium
Blood vs Urine
Blood = Glucose & amino acid Urine = Trace proteins (no AA/glucose) pH = 4.5 - 8.0 Can see a shift b/c we can eliminate bicarbonate ions & hydrogen ions
Dynamic of Blood Flow
Blood Pressure (hydrostatic pressure)
Out of Bowman's capsule into PCT?
Blood plasma w/ out proteins (filtrate).
Regulate changes in Blood Pressure
Blood pressure = Driving Force of Filtration 1. Tubuloglomerular Feedback - Afferent arterioles adjust diameter depending on blood pressure. 2. Macula Densa Cells - In DCT (sends signals to glomerulus to change diameter size of arterioles)
Hypophyseal Portal System
Blood travels from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary.
Renal vein
Blood vessel that carries blood away from the kidney The right and left renal veins drain the kidneys.
Renal artery
Blood vessel that carries blood to the kidney
Composition of Blood vs Urine
Blood, blood plasma, intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid = 300 osm/L Urine = 500 - 1200 osm/L
Superior sagittal sinus
Blue cavity surrounding the brain which collects blood draining from the brain tissue
GH (growth hormone)
Bones
Subclavian arteries
Both a left and right, blood vessels that supply blood to the shoulders and upper limbs. R. subclavian - neck and R. upper limb L. subclavian - neck and L. upper limb
Somatic NS vs Autonomic NS
Both have motor fibers. Differ in: 1. Their effectors (ANS = cardiac muscle, smooth muscles, glands). 2. Their efferent pathways & ganglia 3. Target organ responses to their neurotransmitters
Blood Pressure vs Osmotic Pressure
Both oppose each other. BP drops as it goes from ARTERIAL END to VENOUS END. BP = Pulls fluid outward Osmotic pressure = inward; Common solute = PROTEINS, stays in blood plasma pulls fluid into capillary.
Quadrate lobe of Liver
Bounded on left by round ligament of liver, Bounded on right by gallbladder
C5 to T1
Brachial plexus. The radial nerve is the largest nerve to come from the brachial plexus; it is a continuation of the posterior cord. Other important nerves are: Axillary nerve, musculocutaneous nerce, median nerve, ulnar nerve.
Central canal of Spinal Cord (model)
Brain
From the CNS structures do all nerves arise?
Brain or spinal cord.
Matter in brain vs spinal cord?
Brain: Gray is outer cortex as well as inner nuclei; white is deeper. Spinal cord: White is outer, gray is deeper.
Cerebral peduncle
Brainstem. Dorsal view.
Middle cerebellar peduncle
Brainstem. 1 way communication that connects pons to cerebellum. Dorsal view.
Inferior cerebellar peduncle
Brainstem. Connect medulla to cerebellum. Dorsal view.
Superior cerebellar peduncle
Brainstem. Connects cerebellum w/ the midbrain. Dorsal view.
Location and function of the Peritubular Capillaries
Branch off the efferent arterioles and surround PCTs and DCTs. Reabsorb substances from tubules back into the blood.
Telodendria (axon terminals)
Branches at the end of an axon, with each process containing a synaptic knob at its end
Common fibular (peroneal) nerve
Branches into superficial & deep fibular.
Tibial nerve (Sciatic nerve [Sacral plexus])
Branches off sciatic proximal to knee. Supplies the skin & muscles of posterior calf & sole of foot. Calf muscles can't plantar flex resulting in shuffling gait.
Dendrites
Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information. *RECIEVES INFORMATION*
Prolaction
Breasts
Corpus callosum (type of commissural fiber)
Bridge of nerve fibers connecting the 2 cerebral hemispheres. Not truly left & right brained.
What does the condition hydrocephalus have to do with CSF?
Build up of CSF due to improper drainage. Likely to cause brain damage b/c accumulating fluid compresses blood vessels & crushes the soft nervous tissue. TX: Inserting a shunt into the ventricles to drain excess fluid into the abdominal cavity.
More CO2 in bloodstream vs exhaling it out =
Building carbonic acid (H2CO3) to INCREASED H+ in bloodstream = Causes RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS.
Nerve
Bundle of axons in PNS.
What is cauda equina?
Bundle of nerve roots that occupy the vertebral canal from L2 to S5.
Tracts
Bundles of axons in CNS (white matter)
In the PNS:
Bundles of neuronal cell bodies are GANGLIA. NERVES are bundles of neural fibers (axon).
In the CNS:
Bundles of neuronal cell bodies are NUCLEI. TRACTS are bundles of neural fibers (axon).
Equal volumes of blood are pumped to the pulmonary and systemic circuits at any moment
But the two ventricles have very unequal workloads. The pulmonary circuit, served by the right ventricle, is a short, low-pressure circulation. In contrast, the systemic circuit, associated with the left ventricle, takes a long pathway through the entire body & encounters about 5x times as much friction, or resistance to blood flow.
Sperm must be capacitated prior to fertilization
By reorganizing molecules in the sperm, capacitation allows them to swim quickly up the fallopian tubes to an egg. Eggs can only be fertilized for a few hours after ovulation, and fertilization is aided by chemicals produced by the egg (positive chemotaxis) (but sperm remain viable for 4-6 days in the female reproductive tract) 2 million sperm- 50 sperm make it to the egg.
Lateral funiculus (diagram)
C
Hepatic portal vein
C. A vein connecting the capillary bed of the intestines with the capillary bed of the liver. This allows amino acids and glucose absorbed from the intestines to be delivered first to the liver for processing before being transported throughout the circulatory system.
Midpiece of sperm
C. Contains mitochondria.
Cremaster muscle
C. Muscle that pulls the scrotum closer to the body in cold temperatures and relaxes to let the testicles be farther away from the body in warmer weather
Spinal cord nerves
C1 - C8 Cervical spinal nerves T1- T12 Thoracic spinal nerves L1- L5 Lumbar spinal nerves S1- S5 Sacral spinal nerves CO1 Coccygeal nerve
Cervical Enlargement of Spinal Cord
C4 - T1
Brachial Plexus graph
C5 - T1
Which nerves from the roots of the plexus in the diagram?
C5 - T1
Parafollicular cells (C cells) secrete
CALCITONIN - Inhibits osteoclast activity - Slows rate of bone breakdown - Released in response to high blood calcium levels. -.. but, DOES NOT have a strong physiological role in humans. (High Ca2+ isn't something we really deal with)
Function and Structural Organization
CNS = **INTEGRATING CENTER** ( BRAIN/ SPINAL CORD) ↓↑ PNS = CRANIAL NERVES & SPINAL NERVES ↓ Motor (Efferent) → Somatic (voluntary) OR Autonomic (involuntary) ex: cardiac, smooth muscles, or glands. ↓ Parasympathetic (rest/digest) or Sympathetic (fight or flight)
Somatic NS Pathway
CNS to AcH: Nicotinic receptors
Parasympathetic NS Pathway
CNS to AcH: Nicotinic receptors to AcH: Muscarinic receptors @ Target Cells
Sympathetic NS Pathway
CNS to AcH: Nicotinic receptors to NE: Alpha receptors @ Target Cells
Adrenal Sympathetic Pathway
CNS to Adrenal Medulla (chromatin cells) release E in blood. Alpha & Beta
Trace the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid, beginning with its origin and ending with its removal.
CSF is produced by the choroid plexus, flows from the lateral ventricles through the interaventricular foramen to the third ventricle, then through the cerebral aqueduct to the fourth ventricle. It then flows from the lateral apertures & median apertures to the subarachnoid space or into the central canal of the spinal cord (removing waste along the way). Excess CSF flows into the arachnoid granulations (villi) and drains into dural venous sinuses and into the internal jugular vein.
Find parafollicular "C" cells. What is produced here?
Calcitonin.
Exchange of gases and nutrients occurs by diffusion between the __________.
Capillaries and tissue cells. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, most nutrients, and metabolic wastes pass between the blood and interstitial fluid by diffusion through the capillaries.
The only vessels that provide direct access to nearly every cell in the body are the __________.
Capillaries. If blood vessels are compared to a system of expressways and roads, the capillaries are the back alleys and the driveways that provide direct access to nearly every cell in the body.
KNOW
Cardiac output MUST EQUAL Venous Return
Congestive heart failure (CHF)? What might have caused it?
Cardiac output is so low that blood circulation is inadequate to meet tissue needs Myocardial infraction, atherosclerosis, hypertension.
Cardiac vs Skeletal Muscle
Cardiac: - Short, branching cells - Uninucleate - Striated - Involuntary - Intercalated discs (gap junctions) - Rich mitochondrial density (HIGH) - Works continuously - Autorhythmic cells (pacemaker cells) Skeletal: - Multinucleated - Long cylindrical cells - Striated - Voluntary (can rest)
Important Reflex Center (medulla oblongata)
Cardiovascular function (cardiac center & vasomotor center) Regulate heart rate & blood pressure Respiratory function Autonomic functions (eg swallowing, vomiting, coughing, sneezing, vomiting)
Pulmonary artery (trunk)
Carries blood from the right ventricle to the lungs
Lumbosacral trunk (does?)
Carries fibers from the lumbar plexus to join the sacral plexus.
Dorsal (posterior) funiculus
Carries information on joint/muscle position (proprioception) & fine touch.
Ventral (anterior) funiculus
Carries information on pain, temp, pressure, coarse touch; also used in relaying motor information to control skeletal muscles, posture, visceral muscle functions, muscle tone, & balance.
Axons
Carry impulses away from the cell body of a neuron.
Gray rami (sympathetic division only)
Carrying postganglionic fibers headed for the periphery issue from every trunk ganglion from the cervical to the sacral region, allowing sympathetic output to reach all parts of the body.
Bronchi (Lab)
Cartilage present - Irregular plates of hyaline cartilage Smooth muscle present - More smooth muscle as passageways become smaller. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
Lumen of Uterus
Cavity of uterus.
Supplies the stomach, liver, and spleen via branches
Celiac trunk
Macula Densa
Cells in DCT, located where DCT & glomerulus meet. Senses NaCl. Adjust renal blood flow and filtration as part of an autoregulatory process.
Neuroglia
Cells that support within the CNS 1. Astrocytes - 1/2 of all neural tissue; support neurons & connect them w/ capillaries, by making the exchanges for them (this keeps the brain safe from potential blood pathogens) * B/n blood cap. + neurons * 2. Microglia - Phagocytic cells that clean up debris. 3. Ependymal cells - In the brain & spinal cord, responsible for circulating cerebrospinal fluid. * ciliated * 4. Oligodendrocytes - Wrap around nerve fibers producing fatty insulating sheaths called MYELIN SHEATHS
Central canal of spinal cord
Center of spinal cord which contains cerebrospinal fluid.
Control of Respiration
Central Pattern Generators (in pons) Dorsal Respiratory Group - Inspiration - Source of phrenic nerve Ventral Respiratory Group - Active expiration (not passive) - Very active inhalation (heavy exercise)
Oropharynx
Central portion of the pharynx between the roof of the mouth and the upper edge of the epiglottis
Cerebral hemispheres (neomammalian brain)
Cerebral hemispheres comprise 83% of brain mass. The surface has wrinkles: sulci (depressions) and gyri (ridges) that massively increase brain surface area. = MORE NEURONS (16.3 billion neurons).
Cerebral peduncle, superior cerebellar peduncle, middle cerebellar peduncle, & inferior cerebellar peduncle.
Cerebral peduncle Superior cerebellar peduncle Middle cerebellar peduncle Inferior cerebellar peduncle
Midbrain (reptilian brain)
Cerebral peduncles are large pyramidal tracts of motor fibers descending towards spinal cord. Corpora quadrigemina 1. Superior colliculi (visual reflex centers) 2. Inferior colliculi (sensory receptors... startle reflex)
The subarachnoid space contains
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
C1 to C5 create?
Cervical plexus.
Thermoreceptors
Change shape in response to temp. changes. A few temp-sensitive proteins are activated by both temp and chemicals. In the mouth, they respond to "hot peppers" and "cool" mint that same way they do to hot/cold temps. Thermo - and chemo- overlap! Peppers = fire.. Ex: Snakes (pit vipers). On their face pits lined w/ thermo- causes temp to to felt in room & help them form an image of their enviro.
What causes an influx of calcium ions ?
Changes in voltage due to the action potential cause the voltage-gated calcium ion channels to open, allowing calcium ions to move into the cell.
Genetic structure of our population
Changes over time. Look & see what alleles are expressed.
Both want equilibrium !
Changing the electrical gradient means changing the concentration gradient.
Synthesis Pathways for Steroid Hormones
Chart
2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG)
Chemical in the red blood cells that affects hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen. 2,3 DPG Added DPG during exercise.
Pheromones
Chemical messengers that mediate interactions between individuals. 1. Species recognition 2. Territory marking 3. Parent-offspring interactions 4. Sexual receptivity
What receptors were most likely responsible for the change in pulse that occurred following hyperventilation? To what do these receptors respond?
Chemoreceptors ; affected by change in O2, CO2, or blood pH.
Network of anastomoses supplying the brain
Circle of Willis
Coronary circulation
Circulation of blood through the coronary blood vessels to deliver oxygen & nutrients to the heart muscle tissue
Structure of Sensory Receptors
Classified by their structure: Our general senses can either have encapsulated (C.T. capsule) or nonencapsualted (no protective covering) dendrites. Most encapsulated receptors are mechanoreceptors. Our special senses (hearing, taste, smell, etc) are housed in complex sensory organs.
Visceral layer of glomerular capsule
Clings to the glomerulus, consists of branching cells call podocytes, and plays an important role in the formation of filtrate
Nuclei
Clusters of cell bodies in the CNS. (gray matter)
Right and Left Hepatic Duct
Collect bile from all bile ducts.
Adrenal Cortex Hormones
Collectively the adrenal cortex secretes - 24 hormones collectively referred to as the CORTICOSTERIODS 1. Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone) are secreted by the ZONA GLOMERULOSA. - Regulate water & electrolyte balance of the body by targeting kidney tubules for selective reabsorption of ions, specifically by reabsorbing NA+ & secreting K+ 2. Glucocorticoids (cortisone & cortisol) secreted by the ZONA FASCULATA (primarily) & RETICULARIS. - Work in management of long-term stress by promoting glucose metabolism, release of prostaglandins, reduce swelling. 3. Gonatocorticoids (adrenal sex hormones) are secreted by the ZONA FASICULATA & RETICULARIS (primarily) - Small amounts of androgens are made throughout life - these are weak hormones that can be converted to testosterone or estrogen in tissue cells.
Lumbosacral plexus
Combination of the lumbar plexus & the sacral plexus. Sciatic nerve is the largest nerve to come from the lumbosacral plexus.
Plasma, buffy coat, erythrocytes (centrifuge)
Components of blood: Plasma- 55% of whole blood LEAST DENSE COMPONENT Buffy coat- Leukocytes and platelets - < 1% of whole blood Erythrocytes 45 % of whole blood (hematocrit) MOST DENSE COMPONENT
SA and AV nodes
Composed of AUTORHYTHMIC CELLS. First component of intrinsic conduction system
Buffy coat
Composed of leukocytes and platelets
Lesser curvature
Concave medial surface of the stomach.
What factors determine in which direction ions will move through an open channel?
Concentration gradient & electrical gradient.
Diffusion means?
Concentration gradient.
Axon
Conducting region of the neuron. Generates nerve impulses & transmits them, typically AWAY from the cell body.
Trigeminal (V) Function V3
Conducting sensory impulses from lower teeth.
Trigeminal (V) Function
Conducting sensory impulses from upper teeth.
Axon Hillock
Cone shaped region of an axon where it joins the cell body.
Efferent ductules
Connect rete testis to epididymis.
Right ejaculatory ducts
Connected with the seminal vesicle.
Serosa
Connective tissue Continuation of the peritoneum, which lines the abdominal cavity. The peritoneum also forms mesentery, which helps to hold the coiled intestines in place.
Submucosa
Connective tissue w/ large blood vessels & lymphatic tissue (Peyer's Patches) in small intestine are most obvious. Additionally, contains submucosal plexus, 1/2 of the enteric nervous system. Neurons innervate the epithelial layer as well as the muscularis mucosae. - To help regulate gut motility.
Type of tissue is blood
Connective tissue, cells (the formed elements) are suspended in a matrix (blood plasma) Blood volume: ERYTHROCYTES = 45% LEUKOCYTES/ PLATLETS = < 1% PLASMA = 55 % Blood: - Metallic taste - Varies in color from scarlet red (O2 rich- arterial blood) to dull red (O2 poor- venous blood) - Slightly basic 7.35 - 7.45 pH - Slightly warmer than body temperature (Apx. 100.4 degrees F) - 8 % of our body weight: 5- 6 LITERS
Vermis
Connects cerebellar hemispheres.
Infundibulum
Connects hypothalamus to pituitary gland.
Coronary Ligament
Connects liver to diaphragm.
Gray commissure
Connects masses of gray matter; encloses central canal.
Cerebral aqueduct
Connects the third & fourth ventricles.
Urine Formation
Consists of 3 Processes: 1. Filtration 2. Tubular Reabsorption - Back in blood 3. Tubular Secretion - Out of blood
Three-neuron reflex arcs that exist entirely within the walls of the digestive tract.
Consists of five elements: receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, and effector
Endocrine System
Consists of glands that control many of the body's activities by producing hormones. Endocrinology- A.A Burtle in the mid-1800s removed the testes of roosters.
Cyton (cell body, soma)
Consists of spherical nucleus (w/ a conspicuous nucleolus) surrounded by cytoplasm. Diameter = 5 - 140 micro meters.
Digestive System
Consists of: - GI Tract (mouth to anus) - Accessory Organs; salivary glands, pancreas, liver.
Homeostasis
Constant internal environment. External/internal environment is always changing. ex: body temperature = 98.6 F blood glucose levels *maintain a constant state*
Intercalated Discs of Cardiac muscle
Contain contain anchoring desmosomes & gap junctions.
Cerebral peduncles (midbrain)
Contain pyramidal motor tracts.
Lateral gray horn
Contain visceral motor nuclei.
Parietal cavity
Contains a film of serous fluid. The serous membranes, lubricated by the fluid, glide smoothly past one another, allowing the mobile heart to work in a relatively friction-free environment.
Dorsal root ganglion
Contains cell bodies of sensory neurons. #2
Pericardial Sac
Contains fibrous pericardium & parietal layer of the serous membrane
Acrosome cap
Contains hydrolytic enzymes that break down the corona radiata and penetrate the zona pellucida membrane surrounding the oocyte
Pons (book)
Contains nuclei that are part of the reticular formation and some that help the medulla oblongata maintain the normal rhythm of breathing.
Head (sperm)
Contains nucleus 23 chromosomes; 1N, acrosome contains enzymes that penetrate the egg
Epithalamus
Contains pineal body + posterior commissure forms the caudal border of the epithalamus. Involved in olfactory senses & sleep/wake cycle. - Pineal gland (body)
Epithalamus (model)
Contains pineal body. Involved in olfactory senses and sleep/wake cycle
Cell body (Soma)
Contains the nucleus & other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life. - Rough E.R. - Nucleus - Mitochondria
Adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary)
Controlled by the hypothalamus via releasing factors, synthesizes hormones and releases them
Pyloric sphincter
Controls passage of food from stomach to small intestine.
Hepatopancreatic Sphincter
Controls release of both bile and pancreatic juice into the duodenum.
Greater curvature
Convex lateral surface of the stomach.
To what blood vessel do all the coronary veins return blood? Where does this blood vessel empty the blood?
Coronary sinus; right atrium
Differentiate between the cortex and the medulla.
Cortex is the outer region of the adrenal gland. Whereas, the medulla is the center/inner region.
Adrenal hormone
Cortex: 1. Glucocorticoids (Cortisol) 2. Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone) 3. Gonadocorticoids (Sex hormones) Medulla: 1. Epinephrine 2. Norepinephrine
Adrenal Gland
Cortex: 1. Glucocorticoids (cortisol) 2. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) 3. Sex Steroids (testosterone) Medulla: 1. Epinephrine 2. Norepinephrine
Two types of nephrons
Cortical nephrons Juxtamedullary nephrons
Nephron Labeled
Cortical radiate artery/vein
Right Coronary Artery (RCA)
Courses to the right side of the heart, where it also gives rise to two branches: ● The right marginal artery serves the myocardium of the lateral right side of the heart. ● The posterior interventricular artery runs to the heart apex & supplies the posterior ventricular walls. Near the apex of the heart, this artery merges (anastomoses; junction of blood vessels) with the anterior interventricular artery.
The nerves that arise from CNS structures are categorized as either?
Cranial or spinal.
Loop of Henle
Creates a salt gradient in the interstitial fluid. - strong at bottom of Loop of Henl Thin descending limb = Permeable to H2O Thick / Thin ascending limb = Permeable to ions - Na+ all the way up; K+ and Cl- only in THICK limb.
Cardiac Skeleton
Crisscrossing, interlacing layer of connective tissue. - Anchors cardiac muscle fibers - Supports great vessels & valves - Limits spread of action potentials to specific paths
Palatine tonsil
D
Muscularis Externa of Stomach
D. Inner oblique, middle circular, outer longitudinal, myenteric plexus
Tail (flagellum)
D. Propels sperm.
Chief cells (mucosa layer)
D. Secrete pepsinogen (inactive form of pepsin)
Corticospinal tracts (pyramidal tracts)
DESCENDING / MOTOR 1. LATERAL Corticospinal tracts 2. VENTRAL Corticospinal tracts
ANS (parasympathetic and sympathetic branch)
DO affect the RATE at which autorhythmic cells launch Action Potentials . Sympathetic N.S - INCREASE heart rate - Increases permeability of the "pacemaker" cells to NA+ & Ca2+ (speeds depolarization) Parasympathetic N.S. - DECREASE heart rate - Increases permeability to K+ (slows rate of depolarization)
Sensory (afferent) root
DORSAL ROOT
Important Muscles
Dartos = built into C.T. that makes up the scrotum (lines scrotum) Cremaster muscle = around testes. Help control testes temperature Hot = down; cool = up
Carotid and aortic sinuses (baroreceptors)
Decreased HR
Parasympathetic innervation
Decreased HR
Blood loss
Decreased SV
What physical principle is demonstrated when performing the Heimlich maneuver?
Decreased thoracic cavity volume (w/ maneuver) -> Increased pressure in lungs -> Forced air w/ increased pressure expelled from lungs.
Pulse rate after Hyperventilation?
Decreases
Weakness or loss of dorsiflexion of the foot and extension of the toes
Deep fibular nerve
Aortic arch artery
Deep to the sternum, begins and ends at the sternal angle (T4 level). Its three major branches (R to L) are: (1) the brachiocephalic trunk, which passes superiorly under the right sternoclavicular joint and branches into the right common carotid arteryand the right subclavian artery (2) the left common carotid artery and (3) left subclavian artery. These three vessels provide the arterial supply of the head, neck, upper limbs, and part of the thorax wall.
Different strategies for digestion
Deers = 4 chambers - large cecum (site of secondary fermentation to get more nutrients) Rabbits= From group called LAGOMORPHS - Coprophagic "feces-eating" 2 sets of feces. They eat 1st set; go through fermentation again!! Get nutrients from it in stomach.
Delta cells
Delta cells in pancreatic islets secrete somatostatin, which inhibits growth hormone (somatostatin = growth hormone inhibiting hormone) - Islets have a very rich blood supply. They only comprise 1-2% of pancreatic mass, but receive ~15% of pancreatic blood flow. They are also innervated by both parasympathetic and sympathetic neurons.
Axillary nerve
Deltoid & teres minor
Where on the neuron would you find the ion channels? E
Dendrites or cell body (soma).
Saltatory conduction
Depolarization waves jumps from one node to another.
Which of the processes is part of the action potential?
Depolarization, propagation, & repolarization.
Hypocalcemia
Depresses heart.
Nephron Loop (Loop of Henle)
Descending limb (thin segment) Ascending limb (thick segment)
Cerebral dominance
Designates the hemisphere that is dominant for language. 90% use the left hemisphere for language abilities, math, and logic. Right hemisphere is more free-spirited, visual-spatial, intuition, emotion, & artistic.
Mechanoreceptors
Detect motion in multiple forms; movements, stretch, & vibrations. Activation causes ion channels to open in these sensors. These types of receptors are often very specialized. (Ion channels open & change membrane potential to possible A.P.) EX: Stretch= Urinary bladder/ bowels. Walls of blood vessels Vibrations= Hearing Movement= Muscles (know their position) Fish scales w/ mechanoreceptors.. H2O goes inside.
Urine is positive for ketones and glucose, what disease should be checked for?
Diabetes mellitus.
The minute-to-minute blood flow through the capillary beds is determined by the __________.
Diameter of arterioles. The diameter of arterioles determines the amount of blood flow through the capillary beds.
Sympathetic & parasympathetic branches?
Differ anatomically in 2 primary ways. Sympathetic: Thoracic/Lumbar origins Short pre- Long post- Sympathetic chain ganglion Close to CNS Parasympathetic: Cranial/Spinal Long pre- Short post- Not chained, but close Close to target.
Membrane potential (mV)
Difference in electrical charge measured across a plasma membrane. ELECTRICAL GRADIENT IS ALWAYS AT ZERO.
Pulse
Difference in pressure of blood in an artery; caused by expansion and recoil of elastic arteries as pressure changes
Neurotransmitters can bind TO?
Different types of receptors
Fick's Law of Diffusion (Gas Movement and Transport)
Diffusion Rate is proportional to Surface Area x Concentration Gradient x Membrane Permeability / Membrane Thickness
How do ions move in and out of cells?
Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, or active transport.
Pylorus
Distal region of the stomach, opening to the duodenum.
Which of the following types of blood vessels have the proportionally thickest tunica media of all vessels?
Distributing arteries. Distributing arteries have the thickest tunica media of all vessels.
Organization of the gray matter of the spinal cord
Divided according to somatic & visceral regions SS—somatic sensory VS—visceral sensory VM—visceral motor SM—somatic motor MAY GO TO THE BRAIN OR INTEGRATE W/IN THE SPINAL CORD.
Right and Left Primary Bronchi
Dividing branches that enter the lungs off the trachea
Lateralization
Division of labor between the two hemispheres.
False vocal folds (ventricular folds)
Do not vibrate during speech but close tightly during swallowing to prevent material from entering the trachea; (L. ventriculus, little belly).
Spinal nerves are formed by?
Dorsal and ventral roots.
Radial nerve
Dorsal or posterior brachium and antebrachium (extensors)
Axons of Sensory Neurons
Dorsal root of a spinal nerve contains the axons of sensory neurons.
Atlas vertebrae (brainstem)
Dorsal view.
Inferior colliculus
Dorsal view.
Medulla oblongata (brainstem)
Dorsal view.
Midbrain (brainstem)
Dorsal view.
Pineal body (epithalamus)
Dorsal view.
Pons (brainstem)
Dorsal view.
Superior colliculus
Dorsal view.
Trochlear (IV)
Dorsal view.
Dural venous sinuses
Drain blood from brain and drain into the internal jugular veins. Capillaries for drainage of blood coming from the brain tissue.
Inferior sagittal sinus
Drains into the straight sinus.
Internal iliac vein
Drains the pelvis. Joins the external iliac vein to form the common iliac vein.
The ligamentum arteriosum is a remnant of what structure? Where do you find it?
Ductus arteriousus which allows lung bypass prior to birth; located between pulmonary trunk and aorta.
Embryonic Development
During the first 26 days of development: - Ectoderm thickens forming the neural plate. - The neural plate invaginate, forming the neural groove. - The neural groove fuses dorsally and forms the neural tube.
Main Pancreatic Duct (pancreas)
E
Oropharynx (label)
E
Labia minora
E. Smaller pair of skin folds that protect the vaginal opening
Lacteal (small intestine)
Each villus of small intestine has capillary network and a lymph vessel. Nutrients absorbed through wall of small intestine pass into capillary network and lacteal
Gender determination depends on the Y Chromosome
Early embryonic tissues make bipotential structures— they are indistinguishable as male or female There are two pairs of ducts: Wolffian Ducts and Müllerian Ducts (internal bipotential genitalia) The presence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome will determine which set of bipotential ducts develop into genitalia, and which degenerate
Paleomammalian Brain (limbic system)
Eating, drinking, having sex, fighting, running away. Your LIMBIC SYSTEM is also where your EMOTIONS come from.
Brachiocephalic veins
Either of the veins formed by the union of the internal jugular and subclavian veins above the heart. Carries deoxygenated blood to right atrium of heart through the anterior vena cava R. brachiocephalic- R. side of head and R. upper limb L. brachiocephalic- L. side of head and L. upper limb
Veins and arteries
Elsewhere in the body, veins carry relatively oxygen-poor blood to the heart, & arteries transport oxygen- rich blood from the heart. The opposite oxygenation conditions exist in veins & arteries of the pulmonary circuit.
Cingulate gyrus
Emotional & visceral responses to emotion.
Corpus luteum (model)
Empty ovarian follicle that secretes progesterone after release of the egg cell
Axon Terminal (synaptic knob)
End of the axon, furthest from the soma
Corpus luteum
Endocrine tissue which produces hormones, estrogen, and progesterone which prepares the uterine lining for receiving an embryo
Endoneurium, perineurium, epineurium
Endoneurium = around Axon Perineurium = around Fascicle Epineurium= around the entire Nerve
Papillary muscles
Enlarged muscles in ventricles that are attached to chordae tendinae. Play role in valve function.
Coronary Sinus
Enlarged vessel on the posterior aspect of the heart that empties blood into the right atrium
Laryngeal Spaces: Aditus
Enter larynx from the pharynx
Na+/K+ ATPase
Enzyme that pumps 3 Na+ ions out of the cell and 2 K+ ions into the cell using a single molecule of ATP. 3: 2 ratio. It is meant to correct the leakage. Needs ATP. FACT: 9% of metabolic rate is goes to running Na+/K+ ATPase.
Acinar cells
Enzyme-secreting cells of the pancreas
Parasitic Invasion and Allergic Reactions
Eosinophils (formed element that elevates in number)
Central canal is lined by
Ependymal cells
Adrenal Sympathetic NS
Epinephrine (E) Binds to ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS Subtypes: ALPHA (binds more to E) BETA (binds more to NE)
Sensory receptors
Every animal that can sense light does so with proteins called OPSINS. Opsins always have vitamin A. When light hits opsin, it temp. changes the shape of the protein, signaling the start of a cascade of messages. Not always eyes! Humans = Opsin is inside retina. Coral sense light to release sperm/egg.
If the ion channels in diagram E opened just long enough to cause a small positive change in the RMP, but alone not a great enough change to result in the generation of an action potential, what would you call this occurrence?
Excitatory Post Synaptic Potential (EPSP). (Graded potential)
Pancreas histology
Exocrine = - Relies on ducts - Aids digestion Acinar cells Plural: Acini Secrete hormones via Endocrine - alpha cells - beta cells - delta cells
Volume of air important during Heimlich maneuver?
Expiratory reserve, forced out during maneuver to blow out lodged object.
Trachea
Extends from pharynx to about mid-chest (5th thoracic vertebrae) Reinforced by C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage. Abut the esophagus, allowing it to expand. Keep the airway patent (= open) Lined w/ cilia that beat away from the lungs, further filtering out debris, etc.
Left Bundle Branch
Extends toward the apex of the heart and then radiates across the inner surface of the left ventricle
Right Bundle Branch
Extends toward the apex of the heart and then radiates across the inner surface of the right ventricle
Renal columns
Extensions of the cortex that project inward toward sinus
External and Internal Carotid
External Carotid Artery: Supply most tissues of the head except the brain and orbit Internal Carotid Artery: Supply the orbits and more than 80% of the cerebellum.
Branch of abdominal aorta supplying the lower limbs (via femoral artery)
External iliac artery
Nasal Cavity Anatomy
External nares Internal nares Pharyngotympanic Tube
Scrotum
External sac that contains the testes
Neurilemma (sheath of Schwann)
External to the myelin sheath & is the outer, cytoplasmic part of the Schwann cells.
Location of Sensory Receptors
Exteroceptors (external) Interoceptors, proprioceptors (internal)
Tongue
F
Third ventricle
F - In the diencephalon via a channel called the interventricular foramen.
Sympathetic Division (Thoracic/Lumbar origin)
FLIGHT OR FLIGHT. When we are excited or find ourselves in emergency, we get a rapid heart rate, deep breathing, dry mouth, cold, sweaty, dilated pupils. Other adjustments: 1. Constricts visceral (sometimes cutaneous) blood vessels. To active skeletal muscles & working heart. 2. Dilates the bronchioles for more O2. 3. Stimulates the liver to release more glucose in the blood. Close to CNS!
Which two nerves transmit impulses regarding test from the tongue?
Facial nerve (VII) = 2/3 anterior of tongue. Glossopharyngeal (IX) = 1/3 posterior of tongue.
Epipolic Appendages
Fat-filled pouches of visceral peritoneum
Myelin
Fatty, insulating sheaths that protects, electrically insulates fibers, & increases the transmission speed of nerve impulses (AXONS ONLY)
Normal hemoglobin Levels
Female: 12- 16 g/ mL Male: 13- 18 g/ mL/
Loss of the ability to extend the knee?
Femoral nerve
7 NA+ & 2 K+. More of fewer K+?
Fewer, so membrane potential is a NEGATIVE #.
Lumbosacral trunk
Fibers from spinal nerves (ventral rami) L4-L5 traveling inferiorly (from lumbar plexus) to enter the sacral plexus.
Cholinergic fibers
Fibers that release ACh. Includes: 1. All ANS preganglionic axons 2. All parasympathetic postganglionic axons at synapse with their effectors.
Filum terminale (model)
Fibrous extension of the pia mater; anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx
Filum terminale
Fibrous extension of the pia mater; anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx.
Function of tonsils?
Fight infection; Located around openings where microbes may have access to enter the body.
Nephron Facts
Filtering units of the kidney that remove wastes from the blood and produce urine. Cortical nephrons = 80% - Stays in cortex Juxtamedullary nephrons = 20%. (HUMANS) - Long Loop on Henle in the Medulla Multiple nephrons per Collecting Duct Cortical radiate artery/vein
Duodenum
First part of the small intestine.
30 million years later
Flatworms showed up, and they have a CENTRAL MASS OF NEURONS. The mass of neurons is the PRECURSOR FOR OUR BRAIN. Now organisms could not only sense and respond to their enviro., but can also INTEGRATE INFORMATION.
What is CSF?
Fluid within the subarachnoid space, the central canals the spinal cord, and the four ventricles of the brain. Buoyancy, Protection, Environmental Stability. Found in/around the brain/spinal cord. Reduces the weight of the brain by 97%.
Comparison of Mucosa
Folds = Missing in Esophagus |ntestinal glands or Duodenal glands (if in small intestine) Large intestine = No villi BUT have glands.
Folia
Folds of the cerebellum surface.
Ovarian Cycle
Follicular phase - Period of follicle growth, typically from the first to the tenth day of cycle. Primordial follicle (squamous cells) becomes Primary follicle (cuboidal cells) → Follicular cells become granulosa cells (stratified epithelium) → connective tissue forms around granulosa cells (thecal folliculi) ; thecal and granulosa cells produce estrogens → transparent membrane forms around oocyte (zone pellucida) ; antrum (fluid-filled cavity) develops between granulosa cells → primary follicle becomes secondary follicle ; granulosa cells form the corona radiata at the edge of the follicle → secondary follicle grows to full size and becomes a Graafian or vesicular follicle. Ovulatory phase- Occurs mid-cycle, between day 10 - 14. Secondary oocyte with its corona radiata are released into the peritoneal cavity when the ovarian wall ruptures. Only one follicle outstrips the others to become the dominant follicle that will undergo ovulation; the others degenerate (atretic follicles). Luteal phase- Period of corpus luteum activity, typically occuring 10 days after ovulation. Corpus luteum (yellow body) develops from granulosa and thecal cells after secondary oocyte has been released → secretes estrogen and progesterone for 10 days until fertilization occurs → 1. if pregnancy occurs, corpus luteum persists until placenta takes over its hormone-releasing duties → 2. if pregnancy does not occur, corpus luteum degenerates in about 10 days to become corpus albicans (white body) and hormone secretion ceases.
Podocytes
Foot processes with filtration slits.
The fossa ovalis is a remnant of what fetal structure ? What is the patent foramen ovalis and what is the problem caused by it?
Foramen ovale; remains open after birth. Allows deoxygenated blood to mix with oxygenated blood in left atrium.
Prepuce
Foreskin or hood
Oligodendrocytes (CNS) LAB
Form myelin insulation on axons in CNS. ---- Wrap around axons.
The function of a Schwann cell is to
Form the myelin sheath around the axon of a neuron
Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
Form the myelin sheath in the brain & the spinal cord
What is the physical relationship between the gland and the thyroid?
Found on the back of the thyroid.
Muculocutaneous nerve (brachial plexus)
From lateral cord. Innervates flexor muscles in anterior arm (biceps, brachialis, & coracobrachialis)
Ulnar nerve (brachial plexus)
From medial cord. Innervates some flexor muscles in forearm and intrinsic hand muscles; also adducts & abducts medial fingers. Injury: Claw hand (last 2 fingers become hyperextended), thus can't spread fingers (abduct) and can't make a fist or grip objects.
Radial nerve (brachial plexus)
From posterior cord. Innervates extensors of forearm & hand (elbow extension, supination of forearm, extension of wrist & fingers, & abduction of thumb); extends forearm (triceps, brachioradialis). Injury: Wrist drop (unable to extend hand at wrist)
Axillary nerve (brachial plexus)
From posterior cord. Innervates deltoid and tres minor muscles.
Paranasal sinuses
Frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, maxillary
4 paranasal sinuses; function?
Frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, maxillary. Resonance for sound, warm, circulation, and moisten air.. Produce mucus.
Renal Pelvis
Funnel-shaped reservoir that collects the urine and passes it to the ureter.
Frontal sinus
G
Clusters of cell bodies in the PNS are called
Ganglia
Stomach histology
Gastric pits Gastric glands Mucosa Muscularis mucosae - layer of smooth muscle Submucosa - c.t. w/ blood vessels * folded *
Mucosa (cont.)
Gastrointestinal stem cells are also found in the mucosa. Replacement of these epithelial cells is a constant process. Because of the HIGH rate of mitosis, colon and rectal cancers are common. 3rd most deadly cancer in the US.
Greater vestibular glands (Bartholin glands)
Glands that keep the vaginal mucosa moist and provide a lubricant for the vagina during sexual intercourse.
Anterior Pituitary Gland Embryonic Origin
Glandular Epithelial Tissue
Renal corpuscle
Glomerulus and bowman's capsule
Damage to which nerve might result in difficulty swallowing & loss of salivation from paratoid gland?
Glossopharyngeal (IX)
Pancreatic Islets (pancreas)
Glucagon and insulin are made and secreted
Both are Intending to Keep Us Alive (Adrenal Medulla vs Adrenal Cortex)
Glucocorticoids: Too long = Not good! Can lead to Diabetes Mellitus. Your immune system makes you feel sick but w/ it suppressed you don't feel it.
Glucose Transporters
Glucose + galactose = Na+ dependent Fructose = NOT Na+ dependent SLGT = glucose transporter GLUT2 = on the antilumenal side - "GLUT" stands for glucose transporter NOT always glucose, may be galactose or fructose.
Pulse rate when you stand up? When you stand?
Goes up slightly; increases
Gonadal vein (left)
Gonadal (testicular or ovarian) veins. The right gonadal vein drains the ovary or testis on the right side of the body and empties into the inferior vena cava. The left gonadal vein drains into the left renal vein superiorly.
What are basal nuclei?
Gray matter neuron cell deep inside the cerebrum. Influence muscle movements, especially starting, stopping, & monitoring movements.
Neuronal synapses would be most common in the?
Gray matter.
Cortex of the brain
Gray matter. Formed from neuronal cell bodies.
Atrioventricular Sulcus
Groove on the surface of the heart that marks the division between an atrium & a ventricle
Coronary sulcus (atrioventricular groove)
Groove that marks border b/n atria & ventricles
Anterior Pituitary hormones
Growth hormone (GH), Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), Luteinizing hormone (LH), & Prolactin (PRL)
Longitudinal muscle layer (small intestine)
H
Sphenoidal sinus
H
Ventral root
H Contains axons of motor neurons.
Nucleus of neuron
H Function: Contains DNA; produce RNA for protein synthesis
Parietal cells
HCL and Intrinsic Factor (necessary for B12 absorption) HCl Function: - acid environment = immune function - denatures proteins (pepsinogen cleaves off chains of AA; not individual AA) - mucus protects stomach lining - stomach acid: < 1.0 Note: Intracellular fluid of parietal cells : pH = 7. Concentration gradient of H+ ions across the membrane of these parietal cells its 7 million times
Contractility of Heart
HEARTS ABILITY TO CONTRACT @ A GIVEN FIBER LENGTH. SV (force) vs End Diastolic Volume (stretch) As SV increases, contractile increases.
Negative Feedback Loops
HOMEOSTATIC. They stabilize the variable within the normal range of function. They restore the normal state. Ex: - Body temp. - Blood glucose levels - Blood Ca2+ level. Hormonal Regulation
Heart's efficiency as a pump
HR (beats/minute) x SV (mL/beat) Rest: 72 beat/min x 70 ml/beat = 5040 ml/min. = 5 L/min, so heart is pumping the entire blood volume once per minute. @ REST Exercise: Cardiac output = 30 - 35 L/min
Haploid vs diploid cells
Haploid - Contain only one set of chromosomes 23 chromosomes - 22 autosomes - 1 sex chrome Diploid - Contains two sets of chromosomes; one from each parent 46 chromosomes - 44 autosomes - 2 sex chromes
fetal hemoglobin (HbF)
Has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin (primarily HbA), which also assists in the transfer (and retention) of oxygen into the fetal circulatory system. GAMMA instead of BETA, so 2 alpha and 2 gamma.
Phasic Contractions
Have cycles of contraction & relaxation that last a few seconds. These are associated w/ cycles of depolarization and repolarization called SLOW WAVE POTENTIALS, originating in cells called Interstitial Cells of Canal (ICC) ( -> pacemaker cells of GI tract ) Random, not scripted! They can serve the function of moving food through the gut (PERISTALSIS = move), or just simply to mix it within the GI Tract (SEGMENTAL CONTRACTIONS = mix)
Visceral reflex arcs
Have essentially the same components as somatic reflex arcs - receptors, sensory neurons, integration center, motor neuron, effector 3 Main Differences: 1. Has 2 consecutive neurons in its motor component. 2. Afferent fibers are visceral sensory neurons rather than somatic sensory neurons. 3. The effectors are smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands (not skeletal). Ex: Empty the rectum and bladder
Fenestrated capillaries
Have pores in vessel wall; found in kidneys, intestines, and endocrine glands. - Pores b/n cells - Allows for bulk transport of fluid/materials - Found: Digestive Tract/Kidneys
Primary auditory cortex
Hearing, temporal lobe.
Cardiovascular
Heart + blood vessels Serves organ systems eg. Respiration, digestive (nutrients to blood) JOB: distribute things to the body. Single cell organism = Use diffusion ex. gas for aerobes, wastes, & nutrients BUT... We are multicellular - 75 trillion cells in the body. We CANNOT DIFFUSE/ must be distributed. Size: Fist w/ large blood vessels in/out of heart.
Hyperkalemia
Heart block and cardiac arrest.
Extrinsic Innervation of the Heart
Heart is stimulated by the sympathetic cardioacceleratory center Heart is inhibited by the parasympathetic cardioinhibitory center
Alpha and Beta Chains
Held by dissulfide bonds & hydrogen bonds + salt bridges. 1 Hb = 4 O2 molecules. Changes color when O2 sits in heme group = Shift = Color change - Reflects light differently! - Way iron is bound or unbound.
Arytenoid Cartilage
Help control tension of vocal cord to produce different sounds.
Role of Thalamus
Helps in mediating sensation, motor activities, cortical arousal, learning, and memory; acts as a relay station for most sensory information ascending to the cerebral cortex.
Erythoroblastosis fetalis? Cause and results?
Hemolytic disease of newborn babies; Results when a pregnant Rh- mom carries a Rh+ baby. As a result, the mother forms anti-Rh antibodies. Subsequent pregnancy w/ an Rh+ baby, her antibodies will destroy the baby's RBC, resulting in serious damage to organs.
Hormonal Synergism
Here the effect is NOT additive, BUT MULTIPLICATIVE. One hormone seems to potentiate the others. Ex: Glucagon, epinephrine, & norepinephrine = INCREASE BLOOD GLUCOSE.
Hemophilia ? How do you get it? Most common cause?
Hereditary bleeding disorder most commonly caused by missing clotting factor VIII or IX.
Follicular and Luteal phase
High estrogen = spike of LH (midcycle) Endometrium gets thicker
Hemoglobin concentration in males?
Higher in males
Bronchoconstriction
Histamine (vasodilator) Asthma
Negative Feedback Example
Home-heating system 1. Thermometer: Sensor, measures the actual temperature 2. Thermostat: Comparator, receives sensors signal & compares actual temperature - Thermostat compares actual temperature to SETPOINT (the desired temperature): too cold! - Thermostat sends a signal to furnace 3. Furnace: Effector - Heat from the furnace raises the temperature; when the set point temp. is reached, furnace is shut off.
Types of STIMULI
Hormonal, humoral, & neural = 3 mechanisms for control. Hormonal = Stimulated by another hormone! EX: Anterior Pituitary Gland stimulates the thyroid, adrenal cortex, & testes. Humoral = Means Body Fluids. Something sensed in body fluids. Ex: Low CA2+ in blood = Parathyroid hormone release Neural = Neuron releases NE & E.
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Hormone secreted by the kidney to stimulate the production of red blood cells by bone marrow
Antagonistic Hormones
Hormones work antagonistically to one another. Where 1 hormone NEGATES (balances) the effects of another. Ex: Insulin & glucagon
Size/shape of hyaline cartilage sections from trachea to bronchioles?
Horseshoe-shaped in trachea to Irregular plates in bronchi to None in bronchioles!
40 million years ago
Humans show up, our brain was incredibly evolved. VERY ADVANCED THOUGHT, MEMORIES, EMOTIONS.
Trachea (Lab)
Hyaline cartilage; Horseshoe-shaped Pseudostratified cilitated columnar epithelium. Goblet cells; produce mucus Trachealis muscle (smooth muscle) - Allows food passage in esophagus. It may also contract decreasing the diameter to push air out w/ greater force (during coughing).
Which nerve innervates the muscles of the tongue?
Hypoglossal (XII).
How do these "signals" get to the anterior pituitary?
Hypophyseal Portal System. Consists of: 1. Primary capillary plexus 2. Hypophyseal portal veins 3. Secondary capillary plexus The portal system ensures that the minute quantities of hormones released by the hypothalamus arrive rapidly at the anterior pituitary without being diluted by the systemic circulation. All these hypothalamic regulatory hormones are amino acid based, but they vary in size from a single amine to peptides to proteins.
Distal convoluted tubule
Hyposmotic fluid @ 100 mosm - Dilute URINE! Always/ No matter if hydrated or dehydrated Why? To fine-tune urine in our collecting duct.
Creates levels of Integrating Centers
Hypothalamic hormones release Anterior Pit. hormones
Where do these 'signals' come from?
Hypothalamus
Suprachiasmic nucleus (SCN)
Hypothalamus = Limbic system/ Autonomic. Above the optic chiasma. "Master clock"
Dorsal median sulcus (diagram)
I
Name and numbers of Cranial Nerves
I. Olfactory II. Optic II. Oculomotor IV. Trochlear V. Trigeminal VI. Abducens VII. Facial VIII. Vestibulocochlear IX. Glossopharyngeal X. Vagus XI. Accessory XII. Hypoglossal.
Alpha motor neuron cell bodies (in ventral gray horn)
IN VENTRAL GRAY HORN ONLY
Another name for Tunica Intima?
INTERNA Contains the endothelium.
Electron Properties of the Cell
IONS Equal Na+ (outside) & K+ (inside) = NO ELECTRICAL GRADIENT. BUT there IS a CONCENTRATION GRADIENT (K+ inside only & Na+ outside only)
CNS
IS THE INTEGRATING & CONTROL CENTER OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
What is the advantage of forming nerves from a mix of many spinal nerves rather than from individual spinal nerves?
If a spinal nerve is damaged, you wouldn't lose total innervation to a limb or limb region.
What is the duration of the corpus luteum?
If fertilization does not occur, it degenerates in about 10 days into corpus albicans and its hormonal output ends. If fertilization occurs, it will continue to produce hormones until the placenta takes over its hormone-producing duties in about 3 months.
Diffusion
If you're a single-celled organism, diffusion works great. Unfortunately, it's a slow process. In order for us to rely on it, we have to maximize surface area as much as possible. This is common theme in our bodies: where have you seen it already? - Lungs - Kidneys (PCT) - Brain (Cortex) The digestive system is a prime example of the maximization of surface area.
Ileum and Cecum
Ileocecal valve
Circuit Level (sensory integration)
Impulses are delivered to the proper area of the cerebral cortex.
Perceptual Level (sensory integration)
In addition to knowing the stimulus has occurred, you need to know: - How big it was (# of A.P.) - Where it was - What else is happening around you. - Decipher patterns. (in cerebral cortex)
Estrogens and sex characteristics
In addition to the production of ova, the production of estrogens also begins at puberty Female secondary sex characteristics include: • Enlargement of accessory organs • Development of the breasts • Appearance of axillary and pubic hair • Increased deposits of fat, around hips and breasts • Widening and lightening of the pelvis • Onset of menses
When might you need to use a differential count?
In an elevated leukocyte, one needs to determine whether it is a bacterial, viral, parasite, or chronic infection.
FEEDBACK LOOP
In order to maintain homeostasis, these signals cannot be turned on forever: they must be turned off at some point. Homeostasis is regulated largely by reflex pathways, which have 2 loops: 1. RESPONSE LOOPS (Turns the Signal On) 2. FEEDBACK LOOPS (Turning the Signal Off)
Somatosensory cortex
In parietal lobe, registers touch sensations.
Ependymal Cells (CNS)
In the brain & spinal cord, responsible for circulating cerebrospinal fluid. * ciliated cells *
The nucleus of a neuron is located ?
In the soma (cell body)
Spinal Nerves (Lecture)
In the thoracic region, T2 - T12, rami innervate the body cavity. In all other regions, the ventral rami branch and rejoin each other, creating spinal nerve plexus.
Secondary Brain Vesicles
In week 5 of embryonic development. 1. Telencephalon 2. Diencephalon = Arise from Forebrain 3. Mesencephalon = Remains undivided 4. Metencephalon 5. Myelencephalon = Arise from hindbrain.
Thyroxin
Increase HR
Nasal Conchae
Increase surface area & air turbulence of nasal cavity. Increases "trapping" of debris on mucus-covered surfaces. Increases efficiency of air warming. - Air swirls! 1. Particles hit olfactory receptors = better smell ; sense environment. 2. Cold to warm air 3. Filters!!
Exercise (increased action of skeletal muscle contraction on veins)
Increased SV
Increased venous blood return
Increased SV
Sympathetic innervation
Increased SV Increased HR
Epinpherine
Increases HR
Hypercalcemia
Increases heart irritability. Increased spastic contractions.
Neurons
Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, & transmit information. --- Excitable cells that transmit electrical signals.
What might cause a larger than normal Buffy Coat?
Infection, invasion (bacterial, viral, parasitic), and leukemia (abnormal response).
Supplies the distal colon
Inferior mesenteric artery
Inferior mesenteric vein
Inferior mesenteric vein: Drains the distal portions of the large intestine and rectum and joins the splenic vein just before that vessel unites with the superior mesenteric vein to form the hepatic portal vein.
Larynx
Inferior to pharynx Formed by 8 rigid hyaline cartilages & the epiglottis (elastic cartilage) Thyroid cartilage protrudes anteriorly, forming the "Adam's apple" Epiglottis closes over the trachea when we swallow, preventing anything but air going into the airways Folds in the mucus membrane form the vocal folds, allowing us to speak
Returns blood from trunk to lower extremities to heart?
Inferior vena cava
If a postsynaptic membrane had small regions of hyperpolarization, these local occurrences of hyperpolarization would be called?
Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potential (IPSP).
What type of neurotransmitter would cause results IPSP's when bound to a postsynaptic receptor?
Inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Secretin
Inhibits stomach acid secretion & slows gastric emptying; stimulates duodenal bicarbonate secretion.
Axon hillock (trigger zone)
Initial segment of axon where the action potential is initiated.
Endocardium
Inner layer of the heart - Glistening white sheet of endothelium (squamous epithelium) resting on a thin connective tissue layer. - Located on the inner myocardial surface, it lines the heart chambers & covers the fibrous skeleton of the valves. - Continuous w/ the endothelial linings of the blood vessels leaving & entering the heart.
Tunica Intima
Innermost layer and lines the lumen of the blood vessels. It consists of simple squamous epithelium and a thin layer of areolar CT(basement membrane) to "stick it to the Tunica media." The basement membrane is often seen as a squiggly line right under the simple squamous epithelium. The simple squamous epithelium provides a smooth surface for the blood to "slide past." The tunica intima is continuous with the endocardium, makes-up the capillaries and is collectively referred to as the endothelium.
Mucosa (small intestine)
Innermost layer of small intestine; contains villi to maximize surface area
Oculomotor nerves (III)
Innervate smooth muscles in the eyes that cause pupils to constrict and lenses to bulge. The preganglionic axons found in the oculomotor nerves issues from the accessory oculomotor nuclei in the midbrain. Cells bodies of the postganglionic neurons are in the ciliary ganglia within eye orbits.
Obturator nerve (lumbar plexus)
Innervates adductor muscles of thigh (adductor magnus, longus, brevis, and gracilis)
Median nerve (brachial plexus)
Innervates flexor muscles of forearm, the first two fingers, pronates forearm, flexes wrist & fingers and opposes thumb. Injury: Loss of pincher grasp (oppose thumb & index finger), thus can't pick up small objects.
Sciatic nerve (sacral plexus)
Innervates hamstrings (thigh extensors & knee flexor) & part of the adductor magnus). Injury: Pain radiating down leg along the branches of sciatic nerve as a result of herniated disc; transected sciatic nerve results in inability to flex foot & ankle movements are lost, thus foot drops into plantar flexion (dangles).
What cerebral lobe is deep to the lateral sulcus?
Insula, contains the Gustatory Cortex which is responsible for taste. May be connected to autonomic system.
What is the major function of the Islets of Langerhans?
Insulin and glucagon production in order to control blood sugar levels.
Muscles that contract for forced or labored expiration?
Internal intercostals, oblique and transverses abdominal muscles.
Pectinate muscles
Internal ridges of myocardium in right atrium & both auricles
Internal and External urethral sphincters
Internal urethral sphincters is formed by smooth muscle and is involuntarily controlled. External urethral sphincters is formed by skeletal muscle and is voluntarily controlled.
Spinal nerves exit the vertebral column by passing through openings called?
Intervertebral foramina.
Medial & Lateral Plantar nerves
Intrinsic foot muscles Branch from tibial nerve
Internal sphincter
Involuntary, smooth muscle
What chemical element is critical in the production of the major thyroid hormones?
Iodine
Trabeculae Carneae
Irregular ridges of muscle on ventricular walls.
Significance of Vital Capacity
It can be used to determine if problems are obstructive or restrictive in nature. It will be reduced in restrictive disorders.
Clinical significance of the size and position of the right primary bronchus?
It has a larger diameter and is more vertical so is a more common site for inhaled foreign objects.
How far down the vertebral column does the spinal cord extend?
It typically ends between L1 and L2.
Gray commissure (diagram)
J
580 million years ago
Jellyfish showed up, and they had something new: A NETWORK OF NEURONS (keep alive). 1. Sense their environment. 2. Respond to it.
Interventricular foramina
Join lateral ventricles with third ventricle.
Dorsal gray horn (diagram)
K
Ions in the body
K + = primarily + charged inside Na+ = primarily + charged outside NA+ OUTWEIGHS K+
What type of ion channels are opening and/or closing in the non-highlighted region? How are they gated?
K+ channels are opening, Na+ channels are closing. Voltage-gated! Must reach + 30 mV.
Common hepatic duct
K. Large bile duct leading from liver; joins with the cystic duct to form the common bile duct
K Rat vs Beaver
Kangaroo rat = Urinate 1 or 2 drops a year. Get H2O from their food. Conserve H2O. 10-12 x concentrated than humans. Beaver = Rodent lives in aquatic environment and urinate a lot.
ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
Kidneys
The major long-term mechanism of blood pressure control is provided by the __________.
Kidneys. The kidneys act both directly and indirectly to regulate arterial pressure and provide the major long-term mechanism of blood pressure control by altering blood volume.
Ventral gray horn
L Motor neurons
Oropharynx
L - Palatine tonsils (2) J - Lingual tonsil
Lungs
L/R primary bronchus.
Lumbar plexus
L1-L4 Femoral nerve Obturator nerve L4 & L5 Lumbosacral trunk
Medial & Lateral Plantar
L4-S3. Tibial nerve has what two branches?
External jugular vein
LARGER IN CATS. Drain superficial scalp and face structures served by external carotid arteries. Empty into subclavian veins.
Internal jugular vein
LARGER IN HUMANS. Arise from the dural venous sinuses, exit skull via jugular foramina. Descend through neck alongside internal carotid arteries.
Cellular membranes are?
LEAKY. The membrane is permeable! K+ leaks outside the cell. Na+ leaks inside the cell. B/c of concentration gradient (diffusion)
The Cingulate Gyrus is associated with what cerebral system?
LIMBIC SYSTEM. Plays role in expressing emotions via gestures and resolves mental conflict
Ventricular fibrillation ? Can it be corrected?
Lack of synchronized contraction of cardiac fibers. Yes, must defibrillate with electrical shock.
Superior mesenteric artery
Large abdominal artery; feed large and small intestine
Elastic artery, two examples?
Large artery with numerous elastic fibers in the tunica media (is present in other two). Aorta and common iliac artery
Circumvallate papillae
Large papillae with taste buds
Medulla oblongata (reptilian brain)
Large pyramidal tracts (motor neurons) descend from the motor cortex, through the medulla, and into the spinal cord. The tracts cross over in the medulla at the decussation of the pyramids (crossing of tracts). NO REAL BBB in the medulla oblongata! - > You can vomit if toxins are present.
Cerebral peduncles (midbrain/reptilian)
Large pyramidal tracts of motor fibers descending towards spinal cord.
Larger vs smaller stimulus (Graded Potential)
Larger stimulus = More Na+ into the cell Smaller stimulus = Less Na+ into the cell
Parotid Glands (2)
Largest of the salivary glands
Superficial fibular nerve
Lateral lower leg Foot eversion & plantar flexion
Common Fibular nerve
Lateral to fibula. Supplies muscles of anterolateral lower leg (extensors that dorsiflex foot), knee joint, skin of lateral calf & dorsum of foot. Injury: Causes foot drop
Adult Neural Canal Regions
Lateral ventricles (Telencephalon) Third ventricles (Diencephalon) Cerebral aqueduct (Mesencephalon) Fourth ventricle (Metencephalon/Myelencephalon) Central canal
Thoracodorsal nerve
Latissimus dorsi #13
What contributes to the negative RMP?
Leakage channels (Na+ ion channels & K+ ion ion channels are open, helping to maintain the RMP. Na+/K+ ATPase too.
Celiac Trunk Artery Branches
Left gastric artery Splenic artery Common Hepatic artery
Cardiac notch
Left lung only
Goblet cells change from trachea to bronchioles? Why?
Less numerous the closer to bronchioles. NONE IN ALVEOLI.
Interstitial (Leydig) cells
Lie between the seminiferous tubules ; produce androgens (mainly testosterone)
Suprachiasmic nucleus (SCN) & Biological Rhythms
Light to SCN that produces GABA that send messages to the PINEAL GLAND. W/ light = Negative feedback that prevents melatonin release.
Blood is the Only Fluid Tissue in the Body
Like all C.T., cells (the formed elements) are suspended in a matrix (blood plasma) 45% of blood volume = ERYTHROCYTES, < 1% are LEUKOCYTES and PLATLETS, and 55 % is PLASMA.
Red Nuclei (midbrain/reptilian)
Limb flexion.
Unique structures
Limited to the internal genitalia - Ductus deferens - Uterine tubes - Uterus = Different embryonic tissue
Surfactant ? Produces? When does it produce?
Lipid and protein complex that reduces the surface tension w/in alveoli. Type 2 cells; produced the last 2 months of fetal development.
Lipid vs Water soluble hormones
Lipid-soluble hormones have longer half-lives, meaning that they stay in the blood longer. They are not as readily excreted by the kidneys because they are bound to plasma proteins, & most need to be metabolized by the liver before they can be excreted.
What can/can't cross the Blood-Brain Barrier?
Lipid-soluble molecules (ex. alcohol, nicotine, anesthetics) can cross, as well as other things by facilitated diffusion (glucose, amino acids, electrolytes, etc.) Metabolic wastes, proteins, certain toxins, & most drugs are denied entry.
Steroid hormones bind to CYTOSOL or NUCLEUS
Lipophilic molecules bind receptors either (a) in the cytosol, or (b) in the nucleus. This MESSENGER-RECEPTOR COMPLEX acts as a transcription factor, & results in initiation of transcription. This either causes genes to be turned on or off. Effects are slower to see (can be days or hours)
__________ inhibits fibrinolysis by competing with plasminogen and may contribute to the formation of atherosclerotic plaques.
Lipoprotein (a). Lipoprotein (a) competes with plasminogen but cannot dissolve clots, and it participates in the formation of atherosclerotic plaques.
Elevated levels of urobilinogen and bilirubin may indicate problems with what organ?
Liver
Hepatocytes
Liver cells; produce bile, absorb and secrete nutrients like glucose, and secrete plasma proteins
Broca's area
Located anterior to primary motor cortex (frontal lobe) & coordinates speech.
Lingual tonsils
Located at the base of the tongue
Cerebellar peduncles
Located b/n cerebellum & brainstem, & relays impulses to and from cerebellum.
Reticular formation function
Located in the brainstem & activates state of wakefulness.
Where are the cell bodies of the preganglionic parasympathetic neurons that innervate the head?
Located in the brainstem.
Hypothalamus
Located in the diencephalon & regulates body temperature & many visceral activities.
Thalamus
Located in the diencephalon & relays sensory impulses to cerebral cortex.
Vasomotor center
Located in the medulla oblongata & controls diameter of blood vessels & blood pressure.
Cardiac center
Located in the medulla oblongata & regulates heartbeat.
Respiratory center
Located in the medulla oblongata & regulates rate and depth of breathing.
Corpora quadrigemina function
Located in the midbrain & contains visual (SC) & auditory reflex centers (IC).
Cerebral peduncles
Located in the midbrain & provides motor pathways b/n cerebrum & lower parts.
Fossa ovalis (foramen ovale in fetus)
Located in the right atrium.
Thymus Gland
Located in the upper thorax, posterior to the sternum. Secretes THYMOSIN which helps the thymus act as an incubator for T cells, which help boost your immune response. As we age, the thymus is replaced with fibrous and fatty tissue, but continues to produce immunocompetent cells. Thymus to fibrous and fatty tissue (when we age)
Submandibular Gland (2)
Located on the floor of the mouth
How does location affect stimulus ?
Location of sodium channel can make a difference. Closer = Takes less
Merkel Discs
Location: Exteroreceptors Stimulus type: Mechanoreceptors Body Location: At base of epidermis of skin.
Ruffini's Corpuscles
Location: Exteroreceptors Stimulus type: Mechanoreceptors (deep pressure & stretch) Body Location: Deep dermis, hypodermis, and joint capsules.
Root Hair Plexuses
Location: Exteroreceptors Stimulus type: Mechanoreceptors (hair detection) Body Location: In & surrounding hair follicles.
Krause's Bulbs
Location: Exteroreceptors Stimulus type: Mechanoreceptors (light pressure & discriminative touch) Body Location: CT of mucosae (mouth, conjunctiva, & hairless skin near body openings of lips.
Meissner's Corpuscles
Location: Exteroreceptors Stimulus type: Mechanoreceptors (light pressure & discriminative touch) Body Location: Dermal papillae of hairless skin (lips, nipples, & fingertips)
Pacinian Corpuscles
Location: Exteroreceptors, interoreceptors Stimulus type: Mechanoreceptors (deep pressure & stretch) Body Location: Subcutaneous tissue of skin, periostea, mesentery, tendons, ligaments, joint capsules, fingers, soles of feet, external genitalia, & nipples.
Free Nerve Endings
Location: Exteroreceptors, interoreceptors Stimulus type: Nociceptors (pain), thermoreceptors (temp), & mechanoreceptors (pressure). Body Location: Most body tissues; abundant in epithelia & connective tissue.
Golgi Tendon Organs
Location: Proprioreceptors Stimulus type: Mechanoreceptors (tendon stretch) Body Location: Embedded in tendon.
Muscle Spindles
Location: Proprioreceptors Stimulus type: Mechanoreceptors (muscle stretch) Body Location: Skeletal muscles, particularly those of extremities.
Greater Saphenous vein
Longest vein in the body
Node of ranvier
Longitudinal section Where 2 myelin sheaths come together.
What parts of the nephron are associated with the medulla?
Loop of Henle (collecting ducts and papillary ducts are in the medulla but are NOT part of the nephron)
Laryngopharynx
Lower part of the pharynx, just below the oropharyngeal opening into the larynx and esophagus.
Lateral gray horn (diagram)
M
Functionally, a spinal nerve is an example of a?
MIXED
In terms of function, spinal nerves are classified by?
MIXED.
Oculomotor III (Cranial Nerve)
MOTOR. 1/4 of Autonomic: - Pupillary muscles & ciliary muscles. Muscles can sense damage to it also. Propriocentric afferent to the same muscles. GOES: Fibers extend from the ventral midbrain, pass though the superior orbital fissure, & to 4/6 extrinsic eye muscles (inferior oblique, inferior/medial/superior rectus muscles). Function: Raise the eyelid, directing the eyeball, constricting the iris (autonomic), & controlling lens shape (autonomic).
Trochlear IV (Cranial Nerve)
MOTOR. Function: Directs the eye ball. GOES: Fibers emerge form the dorsal midbrain & enter the orbits via the superior orbital fissure; innervate the superior oblique muscle.
Hypoglossal XII (Cranial Nerve)
MOTOR. GOES: Fibers arise from the medulla and exit via the hypoglossal canal. Function: Motor: to intrinsic & extrinsic tongue muscles (move the tongue) Proprioceptive afferents back from same muscles.
Abducens VI (Cranial Nerve)
MOTOR. GOES: Fibers leave the inferior pons & enter the orbit via the superior orbital fissure to eye. Function: Motor to lateral rectus muscles (an extrinsic eye muscle/ rotates eye laterally). Convey proprioceptor impulses from the same muscle to brain.
Accessory XI (Cranial Nerve)
MOTOR. GOES: Formed from a cranial root emerging from the medulla & a spinal root arising from the superior region of the spinal cord. Function: Motor: to the muscles of the shoulder, neck (sternocleidomastoid & trapezius), pharynx, & larynx. Proprioceptive afferents from the same muscles.
Kupferr Cells
Macrophages in the liver.
Body (of uterus)
Major portion of uterus.
Pons (reptilian brain)
Major relay center b/n cerebrum, cerebellum, & spinal cord. Trigeminal, abducens, & facial cranial nerves are found here. Together w/ the midbrain, controls voluntary eye movement (part of reticular formation).
Femoral vein
Major vein of the thigh that receives blood from the deep femoral and great saphenous vein
Kidney is a collection of tubules and blood vessels
Make up 4/10 of 1% of body mass, but they receive about 20 - 25 % of our cardiac output. Metabolically active!
Motor homunculus
Map showing portion of motor cortex devoted to each body region
Why is there no visible wave during atrial repolarization?
Masked by QRS complex (electrical events during ventricular depolarization)
Tonsils
Masses of lymphatic tissue in the back of the oropharynx
Nervous System
Master controlling system on the body.
What is the Graafian follicle?
Mature ovarian follicle ready for ovulation.
Channels on dendrites and soma?
Mechanically & chemically gated channels
Formed from branches of the lateral & medial cords
Medial nerve.
Medial & lateral pectoral nerves
Medial pectoral = pectoralis major & pectoralis minor. #17 Lateral pectoral = pectoralis major. #11
Ulnar nerve
Median & ventral antebrachium (wrist & finger flexors).
Difficulty picking up a penny with a pincher grasp
Median nerve.
Within what cavity is the heart located?
Mediastinum Heart = in thoracic cavity. Subdivision = Mediastinum
Adrenal Medulla Hormones
Medullary CHROMAFFIN CELLS secretes catecholamines, E and NE, with epinephrine being dominant.
Pineal hormone
Melatonin
Resting Neuron
Membrane Potential (RMP) : - 70mV
Threshold Voltage
Membrane potential @ which V-G Na+ channels open. - 55 mV. #2
Together, the dura mater, pia mater, & the arachnoid membrane are the ?
Meninges
Mesosalpinx (of broad ligament of the uterus)
Mesentery that supports uterine tubes
Central canal with ependymal cells
Microscope
Hilum of Lung
Mid-line region where the bronchi, blood vessels, and nerves enter and exit the lungs
Corpora quadrigemina
Midbrain
Brainstem
Midbrain, Pons, Medulla Oblongata. 2.5% of the total brain mass.
Left common carotid artery
Middle branch off aortic arch
Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube
Middle ear = Sealed off by tymp. mem & entrance to inner ear (auditory nerve, etc.) Pressure (outer ear) = ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. Middle ear DOES NOT, so PHARYNGOTYMPANIC TUBE allows for ATM. P. to change. P. Tube = Normally flat, BUT - chewing, yawning, or swallowing = open up. High altitude = Feeling to pop ears AKA Pop P. Tube open to equalize pressure b/n outer & middle ear.
Which of the layers of an artery wall is regulated by the sympathetic nervous system and many hormones?
Middle layer. The middle layer of an artery, which contains smooth muscle, is regulated by the sympathetic nervous system and many hormones.
Jejunum
Middle portion of the small intestine.
2 types of Cholinergic Receptors
Mimics Ach's effects. 1. Nicotinic Found on: - All postganglionic neurons (cell bodies/dendrites), both parasympathetic & sympathetic - Hormone producing cells of adrenal medulla. - Sarcolemma of skeletal muscle cells at neuromuscular junctions. (somatic, not autonomic targets) Always stimulatory, opens ion channels, depolarizes the postsynaptic cell. 2. Muscarinic On all effector cells stimulated by postganglionic cholinergic fibers - that is, all parasympathetic target organs & a few sympathetic target (eccrine sweat glands). Can be inhibitory or stimulatory. Ex: AcH on Cardiac muscle receptors = slows heart activity. AcH on Smooth muscle of the GI increases its motility.
Ovaries
Missing - corpus albicans Primary follicles = MOST ABUNDANT
What function types can you name?
Mixed, sensory, & motor.
Function of nerve?
Mixed, sensory, or motor.
Semen
Mixure of sperm and accessory gland secretions. It is a vehicle for sperm, but also: - activates sperm via enzyms - provides energy for sperm -> glucose - protects sperm via antibodies - stimulates reverse peristalsis in the female reproductive tract; prostaglandins
Exteroreceptors
Monitor external environment.
interoreceptors
Monitor internal environment.
Somatic neurons
Monitor the length of & tension on our skeletal muscles. Muscles spindles consist of sensory neurons attached to noncontractile muscle fibers called INTRAFUSAL FIBERS. During times of non-stretch, the sensory neurons send regular action potentials to the CNS indicating its okay.
Mononucleosis
Monocytes (formed element that elevates in number)
3 Distinguishing Features of Cardiac Muscle
Mononucleated or binucleate, intercalated discs, and branching fibers
3 K+ & 7 Na+ w/ a sodium channel. Caused membrane potential number to ?
More Na+ inside the cell means the # will move closer to 0.
2 Na+ & 7 K+. More or fewer K+?
More, so membrane potential is a POSITIVE #.
Transport of Oxygen in Blood
Most animals use circulatory systems to move oxygen between the gas exchange organs and the tissues; this bulk flow is much better than diffusion over long distances... but there are serious problems due to the low solubility of O2 in water. Consider and exercising human consuming 4 L of O2/min: - at 37C, only about 4 - 5 mL O2/L can dissolve in the blood - assuming 4 mL O2/L is transfer to the tissues, the heart will need to pump 1,000 L/min ( 1 ton of blood/ min) -- clearly impossible Solution: most (98%) of O2 is NOT transported in the dissolved state. Instead, it is bound to RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS (Hb): O2 in solution ~ 4 mL/L O2 bound to pigment ~ 200 mL/L
Why does calcium matter so much?
Most of our calcium is in our bones (99% or 2.5 lbs), but the remaining 1% is critical for many things: 1. Important signal molecule (eg. triggers exocytosis of synaptic vesicles) 2. It holds cells together at tight junctions. 3. It is a cofactor in the coagulation cascade 4. It affects membrane excitability Ex: In hypoglycemia, neuronal permeability to Na+ increase, making cells hyper excitable. Hyperglycemia has the opposite effect.
Motility: Smooth Muscle
Most of the smooth muscle cells in the GI tract have gap junctions b/n them, creating contracting segments. Different segments exhibit different types of contractions: Tonic contractions: are sustained for long periods of time (up to hours/days) and occur in sphincters, & sometimes in the stomach. Phasic contractions: have cycles of contraction & relaxation that last only a few seconds.
Overlap of Somatic and Autonomic Function
Most spinal & many cranial nerves contain both somatic & autonomic fibers. Adaptations usually involve both skeletal muscles and visceral organs.
Fundus (of uterus)
Most superior & widest portion of uterus.
Regulation of Gut Function
Motility & secretion are the 2 processes of the gut regulated the most. The enteric nervous system (myenteric & submucosal plexus) can act as an integrating center (short reflexes) The CNS also acts as an integrating center (long reflexes)
Autonomic ganglia
Motor ganglia containing cell bodies of motor neurons. Site of synapse b/n pre- & post-.
What non-parasympathetic function does Vagus (X) have?
Motor to muscles of pharynx & larynx (involved in swallowing).
Intestinal phase (cont. 4)
Movement of food into (and within) the small intestine must be tightly regulated. The entrance of chyme into the duodenum triggers the enteric nervous system to slow gastric emptying. - Secretin - Cholecystokinin - Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) - Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) - Chyme is hyperosmotic; the duodenum is sensitive to this and will also slow gastric emptying (mechanism is unknown)
Accessory (XI) Function
Movement of trapezius & sternocleidomastoid muscles.
Oculomotor (III), Trochlear (IV), & Abducens (VI) Function
Moving eyes.
Neuron's Structural Classification
Multipolar neuron - many dendrites associated with the cell body. * common in the brain * Bipolar neuron (RARE) - has two cell processes * common in the eyes eg. rods/cones * Unipolar neuron - on the axon, always sensory!
Most of the arteries we are studying are ?
Muscular arteries
Vagus (X)/ Accessory (XI)/ Hypoglossal (XII)
Muscular movements associated with speech.
Vagus (X), Accessory (XI), & hypoglossal (XII)
Muscular movements associated with swallowing.
Myometrium (uterus)
Muscular wall, large contractions during labor, small contractions during menstruation
Myocardium
Muscular, middle layer of the heart. Mainly of cardiac muscle & forms the bulk of the heart. CONTRACTS. In the myocardium, the branching cardiac muscle cells are tethered to one another by crisscrossing connective tissue fibers & arranged in spiral or circular BUNDLES. These interlacing bundles effectively link all parts of the heart together.
Lateral cord
Musculocutaneous nerve.
Weakness or loss of elbow flexion
Musculocutaneous nerve.
Saltatory Conduction
Myelin Sheath speeds up the Action Potential. A.P. jumps b/n node of Ranvier. Depolarized in the node of Ranvier. 400 ft/ second. Rapid transmission of a nerve impulse along an axon, resulting from the action potential jumping from one node of Ranvier to another, skipping the myelin-sheathed regions of membrane.
Stomach
Myenteric plexus = B/n longitudinal & circular
Name for Supporting cells in the CNS ?
NEUROGLIA
Undamaged endothelial cells secrete
NITRIC OXIDE and PROSTACYCLIN (molecules) to prevent platelets from sticking.
Antigens of O- blood type?
NONE.
Positive Feedback Loops
NOT HOMEOSTATIC, RARE The response must be stopped by some OUTSIDE FACTOR (in this example, the delivery of the baby. Head pushes against cervix. Cervix stretch releases oxytocin from posterior pit. gland. The most stretch = more release = more stretch. Contractions amplify. Stretch allows babies head to fit.) Other examples are: Milk Letdown Reflex during breastfeeding. Oxytocin = suckling on mammary gland causes milk to be ejected. Full baby = stops sucking.
What 2 factors contribute to the existence of a resting membrane potential?
Na+ & K+ concentration gradient intracellularly & extracellular, & membrane permeability to these ions.
If a stimulatory neurotransmitter binds to the structure, what will occur as a result?
Na+ channels open -> Na+ rushes in -> DEPOLARIZED.
What maintains the concentration gradients of Na+ and K+ across the membrane and how is this achieved?
Na+-K+ pump by ejecting 3 Na+ from the cell and 2 K+ back into the cell.
Seminferous tubules
Narrow, coiled tubules that produce sperm in the testes.
Avoid Respiratory alkalosis & Respiratory acidosis
Need to match rate of CO2 production to rate of CO2 expiration to remain at a constant pH.
Hypothalamic-Hypophyseal Tract
Nerve bundles that run through the infundibulum and connect the neurohypophysis & the hypothalamus.
Spinal nerve (diagram)
Nerve that arises from the spinal cord.
Splanchnic Nerves
Nerves leading from the sympathetic chain to collateral ganglia. The post-ganglionic neurons leaving these collateral ganglia often form plexuses.
Rete testis
Network of tubules between the seminiferous tubules and the epididymis
Posterior Pituitary Gland Embryonic Origin
Neural tissue (extension of hypothalamus)
Basal nuclei (cerebral nuclei)
Neuronal cell body of clusters that include the caudate nucleus, putamen, & globus pallidus. Caudate nucleus + putamen form the striatum. Very similar in function to the cerebellum; precise function is difficult to decipher.
Myenteric plexus
Neuronal ganglia ! - important for digestive system to integrate signals
Nervous System is composed of ?
Neurons & supporting cells!
What do synaptic vesicles carry?
Neurotransmitters!
Cell type most numerous in a differential count?
Neutrophil; high neutrophil count indicates a bacterial infection.
Bacterial Infection
Neutrophils (formed element that elevates in number)
Alveoli (Lab)
No cartilage. No cilia. No goblet cells. Smooth muscle present. - There are small bands! Simple squamous epithelium - Type 1 squamous cells = Source of angiotensin converting enzyme Septal cells - Type 2 cells = Produce pulmonary surfactant to coat alveolar surfaces ( Cuboidal epithelial cells p. 831)
Are proteins or blood normally found in urine? if they are why?
No; Kidney infection, glomerulonephritis, trauma, kidney stones.
What hormones are produced by the posterior pituitary?
None, ADH and oxytocin are stored/released here. NOT PRODUCED.
Muscles that contract to cause normal/passive expiration ?
None. Passive expiration its caused by relation of diaphragm and external intercostals.
Type of antibodies on type AB positive blood? Why?
None; because it only possesses A, B, and Rh antigens.
Sympathetic NS
Norepinephrine (NE); contraction Binds to ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS Subtypes: ALPHA (binds more to E) BETA (binds more to NE)
Nose
Nostrils - external nares Nasal cavity is divided in half by the nasal septum; perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone & Volmer. Olfactor receptors are located in superior part of nasal cavity, near ethmoid bone. Respiratory mucosa is lined by 100s of veins, to warm air (b/c of warm blood) - nose bleeds = respiratory mucosa dries out. Cilia on respiratory mucosa trap bacteria & other debris; allowing us to swallow it to get destroyed in the stomach.
Clusters of cell bodies in the CNS are called
Nuclei
Medulla oblongata contains?
Nuclei related to sensory information eg inferior olivary nuclei shaped like olives/stain green.
Ethmoid sinus
Numerous cavities within the ethmoid bone
Central canal (diagram)
O
Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve
O2 is released more readily in areas of LOW PO2. Shows how local PO2 controls oxygen loading and unloading from hemoglobin
Nuclei of Cardiac Muscle
ONE nucleus.
Glossopharyngeal nerves (IX)
OTIC GANGLIA: Synapses with the glossopharyngeal nerve and controls the parotid salivary gland.
Lobe responsible for vision?
Occipital lobe (Primary Visual Cortex)
Primary visual cortex
Occipital lobe. Receives visual info that originates on the retina of the eye.
Filtration
Occurs in glomerulus 3 Barriers: 1. Capillary endothelium (filter out RBC, WBC, platelets) 2. Basement membrane (filter out plasma proteins, proteins, negative charge proteins) 3. Podocytes (part of Bowman's capsule; filtration slits; filter albumin & immunoglobulins)
What 4 cranial nerves carry parasympathetic fibers?
Oculomotor III Facial VII Glossopharyngeal IX Vagus X (3, 7, 9, & 10.)
Which nerve innervates four of the six extrinsic muscles?
Oculomotor nerve (III).
Sensory only cranial nerves?
Olfactory (I) Optic (II) Vestibulocochlear (VIII)
Membranes and therefore myelin are made of
Oligodendrocytes (CNS) & Schwann cells (PNS).
Cranial Nerve Name Acronym
On On On They Traveled And Found Voldemort Guarding Very Ancient Horcruxes.
Repolarization
Once NA+ have flooded the neuron, the NA+ channels close. At this point, the K+ channels open & the K+ ions rush out of the axon, & the electrical changes reverse again, so it is negative on the inside, & positive on the outside. Once the charges are restores, the section of the neuron is said to be repolarized. Increased K+ permeability. MP is becoming more -.
Diverging Circuit
One input, many outputs • An amplifying circuit • Example: A single neuron in the brain can activate 100 or more motor neurons in the spinal cord and thousands of skeletal muscle fibers
Anterior tibial artery
One of the popliteal arteries (the other is the posterior tibial artery) that supplies blood to the lower leg muscles and to the muscles and skin on the top of the foot and adjacent sides of the first and second toes. This artery continues to the foot where it becomes the dorsalis pedis artery.
Temporal summation
One point constantly giving action potentials.
Dura mater on skull
Opening = Diaphragma sella
CHONAE
Opening between nasal cavity and nasopharynx
FAUCES
Opening between oral cavity and oropharynx
Cardiac sphincter (lower esophageal sphincter)
Opening from the esophagus to the stomach.
Stimulus
Opening of Na+ channels on the membrane of the neuron. (Sometimes chemically or mechanically gated depending on the neuron) Na+ goes in ONLY at POINT OF STIMULI.
External os (of uterus)
Opening of the cervical canal into the vagina.
Coronary Sinus Orifice
Opening of the coronary sinus directly into the right atrium. The coronary sinus is the large vein that drains blood from the heart itself
External Urethral Orifice
Opening of urethra
Lumen? Type of vessel generally has the largest lumen?
Opening; VEIN
Sacral part of parasympathetic division
Originates from neurons located in the lateral gray matter of the spinal segments S2-S4 & serves pelvic organs & distal half of large intestine. Some preganglionic fibers synapse with ganglia in this plexus, but most synapse in intramural ganglia in the walls of the following organs: distal half of the large intestine, urinary bladder, ureters, and reproductive organs.
Cerebral cortex (cerebrum)
Our abilities to reason, feel emotions, form language, etc. are entirely human, and are the result of a huge number of neurons in our cerebral cortex. Over the course of several hundred million years, our brains evolved from organs that kept us alive (basic autonomic functions) , to organs that allowed us to respond to our environment, and finally to organs that make us.. us.
LH (luteinizing hormone)
Ovary
HbO2
Oxyhemoglobin (bright red)
Ventral Median Fissure (diagram)
P
Law of Laplace
P = 2T/ r P = pressure T = surface tension r = radius
Most Reabsorption =
PASSIVE REABSORPTION. ATP is required when coupled with potassium K+
Ganglia and Nerves
PNS
Preganglionic axon and postganglionic axon
PRE: Thin, lightly myelinated fibers. POST: Even thinner, & nonmyelinated. SLOW conduction. Somatic motor system is also faster b/c it has one motor neurons vs ANS w/ a 2-neuron chain.
Intellect, recall, & personality
PREFRONTAL CORTEX. Matures slowly in children. Contains working memory, needed for abstract ideas, judgment, reasoning, persistence, & planning.
Anterior Pituitary Gland
PRODUCED & SECRETES its own hormones. (Stand alone gland) Epithelial cells = Dark purple ! Portal vessels = Capillary beds are joined here to create HYPOTHALAMIC-HYPOPHYSEAL PORTAL SYSTEM. - Secreted under the direction of the hypothalamus. - Ant. pit. hormones are ALL released b/c of HORMONAL STIMULUS from HYPOTHALAMIC AKA TROPIC HORMONES.
Sinoatrial (SA) node (Intrinsic Conduction System of the Heat, PART 1)
Pacemaker - Mass of autorythmic cells located in right atrium just inferior to the entrance of the superior vena cava. - Depolarizes spontaneously 70 - 80 times / min . Consequently it sets the pace for the heart as a whole. - Depolarization spreading throughout atria causes them to contract.
SA node (sinoatrial node)
Pacemaker of the heart
Nociceptor
Pain receptors Highly modified: 1. Mechano- 2. Chemo- 3. Thermo- Getting hot pan, paper cut.
Corniculate cartilage
Paired
Arytenoid cartilage
Paired.
What is the function of the papillary muscles and the chordae tendineae?
Papillary muscles contract putting tension on the chordae tendineae to hold valve shut.
Terminal ganglia, intramural ganglia
Parasympathetic Division. Ganglionic neurons are found in either terminal ganglia, which are located close to the target organ, or intramural ganglia, which are located with the wall of the target organ.
What is the innervation of the trachealis muscle (in trachea)?
Parasympathetic innervation = Constricts to reduce airflow. Sympathetic innervation = Dilates to increase air flow.
Parathyroid hormone
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
What hormone is produced by the parathyroid gland? What is its target?
Parathyroid hormone (PTH). bone -> bone reabsorption -> Ca2+ release.
Oxytocin (posterior pit.)
Paraventricular nucleus of hypo- S: Impulses from hypothalamic neurons in response to cervical uterine stretching & suckling of infant @ breast I: Lack of appropriate stimuli TO: Uterus → stimulate uterine contraction/ initiates labor. Breast → initiates milk ejection Effects of Hormones ↓/↑: Unknown
Serous pericardium
Parietal layer & visceral layer (epicardium) D & F Its parietal layer lines the internal surface of the fibrous pericardium. At the superior margin of the heart, the parietal layer attaches to the large arteries exiting the heart, & then turns inferiorly & continues over the external heart surface as the visceral layer, also called the epicardium ("upon the heart"), which is an integral part of the heart wall.
Superficial peroneal & deep peroneal
Part of Common Fibular.
Integrating Center
Part of the CNS!!
Medulla oblongata
Part of the brainstem that controls vital life-sustaining functions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, & digestion.
Measured on X-axis?
Partial Pressure of O2
Dalton's Law
Partial pressure of Gases
Pelvic splanchnic nerves (sacral)
Pass through inferior hypogastric (pelvis) plexus. Distal half of the large intestine, urinary bladder, ureters, reproductive organs.
Internal os (of uterus)
Passage from uterine cavity to cervical canal
Cervical canal (of uterus)
Passes through cervix to connect uterus to vagina.
Prostatic urethra
Passes through the prostate gland.
Membranous urethra
Passes through urogenital diaphragm.
Bulbo-urethral Glands
Pea-sized glands inferior to prostate Produce thick, clear mucus during sexual arousal Lubricate glans penis Neutralize traces of acidic urine in urethra
Chief cells
Pepsin (pepsinogen) and gastric lipase
Chemoreceptors
Peripheral Chemoreceptors - Carotid artery - Aorta (monitors changes in blood that dictate change in BREATHING RATE) Central Chemoreceptors - Brain (monitors cerebrospinal fluid for changes that might indicate a change in BREATHING RATE)
Small intestine histology (cont.)
Peyer's patches: lymph tissue (not nodes) - most prevalent in last 1/3 of intestine toward ileum. Why? Lot of bacteria so it's meant to protect us from the bacterial flora that lives that low in the digestive tract. Intestinal glands aka Duodenal glands: - most prevalent in duodenum - can be in the mucosal layer - may extend to submucosa - secrete mucus! to protect stomach acid.
Neutrophil (granulocytes)
Phagocytizes BACTERIA • Purple, multilobed nucleus • Inconspicuous pink cytoplasmic granules • 10 - 14 micrometers • 3,000 - 7,000 (cells/microliter of blood) D: 6 -9 days LS: 6 hours to a few days
What nerve from the cervical plexus innervates the diaphragm for breathing? What are its spinal roots?
Phrenic nerve, C3, C4, & C5.
Negative Feedback Turns Response Loop Off
Physiological set points can be changed either by ACCLIMATION (done artificially in a lab) or ACCLIMATIZATION (done naturally) - Neg. feedback allows us to regulate our variables around a setpoint. Acclimation & acclimatization means to Change or Expand/ Contract a SETPOINT. Exposing an organism to a new set of circumstances & there physiology changes as result. - Ex. Seasonal temperature changes = We become adapted.
Substantia Nigra (midbrain/reptilian)
Pigmented nuclei (melanin) responsible for dopamine release. These degenerate in Parkinson's disease patients (inhibition of dopamine)
Sagittal Brain (model)
Pineal gland = Not visible
Pineal Gland
Pinecone shaped gland located in the brainʼs third ventricle. Melatonin is secreted based on Information received via visual pathways Melatonin levels are highest at night, and are lowest around noon Believed to regulate the sleep cycle as well as regulate the timing of sexual maturity Histology: 1. Pinealocytes = SECRET MELATONIN 2. Pineal sand, CONCRETIONS OF CA2+ - No function or detrimental.
Axolemma
Plasma membrane of an axon
Cingulate gyrus and amygdala (amygdaloid body) both? (paleomammalian brain)
Play a role in emotion.
Cingulate gyrus (emotions & visceral responses to emotion)
Plays role in expressing emotions via gestures and resolves mental conflict.
Small intestine histology
Plicae = largest fold Intestinal crypts - folds b/n villi (goes down to submucosa) - Analogous to the gastric glands in the stomach NO OBLIQUE Goblet cells: secrete mucus to protect gastrointestinal epithelium from acid
Resting neuron
Polarized, K+ inside. Na+ outside. E
Anterior tibial vein
Popliteal vein
Posterior tibial vein
Popliteal vein
Tibial nerve
Posterior calf Plantar flexors & toe flexors
Circle of Willis (arteries)
Posterior cerebral artery Posterior communicating artery Internal carotid artery Anterior cerebral artery Anterior communicating artery Encircles the pituitary gland and optic chiasma and unites the brains anterior and posterior blood supplies. Equalizes blood pressure in two brain areas & provides alternative routes for blood to reach the brain tissue is the carotid or vertebral artery is blocked.
Weakness in wrist extension, forearm supination, & abduction at the shoulder joint
Posterior cord.
Muscle that is the only abductor of the vocal folds?
Posterior cricoarytenoideus.
Middle cardiac vein
Posterior interventricular sulcus
Neurohypophysis
Posterior pituitary.
Dorsal (posterior) gray horn
Posterior portion of the "H" in the gray matter
Sciatic nerve
Posterior thigh & lower leg. Knee flexors & thigh extensors
Seminal glands (vesicles)
Posterior to bladder, joins ductus deferens to form ejaculatory duct; produces alkaline secretion containing fructose & other nutrients which supplies energy to sperm cells or promotes fertilization; produces 60% of seminal fluid
Somatosensory association area
Posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex. Integrate sensory inputs (temp, pressure, etc) relayed via the primary somatosensory cortex to produce an understanding of an object being felt: its size, texture, & relationship of its parts. Ex: Looking in pocket you remember past sensory experiences.
What would cause the ion channels to open? What type of channel?
Postive change in RMP.
Haustra
Pouches that form in the large intestine when the longitudinal muscles are shorter than the colon.
Our life cycle consists of a haploid phase and a diploid phase (2)
Presence of a Y chromosome will determine genetic maleness or femaleness (i.e., an XXY individual will become male) Once ovaries develop, one X chromosome in females degenerates into a Barr body - Active x chromosome = passed to offspring
Fibrous capsule
Prevents spread of infection to kidney
White Matter
Primarily made of tracts of nerve fibers. Association fibers = Connect different lobes of the brain on the same hemisphere. Commissural fibers = connect 2 hemispheres ex. corpus callosum Projection fibers = connect the cerebral hemispheres w/ lower areas of the CNS ex. anterior & posterior commissures.
Superior Temporal Gyrus
Primary auditory cortex & Wernicke's area - understanding language, written and spoken.
Function of the Superior Temporal Gyrus
Primary auditory cortex. Hearing & understanding speech
Function of precentral gyrus
Primary motor cortex that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
Precentral gyrus (motor)
Primary motor cortex. E
Small intestine
Primary site for DIGESTION and ABSORPTION
Postcentral gyrus (sense)
Primary somatic sensory cortex. D
Function of postcentral gyrus
Primary somatosensory cortex. Sensory - eg. itch, tickle, vibration Integrate sensory input (temp. pressure, etc) relayed to it via the post central gyrus to produce an understanding of an object being felt.
Calcarine sulcus (median sagittal view)
Primary visual cortex.
Phrenic nerve
Probably the most important nerve to come from the cervical plexus. Innervates the diaphragm. C1, C2, C3 = Hypoglossal nerve. "C3, C4, C5 keep the diaphragm alive."
What is the function of the corpus luteum?
Produce and secrete progesterone and estrogen.
Interstitial (Leydig) cells
Produce testosterone in response to LH.
Testosterone
Produced continuously from puberty on. Necessary for sperm production. The rising blood levels also stimulate growth spurts, and development of SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS: - deepening of voice - increased hair growth - enlargement of skeletal muscles - increased heaviness of skeleton
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Produced from the choroid plexus (in all 4 ventricles). 1. Very similar to blood plasma (but it contains less protein than plasma, and different ions (more Na+, Cl-, & H+ & less Ca2+ & K+). 2. Circulated though the CNS. 3. Flushes out cellular debris. 4. Acts as a CUSHION for the brain.
Paraventricular nucleus
Produces oxytocin
Utero
Produces surfactant @ week 32 of pregnancy. Premature babies = can't ventilate lungs. W/ Surfactant = Decreases pressure A lot of surfactant in smaller radius
Ovarian Hormones
Product estrogens & progesterone Estrogens are produced by Graafian follicles & promote the development of secondary sexual characteristics in females (WHEN MATURE, FOLLICLES SECRETE ESTROGEN) Estrogens also play a large role in the menstrual cycle & help the breasts to produce milk (ONCE THE FOLLICLES DEGENERATES AFTER OVULATION OCCURS, THEY PRODUCE PROGESTERONE) Progesterone quiets the muscles of the uterus during pregnancy to discourage abortion Progesterone is secreted by the corpus luteum
Pituitary Gland is
Protected by the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. Stalk = Infundibulum
Dura mater function?
Protects & anchors brain to the skull. Extra: Supports vessels & forms venous sinuses.
Antigen (antiglutinogens)
Protein found on the RBCs plasma membrane
Cerebellum (book)
Provides precise timing and appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle contraction, allowing smooth, coordinated movements and agility
How does epithelial cells change as respiratory system changes from trachea to alveoli?
Pseudostratified cilated columnar epithelium in bronchi. Simple columnar and simple cuboidal in bronchioles. Simple squamous epithelium in the alveoli.
Nerve responsible for voluntary control of urination?
Pudendal nerve.
Name two valves that are open as the ventricles contract?
Pulmonary & aortic semilunar valves. Valves ensure 1 way blood flow in the heart.
How does pulmonary blood pressure compare to systemic?
Pulmonary blood pressure is LOWER; Normal systolic pulmonary pressure is 30/10 mmHg.
Right and left ventricles
Pump blood away from the heart.
Pulmonary Veins
Pumps blood to Left Atrium
Coronary sinus
Pumps blood to Right Atrium
Inferior and Superior vena cava
Pumps blood to Right Atrium
Right Ventricle
Pumps blood to the lungs into the pulmonary artery - Tricuspid valve - Trabeculae carneae - Papillary muscles - Chordae tendineae - Moderator band (sheep) - Pulmonary trunk opening w/ pulmonary semilunar valve
Left Ventricle
Pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta - Bicuspid (mitral) valve - Trabeculae carneae - Chordae tendineae - Opening to aorta w/ aortic semilunar valve - Apex (external feature)
Function of cilia in the trachea?
Push microbes and debris-containing mucus up into esophagus.
Pia mater (diagram)
Q
What region does the femoral nerve innervate?
Quadriceps, anterior thigh muscles.
Femoral nerve
Quadriceps, thigh flexors & knee extensors.
Arachnoid mater (diagram)
R
Resistance of Air Flow
R is proportional to Ln/r4 R= resistance L= length of tube n= viscosity of fluid r = radius MOST physiologically relevant variable ! Bronchioles change diameter - NO CARTILAGE
Subclavian vein
R. subclavian- R. head, neck, and upper limb
Parasympathetic Divison (Cranial/Sacral origin)
REST & DIGEST. Keeps body energy use as low as possible, even while carrying out maintenance activities like digesting food, eliminating urine & feces. Pupils are constricted and lens accommodate for close vision when reading. Close to target!
Depolarization of SA node contracts?
RIGHT AND LEFT ATRIA
If a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor on a postsynaptic membrane channel resulting in the entrance of chloride ions, what would happen to the RMP of the postsynaptic neuron? What is is Calle when this happens?
RMP more negative. IPSP (hyperpolarization)
Posterior cord
Radial & axillary
Wrist drop
Radial nerve.
Oculomotor (III) Function
Raising eyelids focusing lenses of eyes adjusting light entering the eye moving eyes.
Reflex System
Rapid & predictable responses to stimuli.
Acquired reflexes
Rapid, automatic learned motor patterns Repetition enhances over time.
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
Reabsorbs nutrients from the filtrate (now called tubular fluid) PRIMARY REABSORPION SITE.
Multimodal association area
Receive multiple senses and gives outputs to multiple areas, where sensations, emotions, and thoughts become conscious; anterior, posterior, limbic
Common iliac vein
Receives blood from the internal and external iliac veins and returns blood to the inferior vena cava L. common iliac- pelvis and L. lower limb R. common iliac- pelvis and R. lower limb
Left Atrium
Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins - Pectinate muscles - Pulmonary vein orifices - Auricle
Schwann cell nuclei
Red dots. Longitudinal section.
Surfactant
Reduces surface tension of fluid layer of alveolus. - Mixture of lipids and proteins.
Intrinsic reflexes
Reflexes we are born with. Although "preprogrammed" - can be changed over time.
What is a Juxtaglomerular apparatus and where is it located? Distinguish b/n the JG cells and the macula densa cells.
Region where the ascending loop of Henle / DCT lies against the afferent arterioles feeding the glomerulus. JG cells are enlarged smooth muscle cells present in afferent arteriole walls. They produce renin & monitor blood pressure in afferent arteriole. Macula densa cells are closed packed distal tubule cells that responds to solute concentration changes of the filtrate. Both regulate the need for release of renin.
Anal canal
Region, containing two sphincters, through which feces are expelled from the body
Primary sensory cortex
Regions of the cerebral cortex that initially process information from the senses.
G cells
Release of hormone gastrin -> regulation rate of things ejected into duodenum.
Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) and Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)
Released if a meal contains carbohydrates. They promote insulin release and slow gastric emptying.
Adrenergic fibers
Releases norepinephrine - includes the majority of sympathetic postganglionic axons. Exception: Sympathetic postganglionic fibers that secrete AcH onto sweat glands.
What are the chemical "signals" that cause the anterior pituitary to release its hormones?
Releasing & inhibitory hormones
Microglia (CNS)
Remove cell debris, wastes, & pathogens by phagocytosis.
Coronary veins
Remove waste products from the myocardium Contains: - Great cardiac vein - Coronary sinus - Middle cardiac vein - Small cardiac vein - Anterior cardiac veins (empty directly into the right atrium anteriorly.
What does a lumbar puncture have to do with CSF? Why?
Removes CSF for testing by tapping into the subarachnoid space. Aids in diagnosis of life-threatening conditions.
What parts of the nephron are associated with the cortex?
Renal corpuscle, PCT, and DCT.
When is the process (Na+/K+ pump) used to re-establish a negative RMP?
Repolarization.
Outer longitudinal layer (muscularis externa)
Responsible for the motility that propels food and residue through the tract.
Prefrontal Cortex
Responsible for thinking, planning, and language.
Polarization
Resting @ -70 mV
Rugae
Ridges on the hard palate and the wall of the stomach.
When the AV valves (tri/bi) closes, which heart chamber is contracting?
Right and Left Ventricles
Which coronary artery usually gives rise to nodal arteries that supply both the SA and AV nodes?
Right coronary artery.
Lobar (secondary) bronchi
Right lung has 3. Supplies the lobes of the lungs.
Longest renal artery ?
Right renal artery ; because the aorta is furthest to the left.
Liver Lobes
Right, left, caudate, quadrate
Nissl body
Rough ER of the neuron, located in cell body. Responsible for protein synthesis.
Fungiform papillae
Rounded with taste buds
Great Cardiac Vein
Runs alongside the anterior interventricular artery
Great cardiac vein
Runs alongside the anterior interventricular artery
Middle Cardiac Vein
Runs alongside the posterior interventricular artery
Broad ligament (uterus)
Runs parallel to the uterine horns and holds uterus in place
Spongy urethra
Runs through penis; opens at external urethral orifice
Posterior Interventricular Artery
Runs to the apex of the heart & supplies the posterior ventricular walls
Posterior interventricular artery
Runs to the heart apex & supplies the posterior ventricular walls In posterior interventricular sulcus
Left coronary artery (LCA)
Runs toward the left side of the heart & then divides into two major branches: ● The anterior interventricular artery (also known clinically as the left anterior descending artery) follows the anterior interventricular sulcus & supplies blood to the interventricular septum & anterior walls of both ventricles. ● The circumflex artery supplies the left atrium & the posterior walls of the left ventricle.
Dura mater (diagram)
S
Pudendal nerve (diagram)
S2-S4
Glucocorticoids (cortisol) (cortex)
S: ACTH I: Feedback inhibition exerted by cortisol TO: Body cells: promote gluconeogenesis & hyperglycemia; mobilizes fats for energy metabolism; stimulates protein catabolism, assist body to resist stressors; depress inflammatory & immune responses Effects of Hormones ↓: Addison's disease ↑: Cushing's syndrome
Gonadocorticoids (Sex Hormones) (cortex)
S: ACTH ; mechanism of inhibition incompletely understood, but feedback inhibition not seen I: Insignificant effect in males. Contributes to formal libido; development of pubic and axillary hair in females; source of estrogen after menopause TO: Sex organs?? Effects of Hormones ↓: No effects known ↑: Masculinization of females (adrenogenital syndrome)
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) (anterior pit.)
S: CRH; stimuli that increase CRH release include fever, hypoglycemia, & other stressors. I: Feedback inhibition exerted by Glucocorticoids TO: Adrenal cortex: promotes release of glucocorticoids & androgens (mineralocorticoids to a lesser extent) Effects of Hormones ↓: Rare ↑: Cushing's Disease
Prolactin (PRL) (anterior pit.)
S: Decreased PIH; release enhanced by estrogens, birth control pills, breast-feeding, & dopamine-blocking drugs. I: PIH (prolactin-inhibiting hormone) aka dopamine. TO: Breast secretory tissues → promotes lactation Effects of Hormones ↓: poor milk production in women ↑: Inappropriate milk production (galactorrhea); cessation of menses in females; female infertility; impotence in males
Estrogen (ovaries)
S: Follicle-Stimulating hormone (FSH) I: Feedback inhibition initiated by estrogen TO: All cells → develop 2ndary sexual characteristics (wide hips/breasts) Effects of Hormones ↓: Failure of sexual maturation ↑: N/A
Growth hormone (GH) (anterior pit.)
S: GHRH release, which is triggered by ↓ blood levels of GH & secondary triggers including hypoglycemia, ↑ amino acids in blood, ↓ levels of fatty acids, exercise, & other stressors I: Feedback inhibition exerted by GH & IGFs, & by hyperglycemia, obesity, & emotional deprivation via ↑ GHIH or ↓ GHRH release. TO: Liver, muscle, bone, cartilage, & other tissue. Anabolic hormone; stimulates somatic growth; mobilizes fats: spares glucose. Effects of Hormones ↓: Pituitary dwarfism in children ↑: Gigantism in children/ Acromegaly in adults.
Luteinizing hormone (LH) (anterior pit.)
S: GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormones) I: Feedback inhibition exerted by estrogens & progesterone in females & testosterone in males TO: Ovaries → triggers ovulation & stimulates ovarian production of estrogen & progesterone Testes → promotes testosterone production Effects of Hormones ↓: Failure of sexual maturation ↑: Acne (seb. glands) and male baldness
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (anterior pit.)
S: GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormones) I: Feedback inhibition exerted by inhibition & estrogens in females & testosterone in males. TO: Ovaries → stimulates ovarian follicle maturation & estrogen production Testes → in males, stimulates sperm production Effects of Hormones ↓: Failure of sexual maturation ↑: No important effects
Glucagon (Alpha cells in islets of Langerhans) (pancreas)
S: Humoral stimuli, sympathetic NS, & ↑ amino acid levels I: ↑ blood glucose levels, insulin, & somatostatin TO: Liver (glycogen to glucose or lactic acid to glucose Adipose tissue (HSL) breaks down lipids Effects of Hormones ↓/↑: Hypotension, hyperglycemia, headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting
Progesterone (ovaries)
S: LH I: ??? TO: Uterus & Mammary glands Effects of Hormones ↓: Not regulated menstrual cycle or pregnancy; no lactation preparation ↑: ???
Testosterone (testes)
S: Luteinizing hormone (LH) I: ??? TO: Sex organs (ovaries/testes) Effects of Hormones ↓: Unusual sperm production, can't maintain reproductive organs; hypogonadism ↑: ???
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine (medulla)
S: Preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system I: ?? TO: Sympathetic nervous system organs: effects mimic somatic nervous system activation, ↑ heart/metabolic rate, ↑ blood pressure by promoting vasoconstriction Effects of Hormones ↓: Unimportant ↑: Prolonged fight-of-flight response, hypertension
Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone) (cortex)
S: Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism (activated by ↓ blood pressure & ↓ blood volume I: ↑ blood pressures & ↑ blood volume & ↓ blood K+ levels. TO: Kidneys; ↑ Na+ blood levels & ↓ K+ blood levels since H2O reabsorption follows Na+ retention, blood volume/pressure rise. Effects of Hormones ↓: Addison's disease ↑: Aldosteronism
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) (anterior pit.)
S: TRH and in infants indirectly by cold temperature I: Feedback inhibition exerted by thyroid hormones on anterior pituitary & hypothalamus & by GHIH TO: Thyroid gland → stimulates thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones Effects of Hormones ↓: Cretinism in children; myxedema in adults ↑: Hyperthyroidism; similar affects to Grave's Disease in which antibodies mimic TSH
Thyroxin (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3) (thyroid gland)
S: TSH (from anterior pit. gland), TRH trigger TSH (in cold infants) I: GHIH dopamine & ↑ levels of glucocorticoids & ↑ blood iodine concentration TO: BMR, metabolism, nervous sys, cardiovascular sys, muscular, skeletal, GI, reproductive, and integumentary Effects of Hormones ↓: P. 612 ↑:
Thymosin & thymopoietin (thymus gland)
S: Unknown I: Negative feedback TO: Mostly act locally as paracrines; involved in T lymphocyte development & in immune response (immune cells). Effects of Hormones ↓: No T lymphocyte development & a weak immune response ↑: ???
Melatonin (pineal gland)
S: Via Visual pathways I: Light (circadian rhythms) TO: Brain Effects of Hormones ↓: Sexual maturity earlier than normal ↑: Depression, sleepiness
Calcitonin (parafollicular cells) (thyroid gland)
S: ↑ blood calcium or phosphate levels; stimulate Ca2+ uptake & incorporate in the bony matrix I: ↓ blood calcium or phosphate levels TO: Skeletal system Effects of Hormones ↓/↑: Unknown
Insulin (Beta cells in islets of Langerhans) (pancreas)
S: ↑ blood glucose levels ↑ blood levels of amino acids & fatty acids, ACH released by parasympathetic nerve fibers, Hyperglycemia hormones I: Somatostatin & sympathetic nervous system activation. TO: Most tissues Effects of Hormones ↓: Diabetes myelitis (DM) ↑: Hypoglycemia
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) (parathyroid gland)
S: ↓ blood calcium or phosphate levels I: ↑ blood calcium or phosphate levels TO: Skeletal system, kidneys, & intestine Effects of Hormones ↓: Hypoparathyroidism → hypoglycemia ↑: Hyperparathyroidism → hyperglycemia
Junctional Rhythm
SA node is nonfunctional, P waves are absent, and heart is paced by the AV node at 40-60 beats/min
Vestibulocochlear VIII (Cranial Nerve)
SENSORY ONLY. 2 Branches: Cochlear Branch - Afferent fibers from cochlea in inner ear carrying auditory messages. Vestibular Branch - Afferents from vestibule & semicircular canals carrying info on equilibrium.
Olfactory I (Cranial Nerve)
SENSORY ONLY. Bipolar sensory, nasal mucosa. Function: Carry smell sensation from nasal cavity. Originate in nasal cavity Pass through cribriform plate of ethmoid bone to olfactory bulb. GOES: Olfactory nerves → olfactory bulb → olfactory tract → frontal & medial temporal lobes.
Optic II (Cranial Nerve)
SENSORY ONLY. Originate from retina of the eye. GOES: Optic nerves → optic chiasma → optic tracts → lateral geniculate bodies of thalamus → optic radiations → visual cortex in occipital lobe. Function: Carry afferent impulses for vision. Superior colliculi optic chiasma pathway.
Maxillary Division V2 (Cranial Nerve)
SENSORY. Pons via the foramen rotundum (V2). Convey sensory impulses form the upper teeth, gum, and lip, palate & skin of cheek & lower eyelid.
Ophthalamic Division V1 (Cranial Nerve)
SENSORY. Pons via the superior orbital fissure (V1). Convey sensory impulses from the upper eyelid, eye surface, tear glands, nose, scalp, and forehead.
Measured on Y-axis?
Saturation of hemoglobin (Hb) w/ O2.
What is corpus albicans?
Scar tissue remaining after the corpus luteum degenerates.
Name for Supporting cells in the PNS?
Schwann cells (form myelin sheath) & Satellite cells (protect & cushion neurons.
With the exception of the anterior thigh, what nerve branches supply the entire lower limb?
Sciatic nerve & its branches
Platelet
Seals small tears in blood vessels; instrumental in blood clotting (CLOT FORMATION) • Discoid cytoplasmic fragments containing granules • Stain deep purple • 2 - 4 micrometers • 250,000 to 500,000 (cells/microliter of blood) D: 4 - 5 days LS: 5 - 10 days
Goblet cells (small intestine)
Secrete mucus that lubricates chyme and protects intestinal wall from enzymatic digestion
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Secreted if a meal contains FAT, and slows gastric emptying ; fat digestion takes a long time, so it's crucial to slow gut motility.
What is the importance of the medulla?
Secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream in response to sympathetic stimulation.
Adrenal medulla
Secrets = Epinephrine and norepinephrine. Adrenal medulla is regulated by sympathetic system. Some fibers traveling in the thoracic splanchnic nerves pass though the celiac ganglion without synapsing and terminate by synapsing with the hormone-producing medullary cells secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood, producing the excitatory effects we have all felt "adrenaline rush"
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
Segment of the nephron between the glomerular capsule and the nephron loop
Accessory glands & semen
Seminal glands (vesicles) - Produce about 60% of fluid volume of semen; rich in sugar, vitamin C that nourish sperm Prostate - Secretes milky fluid that plays a role in activating sperm Swollen - hard to urinate/ejaculate ; effects 60% of males 50+ Bulbo-urethral glands - Produces a clear fluid that passes down the urethra, cleansing it before semen is ejaculated. BEFORE EJACULATION - antimicrobial / antibodies within to cleanses the urethra.
Vestibulocochlear (VIII) Function
Sense of hearing. Sense of equilibrium.
Optic (II) Function
Sense of sight.
Olfactory (I) Function
Sense of smell.
Facial (VII) & Glossopharyngeal (IX) Function
Sense of taste.
Olfactory nerves (I) Function
Sense smell.
Optic nerve (II) Function
Sense vision.
Cerebral Lateralization
Sensory & Motor processing "Intelligence:" learning, memory, language. 2 nearly separate hemispheres, w/ somewhat different functions. -- left hemisphere usually dominates: mainly concerned w/ "logical" function like math, writing, thought, speech, etc. -- right hemisphere is "emotional:" biased towards spatial relationships, musical, and artistic abilities, and expression of emotions.
Graph
Sensory (unipolar, afferent) Motor (multipolar, efferent)
Maxillary division (V2) Function
Sensory fibers transmit impulses from the upper teeth, upper gum, upper lip, lining of the palate & skin of the face.
Saphenous nerve
Sensory from anteromedial lower leg.
Neuron Functional Classification
Sensory neurons, interneurons, & motor neurons
Reflex arc
Sensory receptor, sensory neuron, Spinal cord, motor neuron, and effector that are involved in a quick response to a stimulus
Longitudinal fissure
Separates cerebral hemispheres.
Transverse cerebral fissure
Separates cerebrum & cerebellum.
Central sulcus
Separates frontal & parietal lobes.
Septum pellucidum (model)
Separates lateral ventricles.
Falx cerebri
Separates the 2 cerebral hemispheres. "Sickle-shaped" fold that dips into the longitudinal fissure b/n cerebral hemispheres. Anteriorly attaches to the crista galli.
Falx cerebelli
Separates the 2 hemispheres of the cerebellum. #7 Continuing inferiorly from the posterior falx cerebri, the small midline partition runs along the vermis of the cerebellum.
Tentorium cerebelli
Separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum, horizontal plane. #5 Resembles a tent over the cerebellum.
Sulcus terminalis
Separates the circumvallate papilla and lingual tonsil
Palate
Separates the nasal cavity from the oral cavity
Interatrial Septum
Separates the two atria.
Septum pellucidium
Separates the two lateral ventricles - Thin, median membrane. #1
Interventricular Septum
Separates ventricles.
Telodendria
Series of fine, terminal extensions branching from the axon tip.
Serosa (stomach)
Serous membrane
Long Thoracic nerve
Serratus anterior muscles
Male histology (cont.)
Sertoli cells w/in seminiferous tubules Spermatogia become spermatids (inject into lumen of seminiferous tubules)
Superior cervical ganglion
Serve head region of ganglia emerge from T1 to T4; skin, blood vessels of head, smooth muscle of eyes, sweat glands, inhibit salivary glands, inhibit nasal mucosa, facial blood vessels; serve heart
Saphenous nerve (lumbar plexus)
Serves the skin of lower leg.
Sulcus
Shallow groove.
Sulci
Shallow grooves that separate gyri.
Filiform papillae
Sharp with no taste buds; act like sandpaper for cleaning of mouth.
Graded potential
Shift in electrical charge in a tiny area of the neuron (temporary); transmits a long cell membranes leaving neuron & polarized state; needs higher than normal threshold of excitation to fire A local voltage change in a neuron membrane induced by stimulation of a neuron, with strength proportional to the strength of the stimulus & lasting about a millisecond (ms).
Hemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve
Shift to the left- O2 NOT released to tissue adequately Shift to the right- O2 released to tissue more easily Deoxygenated blood = 75% saturation
Cystic Duct (gallbladder)
Short duct between gallbladder and common hepatic duct joins common hepatic duct to form bile duct
Suprascapular nerve
Shoulder joint; supraspinatus & infrapinatus muscles.
Mucosa (large intestine)
Simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells
Capillaries
Single layer of endothelial cells & thin layer of C.T. - 50,000 miles of capillaries! - Exchange surface area = 6,300 m^2 - Density of capillaries is proportional to the metabolic needs of tissues. Runners = More capillaries.
Azygos vein
Single vein that drains the thorax and enters the superior vena cava just before it joins the heart. Drains much of thorax.
Shows no P Wave of ECG due to myocardial infarction. Region damaged/why?
Sinoatrial node; there is no atrial depolarization.
Primary capillary plexus
Site into which releasing hormones or inhibiting hormones are secreted
Endometrium (uterus)
Site of implantation in female.
Autonomic Ganglion
Site of the synapse between the axon of the preganglionic neuron and the cell body of the postganglionic neuron
Secondary capillary plexus
Site that receives the blood and hormones from the primary plexus and into which hormones like GH, TSH, and ACTH are secreted
External sphincter
Skeletal muscle, voluntary.
Brachycardia
Slow HR, less than 60 BPM
The role of the atrioventricular node (AV node) is to
Slow down impulses so that the atria can contract to fill the adjacent ventricles with blood. The impulses of the heart originate at the SA node. The impulse is then transmitted to the AV node, where the impulse slows down to allow the atria to completely contract, thereby filling the adjacent ventricles. The AV node then transmits the impulse to the bundle of His, which branches into left and right bundle branches. The bundle branches give rise to the Purkinje fibers, which transmit the impulse to the ventricle walls and stimulate ventricular contraction.
Vasa Nervorum
Small arteries that provide blood supply to peripheral nerves.
Vesicle
Small membrane-bound sac that functions in moving products into, out of, & within a cell.
Vasa Vasorum
Small vessels that supply blood to outer part of the larger vessels.
Caudate lobe of Liver
Smallest lobe of the liver that folds around the esophagus and stomach, is easily seen when liver is raised, appears to be in two small sections
Detrusor Muscle
Smooth muscle that compresses the urinary bladder and expels urine into the urethra.
Uvula
Soft tissue hanging from the middle of the soft palate.
Anterior (Ventral) gray horns contain
Somatic motor neurons. Which are clusters of cell bodies of somatic motor neurons that provide nerve impulses for contraction of skeletal muscles. E
ANS (Hypothalamus = Critical Role in ANS)
Somatosensory info & input from visceral receptors is sent homeostatic control centers in the hypothalamus, pons, and midbrain. In addition, the hypothalamus contains many of it's own sensors eg OSMORECEPTORS that monitor concentration of body fluids, & temperature receptors.
D cells
Somatostatin (inhibits gastrin release; regulates acid production) - Also in endocrine system + pancreatic islets
Cranial Nerve Function Acronym
Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter More.
Thalamus (Book)
Sorts and "edits" information from sensory areas ascending to the cerebral cortex.
Wernicke's area (Recognition & interpretation of words)
Sounding unfamiliar words. Controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.
Laryngeal Spaces: Vestibule
Space between aditus (above) and ventricular folds (below); aryepiglottic folds: lateral boundary
Subdural Space
Space between dura mater & arachnoid mater.
Laryngeal Spaces: Glottis
Space between true folds
Vestibule of Vagina
Space surrounded by the labia minora
What initiates contraction of cardiac muscle cells?
Specialized cardiac autorythmic cells self-initiate contractions. Sinoatrial node Atrioventricular node
What initiates contraction of cardiac muscle?
Specialized cardiac autorythmic cells self-initiate.
Purkinje fiber
Specialized muscle fiber that conducts the cardiac impulse from the AV bundle into the ventricular walls.
Vagus (X) Function
Speech & swallowing.
Broca's area (motor speech area)
Speech production (frontal lobe, left hemisphere only). Prepare to speak/ think about (plan) voluntary motor activities other than speech
Female reproduction
Sperm must go through the ZONA PELLUCIDA + CORONA RADIATA
Testes
Spermatogonia = Stem cells Blood = cooled when entering testis (degree or 2 down) Seminiferous tubule = site of sperm production Tunica albuginea = thick C.T.
In what two structures might the soma associated with the axons of spinal nerves be found?
Spinal cord gray matter & ganglia.
RECIPROCAL ACTIVATION
Spindle organs monitor stretch on our organs, but tendon reflexes monitor extreme contraction. Tendon organs are activated if a muscle contracts too strongly. They signal relaxation of the contracting muscle, and contraction of the antagonist muscles * RECIPROCAL ACTIVATION *.
Facial nerves (VII)
Stimulate large glands in head. Fibers that activate nasal & lacrimal glands have synapse in pterygopalatine ganglia. Fibers that activate submandibular & sublingual salivary glands synapse in submandibular ganglia.
What is the target of the hormone produced by the parafollicular "C" cells?
Stimulates storage of calcium ions (Ca2+) in the bone.
Facial (VII) & Glossopharyngeal (IX)
Stimulating salivary secretions.
Nephrons
Structural and functional unit of kidneys; responsible for urine formation Consists of two main structures: - glomerulus and Bowman's capsule (renal corpuscle) - renal tubule Two types of nephrons: 1. juxtamedullary 2. cortical
Falciform Ligament
Structure that separates right and left lobes of liver.
A lumbar puncture would remove fluid from what space?
Subarachnoid space.
Corpora quadrigemina of midbrain
Superior colliculi & inferior colliculi.
Supplies the small intestine and proximal colon with blood?
Superior mesenteric artery
Superior mesenteric vein
Superior mesenteric vein: Drains the entire small intestine, part of the large intestine (ascending and transverse regions), and stomach.
Lobes
Superior, middle, and inferior
3 features enhanced by NASAL CONCHA BONES
Superior, middle, and inferior concha: 1. Warm air 2. Filter air 3. Olfactory receptors (molecules bind to understand the environment.
Anterior Interventricular Artery
Supplies blood to the interventricular septum & anterior walls of both ventricles
Anterior interventricular artery
Supplies blood to the interventricular septum & anterior walls of both ventricles IN anterior interventricular sulcus
Left Coronary Artery (in coronary sulcus)
Supplies blood to the left ventricle, left atrium, & interventricular septum
Gonadal artery
Supplies blood to the male and female gonads
Inferior mesenteric artery
Supplies large intestine and colon
Pudendal nerve
Supplies muscles & skin of pernerium ex. genitalia & anus region
Femoral nerve (lumbar plexus)
Supplies skin & anterior thigh muscles (thigh flexors & knee extensors - quadriceps & sartorius)
Pudendal nerve (lab chart)
Supplies skin & muscles of pernerium; external anal sphincter.
Circumflex Artery
Supplies the left atrium & the posterior walls of the left ventricle
Circumflex artery
Supplies the left atrium & the posterior walls of the left ventricle
Right Coronary Artery (in coronary sulcus)
Supplies the right atrium, right ventricle, sinoatrial & atrioventricular nodes.
Marginal artery
Supplies the right border of the heart
R and L Coronary Arteries
Supply oxygenated blood to the heart
Segmental (Tertiary) bronchi
Supported by crescent-shaped cartilage plates 10 on right, 8 on left
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin) (posterior pit.)
Supraoptic nucleus of hypo-. S: Impulses from hypothalamic neurons in response to ↑ blood solute concentrations or ↓ blood volume. Pain, some drugs, & blood pressure. I: Adequate hydration of the body and alcohol. TO: Kidneys → stimulate kidney tubule cells to reabsorb H2O. Effects of Hormones ↓: ↑:
Satellite Cells (PNS)
Surround cell bodies of neurons within ganglia (PNS) for support.
Perineurium
Surrounds each fascicle.
Endoneurium
Surrounds each nerve fiber
Epineurium
Surrounds the entire nerve. A
Swallowing (Cephalic)
Swallowing is a reflexive action that moves a bolus of liquid or food into the esophagus. Once bolus touches the back of pharynx, the glossopharyngeal nerve triggers the swallowing reflex. Food in esophagus = UPPER ESOPHAGEAL SPHINCTER OPENS UES re-closes to breath normally
What controls the rate of contraction in cardiac muscle?
Sympathetic & parasympathetic (vagus nerve) innervation.
What controls the rate of contraction of cardiac muscles?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic (vagus nerve) innervation.
Collateral ganglion
Sympathetic ganglion independent of the sympathetic chain. They are located anterior to the vertebral column. Occurs only in the abdomen and pelvis.
Gray rami communicantes
Sympathetic postganglionic fibers that connect sympathetic trunk ganglia with spinal nerves are collectively called the __________________.
Middle and inferior cervical ganglia
Sympathetic preganglionic fibers innervating the thoracic organs originate at T1-T6. From there the preganglionic fibers run to synapse in the cervical trunk ganglia. Postganglionic fibers emerging from the middle and inferior cervical ganglia enter cervical nerves C4-C8 (Figure 14.7). Some of these fibers innervate the heart via the cardiac plexus, and some innervate the thyroid gland, but most serve the skin. Additionally, some T1-T6 preganglionic fibers synapse in the nearest trunk gan- glion, and the postganglionic fibers pass directly to the organ served. Fibers to the heart, aorta, lungs, and esophagus take this direct route. Along the way, they run through the plexuses associated with those organs.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
System of motor neurons that innervates smooth, cardiac muscle, and glands. Signals stream from visceral organs into CNS, & ANS makes adjustments as necessary to ensure optimal support for body activities. Speed/slows heart rate, adjusts blood pressure, body temperature, & increases/decreases stomach secretions.
Which side of the heart is involved in systemic circulation? Which side is involved in pulmonary circulation?
Systemic circulation = LEFT Pulmonary circulation = RIGHT
Blood pressure reading is
Systemic reading, not pulmonary
What is produced by the follicles? How?
T3 and T4 produced when iodinated thyroglobulin is cleaved.
Lumbar Enlargement of Spinal Cord
T9 - T12
Steps in an action potential: 5 steps
TAKES 4 ms (4 of 1000ths of a second) 1. Axon hillock is depolarized to threshold voltage, -55 mV). 2. Voltage-Gated Na+ (sodium) channels open; Na+ rushes into the cell. 3. At about +30 mV, V-G Na+ channels open. 4. K+ leaves the cell. 5. K+ channels close, & resting potential is restored (-70 mV). But, it's not instant where the channels close so it might go less that - 70 mV at first. Na+/K+ ATPase plays a role in restoring RMP. Na+ closes @ about + 30 mV, & K+ open @ + 30 mV.
What are the tropic hormones?
TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH
What have a secondary (CAMP) message system?
TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, and PRL
Tropic Hormones (target tissue is another endocrine gland) of Anterior Pituitary
TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH. All ant. pit. hormones except growth hormone affect their target cells via CAMP.
Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
TV + IRV + ERV + RV
Dead Space Formula
TV x 30%
Aorta
Take their blood to Body Largest artery in the body!
Coronary arteries
Take their blood to Heart muscle
Pulmonary Arteries
Take their blood to Lungs
Insula
Taste & memory.
Adult Brain Structures
Telecephalon - Cerebrum (cortex, hemispheres, white matter, basal nuclei) Diencephalon - Thalamus, hypothalamus, & epithalamus Mesencephalon- brain stem: midbrain Metencephalon- Cerebellum brain stem: Pons. Myelencephalon - brain stem: Medulla Oblongata
Motor Neuron
Tells the muscles to contract. Main job = Allow cells to communicate with each other.
Gas solubility
Temperature - more soluble in cold vs hot) Solubility of Gas - elements / molecules = inherent solubility, CO2 is 20 times as soluble as O2. Pressure Gradient - increased pressure = increased gas solubility Bends= Gas out of blood (bubbles) 18 ft depth = 35,000 ft change in air gas in blood w/ increased pressure
Subscapular nerves
Teres major & subscapularis #12 = Lower #14 = Upper
Common iliac artery (no artery in cat)
Terminal branches of the abdominal aorta, supplies pelvic organs. L. common iliac- pelvis and L. lower limb R. common iliac- pelvis and R. lower limb
Characteristic of the parasympathetic nervous system
Terminal ganglia
Male reproductive anatomy
Testes & scrotum, need lower temperature & site of spermatogenesis
FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
Testes and ovaries
Testes hormone
Testosterone
Testicular Hormones
Testosterone is the most important of the androgens secreted by the testes. Causes development of male sex characteristics Necessary for continued production of sperm **Seminiferous tubules**
Diencephalon
Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Epithalamus
Relationship between dura mater and "sinuses"?
The 2 dural layers fused together except in certain areas. They separate to enclose DURAL VENOUS SINUSES that collect venous blood from the brain and direct it into the internal jugular veins of the neck.
How are AV valves shut?
The AV valves will be held tightly shut due to the impulse reaching the Purkinje fibers which causes contraction of the papillary muscles.
Interneurons aren't always involved.
The CNS is always the integrating center of reflex arcs, but interneurons aren't always involved. Monosynaptic VS Polysynaptic reflexes.
Functional (Nerve Structure)
The PNS has sensory & motor functions. Individual neurons can only be sensory or motor. However... Mixed nerves have both sensory & motor neurons bundles together Sensory nerves have only sensory neurons Motor nerves have only motor neurons. Most nerves = Mixed in function.
Gender determination depends on the Y Chromosome (2)
The SRY gene produces a SRY protein (= testis- determining factor) that acts as a transcription factor for other genes, such as SOX9, WT1, and SF1. As testes develop, three hormones are secreted: - anti-Müllerian hormone (secreted by Sertoli cells) - Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) (Leydig cells) + - Testosterone (Leydig cells)
Gender determination depends on the Y Chromosome (4)
The Y chromosome consists of only 27 genes on the Y- specific region (the X chromosome has ~1500) Only one of those genes, the SRY, accounts for the largest phenotypic differences between males and females. Other genes have nothing to do with maleness; one codes for tooth enamel, and another for a ribosomal protein.
Gender determination depends on the Y Chromosome (5)
The Y chromosome is particularly vulnerable to mutation because it does not recombine with any other chromosomes during crossing over (the X chromosome can cross over with another X in XX individuals) Many of these mutations result in the loss of genes within a population Conservative estimates suggest that the remaining genes on the Y chromosome will completely disappear in the next 10 million years or so
Ventral median fissure
The anterior, more open of the 2 grooves that partially divide the spinal cord into left & right halves. WIDE.
Which of the following blood vessels is the most susceptible to atherosclerosis?
The aorta. Although all arteries are susceptible to atherosclerosis, the aorta is the most susceptible.
Hypothalamus (model)
The area of the brain that secretes substances that influence pituitary and other gland function and is involved in the control of body temperature, hunger, thirst, and other processes that regulate body equilibrium. Control endocrine & regulate sleep/wake cycles (biological clocks). Controls the ANS of the PNS.
primary sex characteristics
The body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible male - penis & scrotum female = clitoris & labia
CNS Basics
The brain, and to a lesser extent, the spinal cord, are very soft structures. (Watery bag of neurons) As such, there are multiple levels of protection for our CNS structures.
Dendrite
The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages & conduct impulses toward the cell body. Main receptive (INPUT) regions. Convey messages towards the cell body.
Vasa Recta
The capillaries that surround the tubules of the nephron. The vasa recta reclaims reabsorbed substances, such as water and sodium ions. - Helps to maintain salt gradient in the interstitial space.
Pia Mater
The delicate innermost membrane enveloping the brain & spinal cord. "gentle mother" Delicate C.T. & richly invested w/ tiny blood vessels. Clings tightly to the brain! Follows the contours of the brain (topography).
Common Bile Duct
The duct that carries bile from the gallbladder and liver to the small intestine (duodenum).
Hepatopancreatic Ampulla
The ducts that deliver bile and pancreatic juice from the liver and pancreas, respectively, unite to form the ________.
Sperm Anatomy Reflects its Function
The entire process of spermatogenesis takes 60 - 72 days, but men produce ~200 million sperm a day from puberty on. Sperm are released from Sertoli cells into the lumen of the seminiferous tubule; they are not yet capable of swimming. - Maturation is completed during the next ~ 2 weeks as sperm travel through the epididymis.
Axon (an have collateral branches)
The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands *OUTPUTS INFORMATION*
Vulva (pudendum)
The female external genitalia; external opening to the urogenital tract and consists of the vaginal orifice, vestibular glands, clitoris, hymen and urethral orifice
Hepatic Portal Vein
The first capillary beds are in the stomach and intestines and drain into tributaries of the hepatic portal vein, which brings them to the second capillary bed in the liver. The short hepatic portal vein begins at the L2 level.
Brachiocephalic artery (lab)
The first major branch off of the aorta and the major artery to the forelimbs and head. Head, neck, and R. upper limb
If mating remains random?
The genetic structure will remain relatively stable over time.
The gray area on the right and left sides of the cord are connected by an area called?
The gray commissure, which contains the central canal.
Epicardium (visceral pericardium)
The inner layer of the pericardium that covers the surface of the heart. Visceral layer of the serous pericardium. It is often infiltrated with fat, especially in older people.
Inner oblique layer (muscularis externa)
The inner most layer of the muscularis externa - responsible for muscle contractions
Intestinal phase (cont. 5)
The large intestine has traditionally been viewed to have 3 main jobs: - Absorb water (9 L of fluid is absorbed) - Absorb vitamins - Produce vitamins (gut flora produce vitamins K and B) However.. we are starting to change our view: Fermentation that takes place in the large intestine converts long carbohydrates into lactate and short-chain fatty acids that can directly be absorbed by diffusion. This might be more significant than we originally thought. - we can't breakdown cellulose from plants = dietary fiber - gut fermentation of these indigestible carbs might be contributing to our nutrition.
Labia majora
The larger outer folds of the vulva. F
Corona radiata
The layer of granulosa cells that surround an oocyte after is has been ovulated.
Which heart chamber has the thickest myocardium?
The left ventricle, because it needs more force in contraction to push blood out of heart to the rest of the body.
Collecting Duct
The location in the kidney where processed filtrate, called urine, is collected from the renal tubules
Hypothalamus (Book)
The main visceral control center of the body responsible for maintaining homeostasis.
Femoral artery
The major artery supplying the leg.
Brachial artery
The major vessel in the upper extremity that supplies blood to the arm.
Vital capacity (TV + IRV + ERV)
The max amount of air that can be expired after a max inspiration. Female = 3100 ml Male = 4800 ml
What histological feature allows the medulla to do its work quickly and efficiently?
The medulla has AcH receptors that caused the release of E & NE in response to the firing of a preganglionic neuron.
Why is the medulla often referred to as a "postganglionic sympathetic neuron"?
The medulla is innervated by preganglionic sympathetic neurons. It contains ACH receptors that cause the release of NE and E just like postganglion neurons.
Dural venous sinuses are areas where
The meningeal & periosteal layers separate to form large blood-filled spaces. Rich in blood vessels, responsible for draining the brain of blood. All blood drained in the brain runs through the dural sinus & will be returned to the heart for circulation.
Frank-Starling's Law of the Heart
The more the cardiac muscle is stretched, the stronger the contraction. Relationship b/n preload (degree to which cardiac muscles are stretched before they contract) and stroke volume.
The Frank-Starling Law of the Heart
The more the heart fills with blood during diastole, the greater the force of contraction during systole. As the stroke volume increases, there's an increase in CONTRACTILE FORCE - describes relationship b/n stroke volume and contractile force. SV (ml/beat) (blood out of the heart) vs End Diastolic Volume EDV (blood back to heart)
Hyperpolarization
The movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from rest potential in a more negative direction.
Nervous system modulation
The nervous system modifies the stimulation of endocrine glands and their negative feedback mechanisms.
Why is the structure of the Vagus nerve X so crucial to normal life function?
The only cranial nerve that extends beyond the head and neck. Parasympathetic motor fibers innervate heart, lungs, & abdominal viscera. Regulates heart rate, breathing, & digestion.
Respiratory Zone Structures
The only site of gas exchange in the lungs; all other structures are part of the conducting zone (terminal bronchiole and before). Include: - Respiratory bronchioles - Alveolar duct - Alveolar sac - Alveoli
Cervix
The opening to the uterus.
Pancreatic Islets
The pancreas is unique in that it has both exocrine function (digestive enzymes) and endocrine function. The hormone-secreting cells are found in pancreatic islets. (lighter circle) Beta cells secrete the hormone insulin, which signals cells to "take up" more circulatory glucose, reducing blood glucose levels (Insulin = from humoral response) The hormone glucagon acts as an antagonist to insulin, causing glucose release from the liver during times of low blood sugar; it is secreted by alpha cells
Parathryroid Hormone (PTH) raises Blood Calcium Levels
The parathyroid glands are located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. They secrete parathyroid hormones, which causes an INCREASE in blood Ca2+ levels by: 1. Causing Ca2+ breakdown in bone (osteoclasts) 2. Enhancing reabsorption in kidneys 3. Promoting activation of vitamin D, which triggers increase of Ca2+ in the gut from meals.
Fourth ventricle
The passageway within the pons that receives cerebrospinal fluid from the third ventricle & releases it to surround the brain & spinal cord
Dorsal median sulcus
The posterior, shallower of the two grooves that partially divide the spinal cord into left & right halves. NARROW.
Depolarization
The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive. Increased NA+ permeability. MP is moving closer to 0.
Chemically-gated ion channel.
The receptor is a closed ion channel that opens when a ligand binds to it.
Lingula
The region of the left lung that corresponds with the right middle lobe.
Cerebral hemispheres
The right & left halves of the cerebrum.
R ventricle vs L ventricle
The right ventricle forms most of the heart's anterior surface & the left ventricle dominates its posteroinferior surface.
Corpus albicans
The scar tissue that replaces the corpus luteum. It is caused by the drop of LH levels in the blood at the end of the 28 day-cycle. as soon as progesterone production ends, the corpus luteum begins to degenerate and is replaced by this.
SRY gene
The sex determining region of the Y chromosome in males. Encodes the testis-determining factor, which turns the primordial gonads into the testes
Intestinal phase (digestion)
The small intestine is divided into 3 sections: the duodenum, jejunem, and ileum. The duodenum is the shortest section (~5% of total length), but is responsible for most intestinal secretion: - Digestive enzymes (includes pancreatic enzymes) - Bile (liver & gallbladder) - Bicarbonate - Mucus - Isotonic NaCl (lubricates the chyme) isotonicity = no osmosis of fluid.
Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is somewhat unique b/c it relays sensory & motor info to/from the brain. But, it can also act as its own integrating center, & processes sensory & motor info in REFLEX PATHWAYS.
Receptor Level (sensory integration)
The stimulus is transduced into an electrical signal, a special type of graded potential called generator potential or receptor potential (special senses). We can adapt to stimuli over time, but not always. ex: mowing lawn.
Fundus
The stomach's dome; tucked under the diaphragm.
Hemostasis occurs in steps
The stoppage of bleeding (hemostasis) occurs in three major steps: 1. Vascular spasms 2. Platelet plug formation 3. Coagulation (clotting)
Hepatic portal vein (histology)
The vein that collects blood from the GI tract and conducts it to the liver
Popliteal vein
The vein that forms when the anterior and posterior tibial veins unite at the knee.
Tidal volume air
The volume of air exchanged each breath under normal resting circumstances. Average = 500 mL
Local Current Flow
The wave of depolarization that moves through the cell. A.P. = 30 ft/ second.
Lateral funiculus
The white matter of the spinal cord lying on either side between the anterior median fissure & the ventral root.
Sympathetic chain ganglia (sympathetic nervous system)
There are 23 in each sympathetic trunk - 3 cervical, 11 thoracic, 4 lumbar, 4 sacral and 1 coccygeal ganglia. Paired, besides the spinal cord. The pre- and postganglionic neurons can: 1. Synapse at the same level. 2. Synapse at a higher or lower level. 3. Synapse in a distant collateral ganglion.
How can one distinguish the parathyroid gland from the thyroid?
There are NO FOLLICLES in the parathyroid gland. It's characterized by densely packed cells.
Internal nares
These are the openings at the rear of the nasal cavity which open into the nasopharynx. Air passes through these openings into the nasopharynx
External iliac artery
These arteries supply the lower limbs. As they course through the pelvis, they give off branches to the anterior abdominal wall. After passing under the inguinal ligaments to enter the thigh, they become the femoral arteries.
Where are the cell bodies of the postganglionic parasympathetic neurons innervated by the vagus nerve?
They are in ganglia found mostly in the walls of visceral organs.
Ketone bodies
They are metabolized when glucose stores have been exhausted (eg starvation).
Striations of cardiac muscle cells
They are modified gap junctions that unite the cells & permit the heart to contract as a unit.
Dura mater
Thick, outermost layer of the meninges surrounding & protecting the brain & spinal cord. Collagen fibers (dense irregular C.T.) w/ thickness like paper. Tough. 2 layers stuck together: - Periosteal layer (skull side) - Meningeal layer (brain side) Outmost covering.
Septum pellucidum
Thin membrane that separates lateral ventricles.
Alveoli (lecture)
Thin wall - Epithelial cells + basement membrane + millions of capillaries surrounding Surface area = Size of tennis court if alveoli were flattened out.
Capillary
Thin-walled blood vessel consisting of just a tunica intima; FUNCTION: Used for exchange of gases, nutrients, wastes, etc. between blood and tissue cells.
Left subclavian artery
Third branch of the aortic arch that distributes blood to the left arm
Ileum
Third part of the small intestine
Tunica media
This is the middle layer. It is made of smooth muscle and elastic fibers. It is responsible for vasodialation and vasoconstriction of the blood vessels. It is also the target tissue for Vasopressin (ADH) Hormone and plays into blood pressure.
Tunica adventitia (externa)
This is the most superficial of the layers. It is made of dense irregular CT with lots of collagen fibers running in all directions for strength in many different directions. In many of the slide preps, you can see the collagen fibers as squiggly lines in this layer.
Thoracic and Abdominal aorta artery
Thoracic aorta: T5- T12. Sends off numerous small arteries to the thorax wall and viscera before piercing into the diaphragm. Becomes the abdominal aorta once in abdominal cavity. Supplies the abdominal walls and viscera. Ends at L4 level. Where it splits into the R and L common iliac arteries (which supply the pelvis and lower limbs).
Bronchioles (Lab)
Thousands of them. Mucosal layer lining inner opening. No cartilage. Smooth muscle present. Simple columnar epithelium in larger openings and simple cuboidal epithelium in terminal bronchioles. No cilia. No goblet cells. Muscle controls diameter of tube.
Tenia coli (large intestine)
Three longitudinal bands of smooth muscle, Facilitate peristalsis, Contribute to formation of haustra (sacculations)
Pharynx
Throat. Continuous with nasal cavity via the internal nares Divided into nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx, which enters the pharynx. Pharyngotympanic tubes empty into the nasopharynx. Pharynx is the site of several clusters of lymphatic tissue = tonsils.
Thyroid Regulates Our Metabolism (rate @ which we oxidize glucose)
Thyroid Hormone is created from thyroglobulin, a glycoprotein secreted by FOLLICULAR CELLS in the thyroid gland. Thyroid hormone is actually 2 hormones: TRIIODOTHYRONINE, T3 THYROXINE, T4 IODINE is a key component of each. More = High met. rate Less = Low met. rate
Laryngeal prominence (Adam's apple)
Thyroid cartilage
Cartilage of Larynx
Thyroid cartilage Arytenoid cartilage Cricoid cartilage Corniculate cartilage Epiglottis (elastic cartilage) Muscles control cartilage to produce sounds.
Laryngeal cartilages
Thyroid cartilage 1 - Laryngeal prominence Cricoid cartilage 1 Arytenoid cartilages 2 Cuneiform cartilages 2 Corniculate cartilages 2 Epiglottis 1
TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)
Thyroid gland
Thyroid Facts
Thyroid hormone is derived from TYROSINE, a lipophilic amino acid (amine hormone) To travel in the blood, it binds to THYROXINE-BINDING GLOBULINS (TBGs) T3 is 10x more ACTIVE that thyroxine (T4), & binds to receptors more strongly. Target cells convert T4 to T3 w/ enzymes called DEIODINASES by taking off extra iodine.
The sciatic nerve is composed of the?
Tibial & common fibular nerves.
Inability to support the weight of the body when stepping forward on foot (weakness or loss of plantar flexion)
Tibial nerve
The medial and lateral plantar nerves branch off what nerve?
Tibial nerve
Liver histology
Tiny cells = Hepatocytes Make up LOBULES Portal triad! @ corners of lobules - Portal vein - Small hepatic artery - Small bile duct
What is the function of the interstitial or Leydig cells?
To produce androgens (most importantly testosterone), which are secreted into the surrounding interstitial fluid.
What is the function of the acrosome cap in the sperm?
To produce enzymes for the breakdown of the zone pellucida on the ovum.
Oblique and horizontal fissures
Top of R lung = Horizontal fissure Bottom = Oblique
Fibrous pericardium
Tough, white fibrous connective tissue that is the outer layer of the pericardium. Loosely fitting superficial part of this sac
Branches of Repiratory System
Trachea = Division 0 Primary Bronchi = Division 1 Repeated branches - Division 2 - 11 Bronchioles = Division 12 -24 Respiratory Bronchioles Alveolar sacs (w/ alveoli)
Trachea Histology
Trachealis muscle
White columns carry impulses along pathways called
Tracts.
Ascending colon
Travels upward from the cecum to the undersurface of the liver.
Renal pyramids
Triangular-shaped areas of tissue in the medulla of the kidney.
Intestinal phase (cont.)
Triglyceride = 3 fatty acids + glycerol broken down b/c of digestion lipases. Michelles break down to protein + chylomicrons Exits to lymph system through lacteals.
Melatonin is derived from ?
Tryptophan
Ejaculatory Duct
Tube through which semen enters the male urethra.
Layers of Blood Vessels
Tunica intima - Endothelium - Subendothelial layer - Internal elastic membrane Tunica media (smooth muscle and elastic fibers) - External elastic membrane Tunica adventitia (collagen fibers) - Vasa vasorumextermal
Artery vs Vein walls
Tunica intima Tunica media Tunica adventitia
The endocardium is continuous with the walls of vessels as which tunic?
Tunica intima (interna)
Thickest tunica?
Tunica media
Atrioventricular (AV) Valves
Two atrioventricular (AV) valves, one located at each atrial-ventricular junction, prevent backflow into the atria when the ventricles contract. ● The right AV valve, the tricuspid (has three flexible cusps (flaps of endocardium reinforced by connective tissue cores). ● The left AV valve, with two cusps, is called the bicuspid (mitral) valve.
The egg presents several barriers to fertilization
Two membranes, the outer corona radiata, and the inner zona pellucida must be crossed by a sperm to fertilize an egg. The acrosome of the sperm releases enzymes to dissolve these layers (the acrosomal reaction) Once a sperm fertilizes an egg, polyspermy is prevented by the cortical reaction, in which the egg's cortical granules create a new, impenetrable layer around the egg.
Lateral apertures
Two openings in the side walls of the fourth ventricle that connect to the subarachnoid space (fluid-filled space surrounding the brain). C B= MEDIAN APERTURE
Corpora cavernosa (penis)
Two side-by-side columns of erectile tissue in the penis
Submucosa (small intestine)
Typical. Dense CT. Vascular & Meissner's plexuses. Submucosal glands.
NE and E are derived from ?
Tyrosine
Medial cord
Ulnar
"Claw hand"
Ulnar nerve.
Vasoconstriction and vasodilation
Under control of Sympathetic Nervous System. High NE = Vasoconstriciton Low NE= Vasodialation
Cause of SA/AV Node Depolarization?
Unstable RMP → OPEN (LEAKY) Na+ channels → depolarize slowly until threshold is reached → Ca2+ channels open
Action Potential Initiation by Pacemaker Cells
Unstimulated contractile cells of the heart (and neurons and skeletal muscle fibers) maintain a stable resting membrane potential. However, about 1% of cardiac fibers are autorhythmic ("self-rhythmic") cardiac pacemaker cells, having the special ability to depolarize spontaneously and thus pace the heart. Pacemaker cells are a part of the intrinsic conduction system. They have an unstable resting potential that continuously depolarizes, drifting slowly toward threshold. These spontaneously changing membrane potentials, called pacemaker potentials or prepotentials initiate the action potentials that spread throughout the heart to trigger its rhythmic contractions. 1. Pacemaker potential. The pacemaker potential is due to the special properties of the ion channels in the sarcolemma. In these cells, hyperpolarization at the end of an action potential both closes K+ channels and opens slow Na+ channels. The Na+ influx alters the balance between K+ loss and Na+ entry, and the membrane interior becomes less and less negative (more positive). 2. Depolarization. Ultimately, at threshold (approximately −40 mV), SLOW CA2+ channels open, allowing explosive entry of Ca2+ from the extracellular space. As a result, in pacemaker cells, it is the influx of Ca2+ (rather than Na+ ) that pro- duces the rising phase of the action potential & reverses the membrane potential. 3. Repolarization. Ca2+ channels inactivate. As in other excitable cells, the falling phase of the action potential & repolarization reflect opening of K+ channels and K+ efflux from the cell. Once repolarization is complete, K+ channels close, K+ efflux declines, and the slow depolarization to threshold begins again.
Anatomical position of the Kidneys
Upper lumbar region on posterior abdominal wall.
Upper, Middle, & Lower Trunks
Upper: Lateral Middle: Posterior Lower: Medial
Urine positive for nitrites, leukocytes, and a slightly higher than normal pH?
Urinary tract infection
Plethysmograph
Used to measure STROKE VOLUME Inserted to ventricle of heart, fed though like the femoral vein (into leg to heart)
Oxytocin
Uterus and mammary glands
The three branches of the Trigeminal?
V1 - Ophthalmic - Sensory from anterior scalp, upper eyelids, nose, cornea, & lacrimal gland. V2 - Maxillary - Sensory from cheek, upper lip, lower eyelid, upper palate, & teeth. V3 -Mandibular - Anterior tongue (no taste), lower teeth, chin, & temporal regions, motor to & proprioception from muscles of mastication.
Average Tidal Volume
VC x 0.1
Expiratory Reserve Volume
VC x 0.25
Inspiratory Reserve Volume
VC x 0.65
Motor (efferent) root
VENTRAL ROOT
Large intestine histology
VERY THIN SUBMUCOSA! crypts = bottom of folds. Longitudinal layer (thin) - NOT continuous w/in large intestine - Sections of longitudinal layer = TENIA COLI
Ileocecal Valve
Valve at the junction of the small and large intestines.
Intestinal phase (cont. 3)
Vary in digestibility ex: Pepsin = Good @ animal protein breakdown SODIUM DEPENDENT to be absorbed into enterocytes! Amino acid absorption is - for the most part - Na+ dependent
Loss of vasomotor tone that results in a huge drop in peripheral resistance is known as __________.
Vascular shock. In vascular shock, blood volume is normal and constant but there is an abnormal expansion of the vascular beds, resulting in a huge drop in peripheral resistance, causing blood pressure to fall rapidly.
Superior and inferior vena cava
Veins that carry deoxygenated blood to the right atrium from the systemic circuit
What type of vessels has valves? Why?
Veins; low pressure in veins require valves to keep the blood from pooling or flowing backwards. Arteries have high pressure so blood keeps moving without the need of valves.
Median nerve
Ventral antebrachium (wrist and finger flexors)
Cervical Plexus
Ventral rami of C1 - C4. Innervate muscles of neck, shoulder, and skin on back of the head, on neck and shoulders.
Phrenic Nerve (cervical plexus)
Ventral rami of C3 - C5. Both sensory and motor fibers to diaphragm.
Brachial Plexus
Ventral rami of C5-T1 Innervates muscles dof upper limbs, neck, & shoulders. Injury: Weakness or paralysis of upper limbs.
Lumbar Plexus
Ventral rami of L1-L4. Innervates lower limb, some of abdomen & pelvis.
Sacral Plexus
Ventral rami of L4-S4.
The roots of plexus are actually?
Ventral rami of spinal nerves.
From what branch of a spinal nerve are all plexuses formed?
Ventral ramus.
Abducens (VI) Nerve
Ventral view.
Cerebral peduncle
Ventral view.
Facial (VII) Nerve
Ventral view.
Glossopharyngeal (IX)
Ventral view.
Hypoglossal (XII)
Ventral view.
Mammillary body (brainstem)
Ventral view.
Middle Cerebellar Peduncle
Ventral view.
Oculomotor (III) Nerve
Ventral view.
Pyramid of medulla
Ventral view.
Trigeminal (V)
Ventral view.
Vagus (X)
Ventral view.
Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII)
Ventral view.
Atlas vertebra
Ventral view. 1st cervical vertebra
Infundibulum of pituitary gland
Ventral view. A narrow stalk connecting the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland (endocrine system).
Optic Nerve (II)
Ventral view. (brainstem) Sensory, vision
Lateral ventricles
Ventricles located in each cerebral hemisphere. A
QRS Complex
Ventricular depolarization and atrial repolarization
T wave
Ventricular repolarization
What is the result of the calcium influx?
Vesicles fuse to membrane & release neurotransmitter.
Nasal vestibule
Vibrissae (hairs) filter coarse particles from inspired air
Pleurae of Lungs
Visceral and parietal.
Occipital lobe
Visual processing.
Muscle that controls the tension of the vocal folds?
Vocalis (located deep to thyroarytenoideus)
Muscle controls the TENSION of the vocal folds
Vocalis / Thyroarytenoideus
Channels on the Axon hillock?
Voltage- Gated NA+ Channels. OPEN AT - 55 mV
What type of ion channel is opening ? How are they gated (what causes them to open) ?
Voltage-gated Na+ channel are opening. It must be depolarized to - 55 mV for it to open.
Boyle's Law
Volume is inversely proportional to pressure
Minute Respiratory Volume (MRV)
Volume of air moved into the respiratory passageways in one minute TV x Respiratory Rate (breaths/minute)
Stroke Volume (SV)
Volume of blood pumped out by one ventricle with each beat.
Primary motor cortex
Voluntary movement. #2.
Brush border
Wall of small intestine. Digestive enzymes are TETHERED TO WALL! Aren't easily brushed away.
What can come out?
Water, glucose, amino acids (individual), ions (NaCl), and urea (nitrogenous wastes)
Composition of CSF?
Water, glucose, ions, & small amounts of protein.
In the mouth:
We chew our food (mechanical digestion) Incisors: good for vegetation (chop/cutting) - Cows/mice (no canines) Canine: good for meat - Dogs/cats (molars = sharp to cut bone) Premolars/molars: good for grinding Topography (bumps on teeth) = omnivorous diet
180 L of filtrate / Day
We make 2 - 3 L/ day. Passive process (filtration) - Occurs through a pressure gradient Glomerular Capillary Pressure (the hydrostatic pressure) = 55 mmHg Plasma Colloid Pressure (osmotic pressure b/n plasma and capillaries) = Opposes filtration = 30 mmHg - opposes filtrate Bowman's Capsule Pressure = 15 mmHg Net Filtration = 10 mmHg
Para vs Symp Work Together
We see as antagonist (one off, the other on) BUT IN REALITY: - Working locally @ different parts of the body @ the same time. - At the same time! Innervate the same effectors.
Circadian Rhythm of Melatonin
What is the function of the pineal gland? What does it secrete for this function?
Peristalsis
When contracted = decreases diameter decreases length
RECIPROCAL INHIBITION
When muscle spindles are activated, they cause a reflexive contraction of the stretched muscle. They also cause inhibition of antagonistic muscles, thus increasing the efficiency of contraction. * RECIPROCAL INHIBITION * THESE STRETCH REFLEXES ARE THE ONLY MONOSYNAPTIC REFLEXES IN THE BODY.
Long loop negative feedback
When the last hormone in a pathway feeds back to suppress secretion of its trophic hormones.
Cardia
Where esophagus contacts medial surface of stomach, near heart.
White rami (sympathetic division only)
Which carry preganglionic axons to the sympathetic trucks, are only found in the T1 - L2 cord.
Spinal cord labeled
White Matter: Dorsal funiculus Lateral funiculus Ventral funiculus Gray Matter: Dorsal gray horn Lateral gray horn Ventral gray horn
Tunica albuginea
White fibrous capsule on testes
Arbor vitae
White matter of the cerebellum. Tree of life.
Oligodendrocytes would be found in the?
White matter or columns.
Redirection of Blood Flow
Why? - Tissues have different metabolic needs - Skeletal muscles at rest: 10% of cardiac output - @ Exercise: 80% of CO.
Why are O blood types universal donors?
Will NOT trigger a rejection response by the recipient.
Cerebellum (reptilian brain)
Works to smooth skeletal muscle movements (mostly inhibition), and is completely autonomic. 11% of total brain mass. We have no control, or conscience of it.
Schwann Cells (PNS)
Wrap around axons of PNS neurons & produce a myelin sheath.
Can ions move in and out of cell?
Yes
Do all sections have gray horns?
Yes. All sections have anterior & posterior gray horns, but not all have lateral horns. Lateral gray horns are found only in the thoracic & upper lumbar regions (T1-L2). S2-S4 have small lateral gray horns.
% Expected VC
Your value/ expected value x 100
In the extracellular fluid, membrane potential is set at?
ZERO !
Critical Zone/ Hormone Class/ Specific Hormones Produced
Zona glomerulosa/ Mineralocorticoids/ Aldosterone Zona fasciculata/ Glucocorticoids/ Cortisol Zona reticularis/ Gonadocorticoids/ Androgens - Testosterone (mainly)
Graafian follicle
a mature follicle containing a secondary oocyte
The sympathetic division promotes
a number of metabolic effects not reversed by parasympathetic activity. It (1) increases the metabolic rate of body cell (2) raises blood glucose levels] (3) mobilizes fats for use as fuels. In short, sympathetic nerve impulses act only briefly, but the hormonal effects they provoke linger. The widespread and prolonged effect of sympathetic activation explains why we need time to "come down" after an extremely stressful experience.
Sigmoid Colon
an S-shaped structure that continues from the descending colon above and joins with the rectum below
Hippocampus
and amygdala play a role in MEMORY.
Nissl bodies
are clusters of ROUGH ER responsible for synthesis of protein. ---- (primary site of protein synthesis)
Major and minor calyces (calyx)
collect urine draining from papillae, empties urine into pelvis.
Myelin increases
conduction velocity.
Proprioreceptors
found within skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, ligaments, and connective tissue coverings of bones and muscles and relay information concerning body movements. Sense position in skeletal muscle!
Oogenesis process
germline cell (2N) starting in the gonad (ovary). The germline cell then divides into two haploid cells (one much larger than the other). From those two haploid cells, two more haploids come out of each. However, three of the four are small and polar and are later destroyed, but one is larger than the others. That one large one is known as the ovum and is the only cell that's used in fertilization. One ovum is released per month (menstrual cycle) until menopause)
Duodenal Glands (Brunner's glands)
in submucosa
Peyer's patches (lymph nodules)
in submucosa
Schwann cells are only found
in the PNS.
Nodes of Ranvier
is an interruption in the myelin sheath which enhances conduction velocity by allowing saltatory conduction.
Infundibulum of Fallopian tube
lateral, trumpet shaped, fimbriae
Ovum
mature egg cell (female gamete)
Vesicles are
membrane bound sacs that contain neurotransmitters.
Gastic glands (mucosa layer)
mucous neck cells, parietal cells, chief cells, G cells
Sensory (afferent)
neurons are always sensory.
Bipolar
neurons can be found in the retina of the eye.
Plica Circulares (in the duodenum)
or Circular folds
Cranial Nerves
the brain has 12 pairs of cranial nerves associated w/ it. Even though they are connected to the brain, they are part of the PNS. These nerves vary in their function. Some are solely sensory, motor, but most are mixed in function.
Right marginal artery
to lateral wall of right ventricle
ANS uses 2-neuron Chain from CNS to Effector Organs
to reach its effortors: 1. The cell body of the first neuron, PREGANGLIONIC NEURON (resides in brain/spinal cord). It's axon, the PREGANGLIONIC AXON, synapse w/ the 2nd motor neurons. 2. The POSTGANGLIONIC NEURON, is the 2nd motor neuron. Its cell body is in an autonomic ganglion outside the CNS. Its axon, the POSTGANGLIONIC AXON, extends to the effector organ.
Converging Circuit
• Many inputs, one output • A concentrating circuit • Example: Different sensory stimuli can all elicit the same memory
Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
• Spherical, nucleated cells • 4,000 - 11,000 (cells/microliter of blood)
Cardiac muscle cells
● Some cardiac muscle cells are self-excitable. - Contractile cardiac muscle cells, responsible for the heart's pumping activity - Contain special noncontractile cells, called pacemaker cells, that spontaneously depolarize. This property is called automaticity or autorhythmicity. Because heart cells are electrically joined together by gap junctions, these cells can initiate not only their own depolarization, but also that of the rest of the heart. No neural input is required. ● The heart contracts as a unit. Gap junctions tie cardiac muscle cells together to form a functional syncytium. This allows the wave of depolarization to travel from cell to cell across the heart. As a result, either all fibers in the heart contract as a unit or the heart doesn't contract at all. In skeletal muscle, impulses do not spread from cell to cell... are individually stimulated by nerve fibers. Heart acts as a single huge motor unit. Contraction of all of the cardiac myocytes ensures effective pumping by the heart—a half- hearted contraction would just not do. ● The influx of Ca2+ from extracellular fluid triggers Ca2+ release from the SR. In skeletal muscle, the wave of depolarization directly causes release from the SR of all the Ca2+ required for contraction. In cardiac muscle, depolarization opens special Ca2+ channels in the plasma membrane. These slow Ca2+ channels allow entry of 10-20% of the Ca2+ needed for contraction. Once inside, this influx of Ca2+ triggers Ca2+- sensitive channels in the SR to release bursts of Ca2+ ("calcium sparks") that account for the other 80-90% of the Ca2+ needed for contraction. ● Tetanic contractions cannot occur in cardiac muscles. The absolute refractory period is the period during an action potential when another action potential cannot be triggered. In skeletal muscle, the absolute refractory period is much shorter than the contraction, allowing multiple contractions to summate (tetanic contractions). If the heart were to contract tetanically, it would be unable to relax & fill, & so would be useless as a pump. To prevent tetanic contractions, the absolute refractory period in the heart is nearly as long as the contraction itself. ● The heart relies almost exclusively on aerobic respiration. Cardiac muscle has more mitochondria, dependent on oxygen for its energy metabolism. The heart relies almost exclusively on aerobic respiration Both types of muscle tissue use multiple fuel molecules, including glucose & fatty acids. But cardiac muscle is much more adaptable & readily switches metabolic pathways to use whatever nutrients are available, including lactic acid.