BIO 50B LAB TEST 1, BIO 50B Exam 1, DIGESTIVE/ URINARY EXAM, Respiratory & Urinary Exam (Bio 50B), Heart Exam, BIO 50 B TEST 2

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Auricles

"Flaps" on the atria to increase the volume of the chamber

Cauda Equina

"Horse's tail", a fan of nerve fibers below the spinal cord.

Arterioles are Arranged in Parallel

"Path of least resistance" Decrease in flow 1 arterial = increase of flow in other arterioles.

Spermatic cord and contents

"Players Don't Contribute To A Good Sex Life" -Pampiniform Plexus -Ductus Deferens -Cremasteric Artery -Testicular Artery -Artery of the Ductus Deferens -Genitofemoral Nerve -Sympathetic Nerve Fibers -Lymphatic vessels

Ampulla of ductus (vas) deferens

Dura mater (model)

#10

Dorsal root ganglion (diagram)

Parieto-occipital sulcus (median sagittal view)

Auditory association area

#22 Permits the perception of the sound stimulus, which we "hear" as speech, music, thunder, etc. Memories of sounds heard in the past appear to be stored here for reference.

Ductus (vas) Deferens

#4. Muscular passageway conveying sperm to the ejaculatory duct; in the spermatic cord

Dorsal root

Posterior Fornix

Temporal lobe

#7 Hearing.

Anterior Fornix

Lateral sulcus

#8 Separates temporal lobe from parietal and frontal lobes

Alveolar Ventilation Rate

(TV - total dead space) x respiratory rate

AV node (atrioventricular node)

(atrioventricular node) region of the heart between the right atrium & right ventricle from which electrical impulses spread to the ventricles during a heartbeat

substances transported by blood

* Nutrients (glucose, fatty acids, amino *acids and vitamins) * Waste products of metabolism (urea, uric acid) * Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2) *Hormones

The difference between gray horns and the white column?

*Gray matter:* - Neuron cell bodies, dendrites, & SHORT unmyelinated axons. *White matter:* - Mostly myelinated axons

Dartos muscle (scrotum)

*smooth muscle *wrinkles scrotal skin - Superficial fascia containing dartos muscle

Autorhythmic cells in cardiac muscle

- "Pacemaker cells" sets the pace of cardiac muscle contraction - Modified muscle cells BUT.. - Do not contract (noncontractile) - VERY Unstable membrane potential - Depolarize @ a very regular rate - Clustered in two 'nodes' 1. Atrioventricular nodes (AV) 2. Sinoatrial node (SA)

Capillary beds

- Afferent arteriole - Efferent arteriole - Vasa recta

Mechanics of Breathing

- Air is a fluid - Flow is proportional to difference in pressure / R

Pacemaker cells have an unstable membrane potential

- At - 60 mV (RMP), IF ion channels open (NA+ influx and K+ efflux passage) ** Movement of Na+ is greater b/c there are more (depolarization) - At -40 mV, IF channels close & CA2+ channels open. - At +20 mV, CA2+ start to close and K+ channels open causing repolarization *does NOT need a nerve to do the rhythm (on its own)

Erythrocytes must be replaced continually

- Because they lack organelles, they cannot divide (no centrioles). - An individual RBC falls apart after about 100 to 120 days. - They are replaced pretty much continuously, synthesize massive amounts of hemoglobin, ejecting nucleus and organelles. - An immature red blood cell is called a reticulocyte (still contains some rough ER). - Reticulocytes function normally (like mature RBCs), and within 2 days have ejected with remainder of the rough ER. - Rate of red blood cell production is governed by the glycoprotein erythropoietin

Ventricular Systole (Events During Cardiac Cycle)

- Begins as the atria go into diastole (relaxing state) - AV and semilunar valves are closed until pressure forces semilunar valves open and blood is pushed from ventricles into pulmonary trunk and the aorta. - Duration is 0.3 seconds.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

- Brain + spinal cord. - Controls the entire organism. - Integrating center.

Broca's area & Wernicke's area

- Broca's area (motor speech area) - Wernicke's area (recognition & interpretation of words)

Cardiac muscles rely on CALCIUM

- CA2+ enters the cell and directly affects the SR (stores CA2+) - Triggers release of CA2+ from SR - Ryanodine Receptor Channels release the CA2+ from the SR into the cell. - After CA2+ is released, it allows action to bind to myosin -> CA2+ binds to troponin -> Sliding Filament Theory

Purkinje fibers (Intrinsic Conduction System of the Heat, PART 5)

- Carry impulses from bundle branches to the heart apex, ventricle walls, and papillary muscles. - Supply the papillary muscles before supplying lateral walls of ventricles, thus ensuring closure of the AV valves.

Myenteric plexus (muscularis externa)

- Circular and longitudinal smooth muscle - Provides motility (movement and breakdown of food)

Muscular externa (small intestine)

- Circular muscle layer - Longitudinal layer

Muscularis External (large intestine)

- Circular muscle layer - Tenia coli (longitudinal muscle bands)

Leukocytes and Platelet Production

- Colony-stimulating factors (CSF) regulate the production of leukocytes. - Leukocyte production is governed by existing white cell count, so each type is made based on demand. The proportions of white cells are always changing. Thrombopoeietin (TPO) regulates growth and regulation of megakaryocytes, which fragment, giving rise to platelets . Megakaryocytes get quite large, often undergoing mitosis 7 times before fragmenting! TPO agonists are a class of drug that are sometimes used to stimulate platelet production in patients with inadequate clotting ability. Platelets contain serotonin, ADP, calcium, and PDGF.

Endocrine System Facts

- Composed of glands - Glands produce hormones - Hormones are chemical messengers that are released directly into the blood (no ducts) - Hormones work at specific locations (targets) - Receptors may be on target cell membrane or inside the cell (intracellular) - The pituitary is often called the Master Gland of the Body since it oversees much of the action of other glands - The pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus - The pituitary gland is functionally and structurally related to the hypothalamus - Structural relationships include direct axonal connections between the hypothalamus & the posterior pituitary & a specialized "portal" system (a capillary network) - Functional relationships include release of releasing and inhibiting hormones by the hypothalamus which affect the anterior pituitary & the production of oxytocin & ADH by the hypothalamus which are stored & released as needed by the posterior pituitary.

Mucosa

- Consists of a layer of epithelial cells, lamina propia, & a layer of smooth muscle (muscularis mucosae) The wall is heavily folded: these folds produce RUGAE in the stomach, & PLICAE in the small intestine. In addition, the wall invaginates to form glands & crypts.

Erectile tissue of penis

- Corpus cavernosum (outer) - Corpus spongiosum (close to spongy urethra)

Meninges purpose?

- Cover & protect CNS - Protect blood vessels & enclose venous sinuses. - Contain cerebrospinal fluid. - Form partitions in the skull. Leather-like covering.

Nephrons

- DCT is next to the renal corpuscle - Efferent arteriole goes to peritubular capillaries that surround the structure; close association w/ blood & urine.

Muscles that contract to cause inspiration ?

- Diaphragm (mainly) - External intercostal muscles In forced inspiration, - Scalenes - Sternocleidomastoid - Pectoralis minor

Hematopoiesis occurs in red bone marrow

- Each blood cell type is produced in response to different demands and stimuli. - All of the formed elements come from a type of stem cell called a hemocytoblast. As a cells change and become differentiated, their feet cannot be changed.

Heart Valves

- Ensure unidirectional blood flow through heart - Open & close in response to pressure changes

Neural Crest Cells

- Found at the tip of each neural fold. - Migrate outward to form the peripheral nervous system.

Metabolism

- Glucose is the only fuel the brain uses. - The brain consumes about 120 g of glucose/day, or about 420 kcal - This is 60% of your entire glucose per day. - 70 % of your brain's metabolism is to power Na+/K+ ATPase. - 420 x 70% = 294 kcal is needed to run Na+/K+ ATPase.

Homologous structures

- Gonads (ovaries/testes) - Penis/ clitoris - Scrotum/ labia = Same embryonic tissue

Liver lobules

- Hepatocytes The basic functional units of the liver Each lobe is divided by connective tissue About 100,000 liver lobules 1 mm diameter each Hexagonal in cross section With six portal areas (portal triads) One at each corner of lobule

Multiple Integrating Centers

- If something goes wrong it gives the body time to regulate hormonal release.

Things to remember about gametogenesis

- In males, spermatogenesis proper (meiosis) does not begin until puberty, under the direction of gonadotropins (FSH, LH) and testosterone. - Inhibin is released when sperm count is around 20 million/ml and above (prevents too much sperm). - In females, oogenesis (meiosis) begins before birth and is halted before birth, leaving primary oocytes "frozen" in the ovaries until puberty. - Beginning at puberty, once a month, one primary oocyte goes through its second meiotic division, and will finish meiosis only if fertilized by a sperm.

Other structures

- Interatrial septum - Interventricular septum - Ligamentum arteriosum

Eosinophil (granulocytes)

- Kills parasitic worms - Destroys antigen-antibody complexes - Inactivate some inflammatory chemicals of allergy • Blue-purple, bilobed nucleus • Coarse red-orange cytoplasmic granules • 10 - 14 micrometers • 100 - 400 (cells/microliter of blood) D: 6 - 9 days LS: 8 - 12 days

Arachnoid granulations

- Large clusters of villi - Absorbs CSF into venous circulation.

High O2 Levels

- Left ventricle - Left atrium - Aortic arch - Pulmonary veins - R coronary arteries - L coronary arteries - R marginal artery - Anterior interventricular artery - Posterior interventricular artery - Circumflex artery

Diaphragma sellae

- Lines the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone - It anchors the dura mater to the sphenoid bone - It encases the pituitary gland

Protein Hormones

- Lipophobic (hydrophilic) - Bind to extracellular receptors - As a result, they activate molecules called 2nd messengers w/in the cell. - Cyclic AmP (CAMP) - ALTER activity of PROTEINS that already exist in the cell. - ms to minutes for a response! - Soluble in blood, short-half life in blood.

Protein hormones have EXTRACELLULAR RECEPTORS

- Lipophobic molecules tend to act on existing proteins, thus they have fast response time (ms to seconds) - Polar (dissolve in blood plasma) - Not soluble in plasma membrane - Need receptors

Steroid Hormones

- Lipophylic (hydrophobic) - Bind to receptors in the cell - The hormone-receptor complex acts as a transcription factor - Steroid hormones results in PRODUCTION of NEW PROTEINS. - NOT soluble, longer half-life b/c of carrier proteins.

Atrioventricular (AV) node (Intrinsic Conduction System of the Heat, PART 2)

- Located just above the tricuspid valve in the inferior interatrial septum. - Depolarization wave passes from SA node throughout the atria to the AV node - Passes impulses to AV bundle

Juxtamedullary nephrons

- Long nephron loops deeply invade medulla - Ascending limbs have thick and thin segments - Important in production of concentrated urine

Cause of abnormally low hemoglobin reading?

- Low iron in diet - Anemia - Lack of intrinsic factor (low B12)

Erythrocytes Carry O2 to Our Cells

- Mature erythrocytes have no nucleus and very few organelles. - The only thing present is hemoglobin (hG), a protein whose job is to carry oxygen. - Small biconcave discs present at a density of about 5 million/mm3 of blood - the major contributor of blood viscosity. - Each erythrocyte carries about 250 million hemoglobin molecules. - Each hemoglobin molecule can carry 4 oxygen molecules. - Each erythrocyte can carry 1 billion O2 molecules - Normal blood contains: 12 - 18 g of hemoglobin / 100 mL of blood

Arachnoid Mater

- Middle meninx. - Forms loose brain covering. - Collagen fibers are loosely packed. - Looks like spiderweb. - Has open space. - Surrounds the brain & spinal cord.

Lymphocyte (agranulocyte)

- Mount immune response by direct cell attack or via antibodies (ANTIBODY FORMATION) • Deep blue or purple spherical or indented nucleus • Pale blue cytoplasms • 5 - 17 micrometer (small to large) • 1,500 to 3,000 (cells/microliter of blood) D: days to weeks LS: hours to years

Ventricular Diastole (Events During Cardiac Cycle)

- Occurs following ventricular contraction. - Ventricles relax. - AV valves reopen and filling begins.

Leukocytes defend us against disease

- On the whole, the account for about 1% of blood volume (4,000 to 11,000/ mm3). - They are "normal cells"- have a nucleus and organelles. - Have a unique ability to move into & out of cells > diapedesis. - Have the ability to move towards areas of damage > positive chemotaxis. - Move by ameboid motion in non-blood tissues. - Classified as granulocytes or agranulocytes depending on the process of granules in cytoplasm.

Juxtaglomerular Complex (JGC)

- One per nephron - Involves modified portions of Distal portion of ascending limb of nephron loop - Afferent (sometimes efferent) arteriole - Important in regulation of rate of filtrate formation and blood pressure 1. MACULA DENSA 2. Juxtaglomerular (granular) cells

Important Factors Chemoreceptors Are Looking For

- PO2 - PCO2 - pH pH = Most Important! It is tied to CO2, but the receptors are the most sensitive to pH. Proteins are sensitive to pH too, can cause damage.

Erection & Emission

- Parasympathetic vasodilation is stimulated by nitrous oxide. - Vasodilation passively compresses veins draining blood from penis, "flooding" the penis with blood. - This accumulation of blood in the penis leads to erection in 5-10 seconds - Emission = movement of sperm out of vas deferens into the urethra, where secretions from accessory glands make semen Average ejaculatory semen volume is 3 ml - During ejaculation, semen is expelled to the outside by a series of rapid muscular contractions

Parietal vs Chief cells

- Parietal cells = Lighter (like egg) More on time, but is intermixing - Chief cells = Darker b/c basophil stain Strongly basophilic cells. Granules that are basophilic w/in the chief cells that contain things like pepsinogen & different enzymes responsible for digesting proteins.

Right Atrium

- Pectinate muscles - SA & AV nodes - Coronary sinus orifice - SVC & IVC orifice - Fossa ovalis (foramen prior to birth) - Auricle

Monocyte (agranulocyte)

- Phagocytosis; develop into macrophages in tissues. - Active during chronic infection • Blue or purple, kidney shaped or U-shaped nucleus • Large blue-gray cytoplasm • 14 - 24 micrometers (LARGEST WBC)

Atrial Systole (Events During Cardiac Cycle)

- Pressure in the heart is low, and blood returning from circulation is flowing passively through atria and into ventricle. - Aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves closed. - AV valves (tricuspid and bicuspid) are open. - Atria contract propelling blood into ventricles - Duration is 0.1 seconds.

Diffusion Plays a Role!

- Propagation of AP in neurons. - Gases movement in/out of blood stream.

Defacation Reflex

- Rectum gets filled - Stimulates stretch receptors - Sends signal to CNS to relax the rectum.

Kidneys

- Regulate ECF volume and blood pressure - Regulation of osmolarity (Na+, K+, and Ca2+) - Regulation of blood pH + Excrete bicarbonate ions & H+ ions. Not as fast as Respiratory System. - Excretion of wastes + Nitrogenous wastes, when we metabolize proteins or break down nucleic acids. We're left w/ amino groups, -NH2 - Production of chemicals involved with erythropoiesis and vitamin D3 metabolism. + renin = regulated blood pressure

Basophil (granulocytes)

- Release histamine and other mediators of inflammation - Contain HEPARIN (anticoagulant) • Blue-black, bilobed nucleus • Large blue-purple cytoplasmic granules • 10 - 12 micrometers • 20 - 50 (cells/microliter of blood) D: 3 - 7 days LS: ?? (few hours to a few days)

Bundle Branches (Intrinsic Conduction System of the Heat, PART 4)

- Right and left bundle branches course along the interventricular septum towards the apex of the heart.

Low O2 Levels

- Right ventricle - Right atrium - Pulmonary trunk - Superior vena cava - Inferior vena cava - Great cardiac vein - Middle cardiac vein

Atrioventricular bundle (Bundle of HIS) (Intrinsic Conduction System of the Heat, PART 3)

- Runs from AV node to the interventricular septum where it branches into right and left bundle branches. - From AV node, the impulse sweeps to the AV bundle.

Hormones (chemical messengers)

- Secreted by the blood - Secreted by cells or groups of cells (endocrine organs) - Often have distant organs - Often present in low concentrations in blood -picomolar range - Act by binding to receptors - Activity needs to be terminated. Varies on their mechanism of action! Mediate interactions WITHIN an individual.

Visceral Sensory neurons

- Send info about chemical changes, stretch, or irritation of the viscera. - Almost all receptors for theses visceral senses are free (nonencapulated) nerve endings that are widely scattered throughout the visceral organs - Cell bodies are located in cranial nerve sensory ganglia or dorsal root ganglia of cord

All characteristics of the sympathetic nervous system.

- Short preganglionic fibers - Origin from thoracolumbar region of spinal cord - Collateral ganglia - Innervates adrenal medulla

Epidural Space

- Space b/n vertebrae & dura mater. Anesthesia injected. - Contains blood vessels, areolar CT, & fat.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

- Spinal nerves + cranial nerves - Link b/n CNS, body & environment. - Carriers msg to and from the spinal cord and brain.

Response Pathway (Response loop and feedback loop)

- Stimulus (external or internal) - Sensor - Input signal (afferent) - Integrating center (may be endocrine gland itself) - Output signal (hormone release) - Target (organ) = receptors are either extracellular or intracellular depending on hormone. - Response (varies on hormone)

Blood enters the right atrium from the:

- Superior vena cava; returns blood from body regions superior to the diaphragm. - Inferior vena cava; returns blood from body areas below the diaphragm. - Coronary sinus; collects blood draining from the myocardium.

Variscosities (& what do they contain/do?)

- Swellings of the neuron that are in close proximity to the sheets of smooth muscle - Contain neurotransmitters in vesicles - Release neurotransmitters into diffuse junctions when stimulated AP, Ca2+ rushes in, exocytosis, release neurotransmitters.

What affects the curve?

- Temperature - pH, Bohr Shift when from pH - PCO2 Goes to right when: - High temperature - Low pH (acidic) - High PCO2 P50 value increases as we move curve from L to R. Shift curve to right = Low affinity for O2 (easier release to tissues) Shift curve to left = High affinity for O2 (binds stronger) LUNGS = Need HIGH affinity TISSUES = Need LOW affinity

Erythrocyte

- Transports CO2 and O2 (MOLECULES) - Hemoglobulin production • Biconcave, anucleate disc • Salmon-colored • 7 - 8 micrometer (av. 7.5) • 4 - 6 million (cells/microliter of blood) D: 5 - 7 days LS: 100 - 120 days

Right and left atria

- Two superior chambers - Receive blood returning to heart - Auricles (seen on surface) enlarge chamber

Alveolus

- Type 1 (epithelial cells) - Type 2 (surfactant secreting cells) - Macrophages - Blood capillaries surrounding = 80-95% of outer alveolar surface.

Nasopharynx

- Uvula - Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) - Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube

Nasal conchae

- superior, middle, and inferior - protrude medially from lateral walls - increase mucosal area - enhance air turbulence

Resting membrane potential (RMP)

-70mV

Beginning of repolarization

-Na+ channels are closing -K+ channels are opening -K+ ions flow out of cell -net charge is returning to negative direction

Normal duration of one complete cardiac cycle

0.8 seconds.

Bipolar Neurons

1. 1 axon & 1 dendrite 2. Very rare 3. Found in special sensory organs (olfactory mucosa & retina.

Unipolar Neurons

1. 1 extension serving as axon & dendrite 2. Mostly afferent sensory 3. Found in PNS (dorsal root ganglia & sensory ganglia on cranial nerves)

The Axon Terminal

1. A.P. reaches axon terminal. 2. Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open and Ca2+ enters the cell. -> Causes depolarization b/c it's a positive ion. 3. Ca2+ triggers exocytosis of vesicles containing neurotransmitters. (dopamine, serotonin, etc.) ( goes to the synaptic cleft ) 4. Neurotransmitter binds receptors on target cell -> RESPONSE. ---- When bound to receptors on postsynaptic neuron, the neurotransmitter can either excite or inhibit the post synaptic neuron.

How does a visceral reflex differ from a somatic reflex?

1. ANS has a 2 neuron efferent chain, SNS has 1. 2. ANS has visceral afferents rather than somatic afferents. 3. The effectors of the ANS are smooth/cardiac/glands/adipose tissue. SNS are skeletal.

2 Types of Signals in Neurons

1. Action Potential (AP) - Never loses strength. ( As it travels it stays at the same strength throughout the neuron. ) - Neuron uses to move muscle cells (neurons & muscles only). - Activated by graded potentials (dendrites/soma. 2. Graded Potential - Signal in neuron that can VARY in strength. - Can be weak or strong - Can be ADDED together (SPATIAL SUMMATION)! - Can potentially die out (decremental)

Neurotransmitters

1. Bind receptors on target tissue 2. Diffuse away (in blood vessels) 3. Reuptake by neuron - Recycled or Broken Down Neurotransmitter Breakdown: NE- Monoamine oxidase (MAO) Ach- Acetylcholine Esterase MORE = THE STRONGER TISSUES REACT

CSF Circulation

1. CSF is produced by choroid plexus in each ventricle. 2. CSF flows from lateral ventricles and 3rd ventricle through the cerebral aqueduct into the 4th ventricle. 3. CSF in 4th flows into subarachnoid space by passing through openings in the roof of the 4th ventricle. These openings are the paired lateral apertures and the single median aperture. CSF also fills the central canal of the spinal cord. 4. As it travels through the subarachnoid space, CSF removes waste products and provides buoyancy for the brain and spinal cord. 5. CSF accumulates w/i the suarachnoid space, it exerts pressure w/i the arachnoid villi. This pressure exceeds the pressure in the venous sinuses. Thus, the arachnoid villi extending into the dural venous sinuses provide a conduit for a one-way flow of excess CSF to be returned into the blood within the dural venous sinuses.

Efferent (Motor) Neurons

1. Carry outgoing information from CNS to effector organs of body (away from CNS). 2. Mainly MULTIPOLAR.

Afferent (sensory) Neurons

1. Carry sensory information in skin, internal organs, joints, and skeletal muscle TOWARD CNS 2. Mainly UNIPOLAR.

3 main regions of the cerebral hemispheres

1. Cerebral cortex, made of gray matter (cell bodies) 2. White matter (tracts) 3. Basal nuclei

Ependymal Cells (CNS) LAB

1. Ciliated Cells. 2. Line brain ventricles. 3. Cilia circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Astrocytes (CNS) LAB

1. Cling to neurons & capillaries. 2. Help w/ the exchange between neurons & capillaries. 3. Pick up excess K+ 4. Recycle neurotransmitters.

What test could you perform to help determine which of the causes you listed w/ large buffy coat?

1. Complete blood count (CBC) 2. Differential White Blood Cell Count

Thyroid Functions

1. Controls the rate at which glucose is oxidized or burned. 2. Regulates tissue development. 3. Helps maintain blood pressure.

Cortisol protect from hypoglycemia (low blood sugar)

1. Cortisol promotes gluconeogenesis 2. Cortisol breaks down skeletal muscle proteins (to provide substrate for gluconeogenesis 3. Cortisol promotes lipolysis 4. Cortisol suppresses the immune system Cortisol is secreted continuously and has a very strong (& predictable) circadian rhythm. It's a lipid soluble hormone ! - Need Coricol-binding Globulin to be in the blood (only 5% are free)

Pathway of the spinal cord

1. Decussation (crossing over) occurs in almost every pathway. - Any sensory info coming in from the right side will be processed by the left side of the brain (& vice versa) 2. The spinal cord consists of chains of neurons that relay info to each other. 3. The spinal cord is symmetrical. 4. The mapping of the body remains consistent in the spinal cord, as it does in the brain. SOMATOTOPY.**

Action Potentials of Contractile Cardiac Muscle Cells

1. Depolarization opens a few fast voltage gated NA+ channels in the sarcolemma, allowing extracellular Na+ to enter. This influx initiates a positive feedback cycle that causes the rising phase of the action potential (and reversal of the membrane potential from −90 mV to nearly + 30 mV). The period of Na+ influx is very brief, because the sodium channels quickly inactivate and the Na+ influx stops. 2. When Na+ -dependent membrane depolarization occurs, the voltage change also opens channels that allow Ca2+ to enter from the extracellular fluid. These channels are called slow CA2+ channels because their opening is delayed a bit. The Ca2+ surge across the sarcolemma prolongs the depolarization, producing a plateau in the action potential tracing. Not many voltage-gated K+ channels are open yet, so the plateau is prolonged. As long as Ca2+ is entering, the cells continue to contract. 3. After about 200 ms, the slope of the action potential tracing falls rapidly. This repolarization results from inactivation of Ca2+ channels and opening of voltage-gated K+ channels. The rapid loss of potassium from the cell through K+ channels restores the resting membrane potential. During repolarization, Ca2+ is pumped back into the SR and the extracellular space. ● It ensures that there is a long refractory period, so that tetanic contractions cannot occur & the heart can fill again for the next beat.

4 Basic Functions

1. Digestion: breakdown of food into component macromolecules. 2. Absorption: transfer of substances from lumen of gastrointestinal (GI tract) to blood (body) 3. Motility: movement of material through GI tract 4. Secretion: movement of water and other materials from blood -> GI tract lumen (opposite of absorption). Motility & secretion = Tightly Regulated 7 L of fluid = Secreted in GI tract!

Synapse Types (2)

1. Electrical synapse - Go to the next w/ no effort. 2. Chemical Synapse

Functions of Hypothalamic Nuclei

1. Emotional responses to stimuli. 2. Body temperature (our body's thermostat) 3. Regulation of food intake 4. Release of pituitary hormones (produces pst. pituitary hormones, regulate ant. pituitary) endocrine system. 5. Regulates biological rhythms.

Ovaries hormones

1. Estrogen 2. Progesterone

Stomach

1. Gastric Pits 2. Gastric Glands = deep

Sperm

1. Head = nucleus acrosome 2. Midpiece = mitochondia 3. Tail

Portal Triad (liver)

1. Hepatic artery 2. Hepatic portal vein 3. Bile duct

CAMP Signaling Mechanism

1. Hormone binds receptor. The hormone, acting as the FIRST MESSENGER, binds to its receptor in the plasma membrane. 2. Receptor activates G protein. Hormone binding causes the receptor to change shape, allowing it to bind a nearby inactive G PROTEIN. The G protein is activated as the guanosine diphosphate (GDP) bound to it is displaced by the high-energy compound (guanosine triphosphate). The G protein behaves like a light switch: It is "off " when GDP is bound to it, and "on" when GTP is bound. 3. G protein activates adenylate cyclase. The activated G protein (moving along the membrane) binds to the effector enzyme ADENYLATE CYCLASE. Some G proteins (Gs) stimulate adenylate cyclase, but others (Gi) inhibit adenylate cyclase. Eventually, the GTP bound to the G protein is hydrolyzed to GDP and the G protein becomes inactive once again. (The G protein cleaves the terminal phosphate group off GTP in much the same way that ATPase enzymes hydrolyze ATP.) 4. Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP. For as long as activated Gs is bound to it, adenylate cyclase generates the second messenger cAMP from ATP. 5. Cyclic AMP activates protein kinases. cAMP, which is free to diffuse throughout the cell, triggers a cascade of chemical reactions by activating protein kinases. are enzymes that PHOSPHORYLATE (add a phosphate group to) various proteins, many of which are other enzymes. Because phosphorylation activates some of these proteins and inhibits others, it may affect a variety of processes in the same target cell at the same time.

Pancreas hormone

1. Insulin (Beta) 2. Glucagon (Alpha)

Association (Interneurons) Neurons

1. Link other neurons together. 2. Mainly multipolar. 3. Confined to CNS.

Multipolar Neurons

1. Many dendrites & 1 axon 2. Motor neurons 3. Associate neurons 4. Most common type in CNS

Three features of cardiac muscle that allows you to distinguish it from skeletal muscle

1. Mononucleated or binucleated 2. Intercalated discs (gap junctions) 3. Branching fibers

Four basic layers

1. Mucosa 2. Submucosa 3. Muscularis Externa 4. Serosa

2 Main Systems of the Homeostasis

1. Nervous System 2. Endocrine System

Autonomic postganglionic fibers release 2 transmitters

1. Norepinephrine (NE), sympathetic 2. AcH, parasympathetic Type of receptors on organ, effects if its excitatory or inhibitory.

Blood flow Through the heart

1. O2 poor blood from the body returns to the heart via the superior vena cava & inferior v. c. which then empties to the RIGHT ATRIUM. 2. As the right atrium fills, it presses open the tricuspid valve and blood flows into the right ventricle. 3. Contraction of right ventricle forces pulmonary semilunar valve open. 4. Blood flows through the pulmonary semilunar valve into pulmonary trunk. 5. Blood is distributed by right and left pulmonary arteries to the lungs were in unloads CO2 and load O2. 6. O2 rich blood from the lungs enters the LEFT ATRIUM via the 4 pulmonary veins to the left atrium. 7. O2 rich blood in the LEFT ATRIUM flows the Mitral (bicuspid) valve into the LEFT VENTRICLE. 8. Contraction of LEFT VENTRICLE (simultaneous with step 3 forces the aortic semilunar valve open). 9. O2 rich blood flows through aortic semilunar valve into the ascending aorta. 10. O2 rich blood from aorta is delivered to all body tissues through the network of systemic capillaries, where it unloads O2 and loads CO2. 11. O2 poor blood returns to the heart through network of veins via the vena cava.

Posterior Pituitary hormones (lab)

1. Oxytocin - Paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus 2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - Supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus

Pericardium (2 layers of serous membrane)

1. Parietal layer 2. Visceral layer (epicardium) B/n is pericardial cavity filled w/ serous fluid.

Orientation is Aligned

1. Pineal gland 2. Hypothalamus 3. Pituitary 4. Thyroid 5. Parathyroid 6. Thymus 7. Adrenal 8. Pancreas 9. Ovary 10. Testes

Choroid Plexus of each ventricle

1. Produces CSF. 2. CSF flows through the ventricles & into the subarachnoid space via the median & lateral apertures. 3. CSF flows through the subarachnoid space. 4. CSF is absorbed into the dural venous sinuses via the arachnoid granulation.

Hormones can be CLASSIFIED by their CHEMICAL STRUCUTURE

1. Protein/peptides. 2. Steroids (derived from cholesterol) -> stick in blood longer b/c they bind to receptors. 3. Amines (single A.A)

Functional Classification of Neurons

1. Sensory (afferent) 2. Motor (efferent) 3. Interneurons (association) ---- Link motor & sensory neurons w/in CNS. Make up 99% of neurons in body.

3 Overlapping Functions of the Nervous System

1. Sensory input - Sensing stimuli to monitor changes both inside & outside the body. 2. Integration - Processing & interpreting input, then decide what needs to be done. ex: ignore or respond? 3. Motor output - Effecting a response by activating muscles or glands.

Anatomic Differences of Parasympathetic & Sympathetic Division

1. Site of organ P: Craniosacral part: CN III, VII, IX, X (3, 7, 9, 10); spinal cord segments S2 - S4. S: Thoracocolumbar part: Lateral horns of gray matter of spinal cord segments T1 - L2. 2. Location of ganglia P: Ganglia (terminal ganglia) are within the visceral organ (intramural) or close to the organ served S: Ganglia are within a few centimeters of CNS: alongside vertebral column (sympathetic trunk ganglia) & anterior to vertebral column (collateral ganglia). 3. Length of pre-/post- fibers P: Long, short (not chained) S: Short, long (close, not chained) 4. Degree of branching of preganglionic fibers P: Minimal S: Extensive 5. Functional Role P: Maintenance functions, conserves/stores energy S: Prepares body for activity 6. Neurotransmitters P: All pre- & post- release AcH S: All pre- release AcH. Post- release Norepinephrine. Post- serving sweat glands release AcH. Neurotransmitter activity is augmented by release of adrenal medullary hormones (epinephrine & norepinephrine).

Sensory input

1. Somatic sensory organs (smell, touch, vision) 2. Visceral sensory organs (blood pressure, glucose, pH) Send Info to: - Limbic system (paleomammalian) - Cerebrum (neomammalian) Generate Behavior Responses. 3. Hypothalamic sensors (hypothalamic clusters of nuclei) Send info to: Pons, Medulla -> Limbic Hypothalamus -> Cerebrum "cross-talk" Generates Autonomic Response, Endocrine Response, Behavioral Response.

Microglia (CNS) LAB

1. Special type of macrophage. 2. Migrate to damaged area & engulf invading organisms & cell debris.

Spermatogenesis Process

1. Sperm production takes place in tubules in testes. 2. Here diploid cells divide by mitosis to produce numerous spermatogonia. 3. Spermatogonia grow to form diploid primary spermatocytes. 4. First division of meiosis takes place forming two haploid secondary spermatocytes. 5. Second division of meiosis the produces haploid spermatids. Spermatids mature into spermatozoa.

Corpora quadrigemina (midbrain/reptilian)

1. Superior colliculi (visual reflex centers) 2. Inferior colliculi (sensory receptors... startle reflex)

Innervated only by sympathetic

1. Sweat glands. 2. Hair-raising arrector pili muscles of the skin. 3. Smooth muscles in the wall of all arteries & veins, both deep/superficial. ALSO, adrenal medulla, kidneys, and most blood vessels.

Thymus hormones

1. Thymosin 2. Thympoietins

Blood- Brain Barrier (BBB)

1. Tight junctions b/n capillary endothelial cells 2. A very thick basal lamina 3. Astrocytes Help create distance b/n blood & neural tissue. Discourages diffusion! 5,000 miles of capillaries in the brain. IMPERMEABLE CAPILLARIES!

Thyroid hormones

1. Triiodothyronine (T3) 2. Thyroxine (T4) 3. Calcitonin

4 Overlapping Function (RESPIRATORY SYSTEM)

1. Ventilation - Exchange of gas b/n lungs and atmosphere. 2. Exchange of O2 & CO2 b/n lungs and blood. 3. Transport of O2 & CO2 by blood. 4. Exchange of O2 & CO2 b/n blood & tissue.

Summary of Cardiac Cycle

1. Ventricular filling: mid-to-late diastole. - Pressure in the heart is low, blood returning from the circulation is flowing passively through the atria and the open AV valves into the ventricles, and the aortic & pulmonary valves are closed. More than 80% of ventricular filling occurs during this period, and the AV valve flaps begin to drift toward the closed position. (The remaining 20% is delivered to the ventricles when the atria contract toward the end of this phase.) Now the stage is set for atrial systole. Following depolarization (P wave of ECG), the atria contract, compressing the blood in their chambers. This causes a sudden slight rise in atrial pressure, which propels residual blood out of the atria into the ventricles. At this point the ventricles are in the last part of their diastole and have the maximum volume of blood they will contain in the cycle, an amount called the END DIASTOLIC VOLUME (EDV). Then the atria relax and the ventricles depolarize (QRS complex). Atrial diastole persists through the rest of the cycle. 2. Ventricular systole (atria in diastole). As the atria relax, the ventricles begin contracting. Their walls close in on the blood in their chambers, and ventricular pressure rises rapidly & sharply, closing the AV valves. The split-second period when the ventricles are completely closed chambers & the blood volume in the chambers remains constant as the ventricles contract is the ISOVOLUMETRIC CONTRACTION PHASE. Ventricular pressure continues to rise. When it finally exceeds the pressure in the large arteries issuing from the ventricles, the isovolumetric stage ends as the SL valves are forced open and blood rushes from the ventricles into the aorta and pulmonary trunk. During this ventricular ejection phase, the pressure in the aorta normally reaches about 120 mm Hg. 3. Isovolumetric relaxation: early diastole. During this brief phase following the T wave, the ventricles relax. Because the blood remaining in their chambers, referred to as the ENDING SYSTOLIC VOLUME (ESV), is no longer compressed, ventricular pressure drops rapidly & blood in the aorta and pulmonary trunk flows back toward the heart, closing the SL valves. Closure of the aortic valve raises aortic pressure briefly as backflowing blood rebounds off the closed valve cusps, an event beginning at the DICROTIC NOTCH shown on the pressure graph. Once again the ventricles are totally closed chambers. Different Pressure/ Same Volume. Typical systolic & diastolic pressures for the pulmonary artery are 24 and 10 mm Hg, compared to systolic & diastolic pressures of 120 and 80 mm Hg, respectively, for the aorta. However, the two sides of the heart eject the same blood volume with each heartbeat.

All muscle cells must contract in unison to be efficient (must coordinate)

1/ Node system 2/ Gap junctions 3/ Modified nerve fibers All help to sync

Astrocytes (CNS)

1/2 of all neural tissue. Support neurons & connect them w/ capillaries, by making the exchanges for them (this keeps the brain safe from potential blood pathogens) * B/n blood cap. + neurons *

Blood supply to Kidneys

1/4 of blood is filtered by the kidneys every minute - Entire blood every 4 minutes We produce wastes at a fairly HIGH rate, so a HIGH filtration is essential. Kidneys are partly responsible for blood composition (ions, toxins, water, etc)

Postganglionic sympathetic axon (2)

10, 13

At a PO2 of 100 mmHg, what percentage of the total hemoglobin is saturated with O2?

100%

Prevertebral (collateral) ganglion

Ventral root

Gray ramus communicans

Preganglionic sympathetic axon (2)

16, 18

White ramus communicans

Dorsal ramus of spinal nerve

How many cell types make up the Islets of Langerhans?

Normal Clotting Time? Test?

2 - 6 minutes. Capillary Tube Test

Muscularis Externa

2 layer of smooth muscle : inner circular layer & longitudinal layer (+ oblique layer in stomach) Myenteric plexus (other 1/2 of enteric N.S) is located b/n circular & longitudinal. In the gut, motility serves 2 purposes: to mix food up, & to move it through the gut.

Afferent cell body

Dorsal root ganglion

Sensory (afferent) axon

Synapse

Dorsal funiculus

Association neuron cell body

Heart weight

250-350 grams, less than a pound.

Dorsal median sulcus

Posterior gray horn

Central canal

Lateral funiculus

Tenia coli

3 bands of smooth muscle in the muscularis externa that pucker the LI into haustra

Major vessels that branch off the aortic arch in humans?

3 branches. Brachiocephalic Left common carotid Left subclavian

Triune Brain

3 parts of the brain 1. Reptilian brain 2. Paleomammalian brain 3. Neomammalian brain

Meninges (membrane surrounding the brain & spinal cord)

3 protective membranes that surround the brain & spinal cord. 1. Dura mater - Periosteal layer - Meningeal layer 2. Arachnoid mater 3. Pia mater (follows the contours of the brain)

How many zones are present in the cortex?

3 zones; Zona Glomerulosa C Zona Fasciculata D Zona Reticularis E F= Adrenal Cortex G= Medulla cells

Lateral gray horn

Somatic motor cell body

Somatic motor neuron axon

Ventral gray horn

Ventral funiculus

Ventral median fissure

Normally, how many parathyroid glands are there?

4, but there can be as many as 8.

Preganglionic sympathetic cell body

40, 41

Ventral ramus of spinal nerve

Gray commissure

Preganglionic parasympathetic cell body

Preganglionic parasympathetic axon

Parasympathetic (intramural) ganglion

Postganglionic parasympathetic cell body

Postganglionic parasympathetic axon

Sympathetic splanchnic nerves

How many lobes are in the brain?

5 lobes Insula = W/in temporal lobe. (Not including the limbic system)

Sympathetic trunk

Dorsal root

Paravertebral (sympathetic chain) ganglion

Blood Composition

55% plasma, 45% formed elements

Palatine tonsils

6. Located on the left and right sides of the throat in the area that is visible through the mouth

CO2 Transport

7% is dissolved in blood plasma. - 23% is bound to hemoglobin Carboxyhemoglobin - 70% is converted to Carbonic acid CO2 to RBC (CO2 + H2O carbonic anhydase to H2CO3 (carbonic acid) goes to blood. Quickly disassociates: H2CO3 -> H+ + HCO3- 1 million x per second! Lungs= Reversed

pH of blood

7.35 - 7.45 (slightly alkaline/basic)

At a PO2 of 40 mmHg, what percentage of the total hemoglobin is saturated with O2?

74%

Intrapleural pressure (Pip)

756 mmHg

Intrapulmonary pressure (Ppul)

760 mmHg

Atmosphere gases

79% nitrogen 21% oxygen <1% inert gases (CO2, argon, etc.) 760 mmHg @ sea level. % of gases @ high altitude = SAME. Gas = matter.

Cortical nephrons

85% of nephrons; almost entirely in cortex

Postganglionic sympathetic cell body (2)

9, 12

Blood Plasma

90 % water Over 100 different substances dissolved in your blood plasma - Nutrients - Salts - Resp. Gases - Hormones - Plasma proteins - Waste products Of all these PLASMA PROTEINS ARE THE MOST ABUNDANT - serve a wide variety of functions. The composition of blood plasma changes continually.

Low Hematocrit

<35% in Females and < 42% in Males. Possible causes for abnormality: - Anemia (reduced RBC production) - Blood loss - RBC destruction

Increased PCO2 (hypocapnia)

= Acidosis Hypoventilate Respiratory acidosis if b/n not enough gas exchange.

Decreased PCO2

= Alkalosis Hyperventilate Respiratory alkalosis

Dorsal funiculus

Hard palate

Ion

A + or - charged molecule.

What does the difference b/n the percentages represent (reg. questions about 40 and 100 mmHg)?

A 25-26 % difference means that hemoglobin gives up only about 25% of its O2 to body cells as it passes by.

Glomerulus

A ball of capillaries surrounded by Bowman's capsule in the nephron and serving as the site of filtration in the vertebrate kidney.

Pons

A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain

Axon Collateral

A branch of an axon from a single neuron.

Leydig Cells

A cell that produces testosterone (sperm production, facial hair, etc) and other androgens and is located between the seminiferous tubules of the testes.

Ion channel

A channel w/in the plasma membrane that allows the movement of ions into or out of the cell.

Aortic arch

A curved blood vessel from which arteries branch to the head & neck.

Fissure

A deep sulcus.

Limbic system

A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem & cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression & drives such as those for food & sex. Includes the hippocampus (memories), amygdala, and hypothalamus.

Perirenal fat capsule

A fatty mass that surrounds the kidney and cushions it against blows

Round ligament (Ligamentum teres)

A fibrous remnant of the fetal umbilical vein.

node of Ranvier

A gap in the myelin sheath of a nerve, between adjacent Schwann cells.

Prostate gland

A gland surrounding the neck of the bladder in male mammals and releasing prostatic fluid.

ECG (electrocardiogram)

A graphic recording of the heart's electronic activity.

Cerebellum

A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills.

Poiseuille's Law

A law of physiology stating that blood flow through a vessel is directly proportional to the radius of the vessel to the fourth power R is directly proportional to Ln/pi r^4 - Length of tube & viscosity remain relativity fairly constant. - Radius is more likely to change.

Neurilemma

A layer of cells that encases many axons.

Epididymis

A long, coiled duct on the outside of the testis in which sperm mature.

Membrane Potential

A measure of the relative difference in electrical charge across a plasma membrane.

Mons pubis

A mound of fatty tissue covering the pubic area in women

Anus

A muscular opening at the end of the rectum through which waste material is eliminated from the body.

Spinal nerve

A peripheral nerve attached to the spinal cord. #7

Short loop negative feedback

A pituitary hormone feeds back to decrease hormone secretion by the hypothalamus.

Cecum

A pouch connected to the junction of the small and large intestines.

Clotting Factor

A protein essential to the thickening of plasma during the clotting process; most produced by the liver and carried in the plasma.

Gyrus

A ridged or raised portion of a convoluted brain surface.

What does it mean to shift the curve to the right and what is the result of doing so?

A shift to the right reflects decreased oxygen saturation for a given PO2. Hemoglobin is more likely to release oxygen. Increased temperature, acidosis, and high CO2 can all cause a shift to the right.

Rectum

A short tube at the end of the large intestine where waste material is compressed into a solid form before being eliminated.

Atrioventricular (AV) node

A small mass of specialized cardiac muscle fibers, located in the wall of the right atrium of the heart, that receives heartbeat impulses from the sinoatrial node and directs them to the walls of the ventricles.

Midbrain

A small part of the brain above the pons that integrates sensory information & relays it upward. Contains: - Corpora quadrigemina (exterior dorsal side) + Superior colliculus - Visual reflex centers that coordinate head & eye movements when we visually follow a moving object (even if unconsciously looking at it). + Inferior colliculus - Cerebral peduncles (ventral side) Part of the auditory relay from the hearing receptors from the hearing receptors of the ear to the sensory cortex. + Cerebral aqueduct.

Subarachnoid space

A space in the meninges beneath the arachnoid membrane & above the pia mater that contains the cerebrospinal fluid. + the largest blood vessels serving the brain (poorly protected).

Schwann Cell Nucleus

A special type of cell organelle in the Schwann cell that acts as the cell's "control center". It contains the cell's genetic information in the form of DNA chemicals packaged into chromosomes.

Sinoatrial (SA) node

A specialized area of cardiac tissue, located in the right atrium of the heart, which initiates the electrical impulses that determine the heart rate; often termed the pacemaker for the heart.

Atrial (Bainbridge) reflex

A sympathetic reflex initiated by increased blood in the atria. Increases HR.

Zona pellucida

A thick, transpartent coating rich in glycoproteins that surrounds an oocyte.

Anastomosis

A union or joining of blood vessels; allows collateral routes if a vessel is blocked

Inferior vena cava (v)

A vein that is the largest vein in the human body and returns blood to the right atrium of the heart from bodily parts below the diaphragm Runs from junction of common iliac veins at L5 to R. atrium of heart

Superior vena cava (v)

A vein that is the second largest vein in the human body and returns blood to the right atrium of the heart from the upper half of the body. Runs from union of brachiocephalic veins behind manubrium to R. atrium.

Type of antibodies found in type O- Negative Blood?

A, B, and Rh antibodies.

Protein/Peptide Hormones

AA seq. are CLEAVED OFF through steps. Secretion = EXOCYTOSIS - Hydrophilic - Large - Can't fit through membrane - Second messenger mechanism of action - Most hormones - Example: Insulin

Supraoptic nucleus

ADH

Spinal nerves are?

ALL MIXED. Because each spinal nerve is the sum of a dorsal and ventral root, they all contain both sensory & motor nerve fibers. From the head down, spinal nerves innervate our whole body.

Myelin is made of the membranes of?

ANSWER

What do cranial nerves oculomotor, facial, vagus, and accessory have in common?

ANSWER

Posterior Pituitary Hormones

ARE NEUROHORMONES: 1. ADH (vasopressin)- Supraoptic nucleus - Conserve H2O 2. Oxytocin - Paraventricular nucleus - Powerful muscle contractor - Uterus - Mam. glands - Plays a role in social bonding: "love hormone" + jealously + greed

Water-soluble hormones

ARE all amino acid-based hormones except thyroid hormone act on receptors in the plasma membrane. These receptors are usually coupled via regulatory molecules called G proteins to one or more intracellular second messengers which mediate the target cell's response.

Spinocerebellar tracts

ASCENDING / SENSORY 1. E = DORSAL Spinocerebellar tracts 2. F = VENTRAL Spinocerebellar tracts

Dorsal White Column; fasciculus cuneatus and fasciculus gracilis

ASCENDING / SENSORY 1. Fasciculus cuneatus (outer) 2. Fasciculus gracilis (middle)

Spinothalamic tracts

ASCENDING / SENSORY 1. G = LATERAL Spinothalamic tracts 2. H = VENTRAL Spinothalamic tracts

What powers the movement of the tail/flagellum?

ATP from the mitochondria.

Second-Degree Heart Block

AV node fails to conduct some SA node impulses. More P waves than QRS waves.

Order of kidney blood flow

Abdominal aorta Renal arteries Segmental arteries Interlobar arteries Arcuate arteries Cortical radiate arteries Cortical radiate veins Arcuate veins Interlobar veins Renal veins Inferior Vena Cava

Female anatomy

Abdominal pelvic cavity

Posterior cricoarytenoid muscle

Abducts vocal folds -the ONLY abductor muscle Starts out at cricoid and connects to muscular processes Arytenoids move, once you shorten muscles, muscular process is pulled open (abduct) the glottis

Tachycardia

Abnormal fast heart rate, more than 100 BPM.

How many mV (approx) would the RMP need to move in a positive direction before the electrically-gated sodium channels in the axon hillock would open to initiate an A.P?

About 15 to 20 mV. -70 mV to - 55 mV.

How does action potential propagate in one direction?

Absolute refractory period: During this time it is absolutely impossible to send another action potential. The inactivation gates of the sodium channels lock shut for a time, & make it so no sodium will pass through. No sodium means no depolarization, which means no action potential. Absolute refractory periods help direct the action potential down the axon, because only channels further downstream can open & let in depolarizing ions

Continuous capillaries

Abundant in the skin and muscles. Have a wall where the endothelial cells fit very tightly together. - Leaky junctions (except BBB, neural tissues) - Most capillaries are this.

Which nerve innervates the trapezius & sternocleidomastoid muscles?

Accessory (XI)

Axillary vein

Accompanying vein of axillary artery, located medial & superficial to axillary artery

Vagus nerves

Account for 75% of all preganglionic parasympathetic fibers in body. Provide fibers to the neck & to nerve plexuses (interweaving networks or nerves) that serve virtually every organ in the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Note: These nerve plexuses contains BOTH para & symp divisions. Cardiac plexus - slow heart rate / Pulmonary plexus- serves the airways of the lungs/ Esophagus plexus- serves esophagus & part of stomach. Innervate the lungs, liver, gallbladder, stomach, pancreas, upper large intestine, small intestines.

Evolution

Accounts for many of the differences b/n us (eye color/blood type), but also b/n us and other species, because over long periods of time, large changes can accumulate. Ex: Snow, river, etc. EVOLUTION AFFECTS POPULATIONS, NOT INDIVIDUALS.

Parasympathetic NS

Acetylcholine binds to CHOLINERGIC RECEPTORS Subtypes: NICOTINIC RECEPTORS - excitatory MUSCARINIC RECEPTORS - inhibitory

Neurotransmitter Breakdown

Ach- Acetylcholine Esterase NE- Monoamine oxidase (MAO) - inhibit to prevent depression.

Dietary Habits that cause Acidic / Basic urine?

Acidic - High protein foods - Acid foods Basic - Vegetarian diet

Lipid-soluble hormones

Act on receptors inside the cell, which directly activate genes.

Respiration AP

Action potentials arise in pons, smooth out in medulla, and then that central pattern being generated (this normal breathing rate of 12 breaths/minute) is going to be modulated by multiple factors (receptors)

Chemoreceptors

Activated when they interact w/ specific chemicals. Often these chemicals are dissolved in solution: we often detect changes in our internal environment (blood, interstitial fluid, CSF) w/ chemoreceptors. EX: - Ach in muscles - Blood glucose levels - Major arteries have to detect change. Moths have in their antennas to sense external environ.

Spatial summation

Adding together action potentials from multiple points on a neuron. Multiple stimuli can increase stimulus.

What region does the obturator nerve supply?

Adductor muscles (medial thigh)

Obturator nerve

Adductors of thigh.

ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)

Adrenal cortex

Adrenal Medulla

Adrenal medulla (neural embryonic origins) Modified Soma: Chromaffin cells - Secretes epinephrine (E) in the bloodstream Surrounded by adrenal cortex (epithelial origin; glandular)

Our life cycle consists of a haploid (gametes) phase and a diploid phase (2 sets of genetic info)

Adults make sex cells (gametes; sperm & ovum), which contain one half of the donor's genetic information; these gametes contribute genetic information to the next generation. We reproduce sexually. Humans are sexually dimorphic, just like most other animals.

Intropic agents (any chemical agent)

Affects the contractility of the heart. - NE and E increase SV. - Digitalis Symp. NS.

Mandibular division (V3) Function

Affects the muscles of the chin & lower lip/teeth.

Synonyms for sensory and motor?

Afferent & Efferent.

Significance of a PO2 of 100 mmHg?

After a PO2 of 100 mm, hemoglobin will no longer saturate. It is already 100% saturated (PO2 is over 100 in the lungs).

Sinuses

Air-filled spaces in the skull that open into the nasal cavity. 1. Lighten skull 2. Allow sounds to resonate; assist with sense of speech, hearing, and smell. 3. Fluid flow around the respiratory tract. Sick - clogged sinuses

Bronchioles

Airways in the lungs that lead from the bronchi to the alveoli.

Blood Function

Albumin: Contributes to colloid osmotic pressure, carries varies substances. pH buffering. Globulins: Clotting factors, enzymes, antibodies, carries various substances (defense antibodies; and lipid transport) Fibrinogen: Forms fibrin threads essential to blood clotting. (clotting of blood) Transferrin: Iron transport Lymphocytes: Produce specific immune response Monocytes: Phagocytic; develop into macrophages in tissues Neutrophils: Mobile phagocytes Eosinophils: Produce toxic compounds directed against pathogens Basophils: Tissue basophils are called mast cells

Steroid Hormones are derived from cholesterol

Aldosterone (released w/ humoral stimuli due to low NA and high K) + Cortisol = Involved w/ stress response. Steroid Hormones Are Found In: - Adrenal Cortex (aldosterone or cortisol) - Gonads (estrogen or testosterone)

Quiescent Period

All four chambers relaxed at same time. All under diastole. Follows the T Wave.

Thoracolumbar division (sympathetic division)

All preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic division arise from cell bodies of preganglionic neurons in spinal cord segments T1 - L2. The numerous cell bodies of preganglionic sympathetic neurons in the gray matter of the spinal cord form the lateral horns. No lateral horns in the sacral region of the spinal cord.

Dual innervation

All visceral organs are served by both divisions, but these divisions cause opposite effects.

Sinusoids

Allow for fluid flow and movement of nutrients (small passageways)

Action potential ?

Allows looks the same.

Adrenergic Receptors (NE binding)

Alpha & beta (a1, a2, b1, b2, b3) Receptor sites for the sympathetic neurotransmitters norepinephrine & epinephrine. NE or epinephrine can be either excitatory or inhibitory depending on which subclass of receptor predominates in the target organ. Ex: NE bending to the B1 receptors of cardiac muscle prods the heart into vigorous activity.

Cell Type in Islet/ Specific Hormones Produced

Alpha cells/ Glucagon Beta cells/ Insulin

What structures are most prominent in the anterior gray horn?

Alpha motor neuron cell bodies.

Ventral (anterior) gray horns contain?

Alpha motor neuron cell bodies. Somatic. (multipolar motor neurons)

Difference between alveolar ventilation and minute respiratory volume?

Alveolar ventilation is a more accurate measurement of usable air because it takes into account dead space.

With the exception of thyroid hormone...

Amino acid-based hormones exert their signaling effects through intracellular 2nd messangers (CAMP) generated when a hormone binds to a receptor in the plasma membrane.

Protein & Nucleic Acids to NH2- Amino groups to

Ammonia (very toxic) - Fish Urea (less toxic) - Mammals Uric acid (not toxic, not soluble) - Birds/reptiles

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

Amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation. Female = 700 mL Male = 1200 mL

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

Amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation. Female = 1900 mL Male = 3100 mL

Cardiac Output (CO)

Amount of blood pumped out by EACH ventricle in 1 minute. Heart Rate (HR) x Stroke Volume (SV)

Venous Return

Amount of blood returning to the heart. 1. Skeletal Muscle Pump - Contracting muscles "push" blood veins to the heart. 2. Respiratory Pump - Small vacuum / take blood to heart. 3. Sympathetic Nervous System - Vasoconstriction (more during exercise) - Squeeze blood vessels

Osmorality

Amount of stuff dissolved in a solution. - Takes into account NaCl that dissociate in solution.

Acini (pancreas)

Amylase, lipase, carboxypeptidase, elastase

What is Rh factor? What does it mean to be positive?

An antigen on the RBCs of some blood types; RBC carry the Rh antigen

Medulla Oblongata (book)

An autonomic reflex center involved in maintaining body homeostasis (cardiovascular center; respiratory centers; centers for sneezing, vomiting, hiccupping, swallowing, and coughing)

Neural Tube Expands & Constricts to form the 3 Primary Brain Vesicles

An embryonic structure with subdivisions that correspond to the future Prosencephalon (forebrain) Mesencephalon (midbrain) Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)

An excitatory depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button Na+ into cell. Does not go over the threshold voltage of - 55 mV.

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)

An inhibitory hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button. K+ out of the cell. Makes it harder to be depolarized.

Median aperture

An opening in the roof of the fourth ventricle that connects to the subarachnoid space.

Pancreas

An organs in the abdominal cavity with two roles. The first is an exocrine role: to produce digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are delivered to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. The second is an endocrine role: to secrete insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream to help regulate blood glucose levels.

Renal Fascia

Anchoring outer layer of dense fibrous connective tissue.

Suspensory ligament

Anchors ovary laterally to pelvic wall.

Ovarian ligament

Anchors ovary medially to uterus.

What vertebral level and into what region is an epidural administered?

Anesthetic injection in the epidural space of L3-L4 region. Result in numbness of lower limbs.

General Visceral Motor System

Another name for ANS. IT indicates the location of most of its effectors.

Involuntary Nervous System

Another name for of the autonomic nervous system

PTH and calcitonin are

Antagonistic hormones: Calcitonin = DECREASE in blood Ca2+ levels PTH = causes INCREASE in blood Ca2+ levels

Deep fibular (peroneal) nerve

Anterior & lateral lower leg Dorsiflexors & toe extensors

Musculocutaneous nerve

Anterior brachium (elbow flexors)

How can one distinguish between the anterior and posterior pituitary. Why?

Anterior pituitary contain dark staining, densely packed cells because hormone production is taking place. Posterior pituitary is lightly colored w/ few cells, mostly neuron axons.

Trace blood flow through the kidney

Aorta, renal artery, segmental artery, interlobar arteries, arcuate arteries, cortical radiate artery, afferent arterioles, glomerular capillaries, efferent arterioles, peritubular capillaries and vasa recta, cortical radiate veins, arcuate veins, interlobar veins, segmental veins, renal vein, inferior vena cava.

Blood enters the myocardium of the heart by coronary vessels that originate from the __________.

Aorta. The coronary artery branches from the aorta near the base.

What structure allows passage of the CSF back in the circulatory system?

Arachnoid granulations (villi).

Olfactory bulbs

Are the only major sense organs connected directly to the limbic system. - It is no surprise that our sense of smell is tied to EMOTION.

Cerebrum

Area of the brain responsible for all voluntary activities of the body

Premotor cortex

Area of the frontal cortex, active during the planning of a movement. Coordinates the movement of several muscle groups either simultaneously, mainly by sending activating impulses to the primary motor cortex.

Dead space

Area where air fills the conducting respiratory passageways and never contributes to gas exchange. Such as the trachea and bronchi.

Vasa nervorum (projector)

Arteries of the spinal cord.

Posterior tibial artery

Artery supplying the foot, behind the medial ankle. One of the popliteal arteries.

Axillary artery

Artery that carries oxygenated blood to the axilla (armpit) area. Axillary artery. As it runs through the axilla accompanied by cords of the brachial plexus, each axillary artery gives off branches to the axilla, chest wall, and shoulder girdle. These branches include the thoracoacromial artery, which supplies the deltoid muscle and pectoral region; the lateral thoracic artery, which serves the lateral chest wall and breast; the subscapular artery to the scapula, dorsal thorax wall, and part of the latissimus dorsi muscle; and the anterior and posterior circumflex humeral arteries, which wrap around the humeral neck and help supply the shoulder joint and the deltoid muscle. As the axillary artery emerges from the axilla, it becomes the brachial artery.

Common Carotid Artery

Artery that supplies blood to the face, head, and neck.

3 K+ & 7 Na+ w/ a potassium channel. Caused membrane potential number to ?

As K+ moves out, the # gets more negative!

Information carried along these pathways is either?

Ascending sensory or descending motor.

Epithalamus (Book)

Associated with the pineal gland; secretes melatonin to induce sleep.

Bronchodialation

Asthma inhaler

P wave

Atrial depolarization (atrial contraction)

Valves open during SA node depolarization?

Atrioventricular Valves (bicuspid & tricuspid) are OPEN. Aortic and Pulmonary semilunar valves are CLOSED.

Where on the neuron would you find the ion channels? D

Axon hillock through entire axon.

Where are voltage gated channels located?

Axon hillock. They open & close depending on changes of the membrane potential. NA+ opens @ - 55 mV.

Returns blood from thoracic regions to SVC

Azygos vein

Soft palate

Ventral funiculus

Parietal cells (mucosa layer)

B. Secrete HCL, Intrinsic factor (B-12 absorption)

Fetal Affinity

B/C of GAMMA HEMOGLOBIN! Fetal blood = High affinity for O2 so when maternal blood passes through the placenta, the fetal blood on opposite side of the membrane is going to be able to collect as much blood as possible. In some mammals, not primates, mom will create increased 2, 3 DPG so more O2 can go to the fetus. Why? PO2 @ placenta = 50 mmHg Fetal hemoglobin to Adult hemoglobin = after birth!!

Male histology

B/n seminiferous tubules = interstitial cells (in the interstitial tissue) Tunica albuginea = thick C.T.

Nasal meatuses (superior, middle, inferior)

B/n the nasal concha

Trigeminal V (Cranial Nerve)

BOTH. Fibers run from the face to the pons via the superior orbital fissure (V1), the foramen rotundum (V2), and the foramen oval (V3).

Facial VII (Cranial Nerve)

BOTH. 2/4 of Autonomic! - Salivary glands (submandibular & sublingual) Motor: Muscles of facial expression. Sensory: Taste from 2/3 of anterior tongue. Parasympathetic innervation of salivary glands (submandibular & sublingual).

Glossopharyngeal IX (Cranial Nerve)

BOTH. 3/4 of Autonomic! - PAROTID SALIVARY GLANDS. GOES: Fibers emerge from medulla, leave the skull via the jugular foramen, & run to the throat. Function: Motor: to muscles of the pharynx for swallowing. Sensory: - Tongue (taste for posterior 1/3), tonsils, Eustachian tubes. - Carotid arteries regarding blood pressure & chemistry. Parasympathetic innervation of the PAROTID SALIVARY GLANDS.

Vagus X (Cranial Nerve)

BOTH. 4/4 of Autonomic! - Heart, lungs, smooth muscles of pharynx, larynx, thoracic & abdominal viscera. The only cranial nerve that extends beyond the head and neck. GOES: Fibers emerge from the medulla via the jugular foramen. Function: Motor: to muscles of the pharynx & larynx. Sensory: from the posterior tongue & pharynx, thoracic & abdominal viscera. Parasympathetic innervation of heart, lungs, smooth muscles of pharynx, larynx, thoracic & abdominal viscera.

Mandibular Division V3 (Cranial Nerve)

BOTH. Motor to muscles of mastication (chewing) Conveys sensory impulses form lower teeth, gum, lip, skin of jaw, & temporal region of scalp.

Reptilian Brain (Brain Stem)

BRAIN STEM INCLUDES: 1. Medulla oblongata. 2. Pons. 3. Midbrain The majority of the function of our reptilian brain is involuntary, and simply keeps us alive. PRIMITIVE PORTION OF OUR BRAIN.

Which structure is the only electrical connection between the atria and ventricle?

BUNDLE OF HIS (Atrioventricular (AV) bundle)

Vestibular branch (VIII) Function

Balance & equilibrium.

Purpose of PRECAPILLARY SPHINCTER?

Band of smooth muscle that controls blood flow into capillary bed.

What specific receptors were most likely responsible for triggering the change in pulse rate as a body position changed? Where in the body can you find these receptors

Baroreceptors (as blood pressure drops when position changes -> baroreceptors stop firing -> no longer inhibit vasomotor center -> sympathetics cause constriction of blood vessel walls -> increase in blood pressure) Carotid sinus; aortic arch; & where vena cava enters atrium and pulmonary veins enter LEFT atrium (Bainbridge or atrial baroreceptors)

Least numerous cell type?

Basophils

Allergic Reaction

Basophils (formed element that elevates in number)

Spinal nerve facts

Because each spinal nerve is the sum of a dorsal & ventral root, they all contain both sensory & motor fibers. From the head down, spinal nerves innervate our whole body.

Why are the lumbar and sacral plexus often grouped together as the lumbosacral plexus?

Because of the the intermingling of fibers (carried by the lumbosacral trunk)

3L/day are lost in capillaries

Becomes problematic b/c if we want to maintain a constant cardiac output. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM - Lymphatic vessels return it to our circulatory system.

Cephalic Phase (digestion)

Begins before you take a bite of food. Smelling food, thinking about food, or seeing food can start this phase of digestion. These are called FEEDFORWARD REFLEXES & are a type of long reflex. In the mouth: We chew our food (mechanical digestion) We secrete saliva: - softens & moistens food - contains salivary amylase (break down long chains of glucose; starch to disaccharides (maltose) - enhances taste - contains lysozyme (w/ antibodies to interfere w/ invaders)

Gastric Phase (Digestion)

Begins when food arrives in the stomach, it starts preparing itself via the vagal reflex. Once food arrives in the stomach it is stored, and distention of the stomach (enhances what's seen from vagus nerve) causes several things to be secreted.

Retroperitoneal

Behind or deep to the peritoneum.

Masseter muscle

Behind parotid glands.

Sternocleidomastoid

Below parotid glands.

Absolute Refractory Period

Between 1 to 2 milliseconds after the initiation of an action potential during which it is impossible to elicit another action potential in the same neuron. NO MORE ADDITIONAL A.P. - Cannot allow another A.P. to begin, so Na+ cannot go backwards. ONLY 1 DIRECTION.

Relative Refractory Period

Between 3 to 4 milliseconds after firing when a neuron is returning to its normal polarized state & will fire again only if the incoming message is much stronger than usual. Can have more A.P., BUT must be stronger than normal stimulus.

Distal convoluted Tubule

Between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct; Selective reabsorption and secretion occur here, most notably to regulate reabsorption of water and sodium

Blood vs Urine

Blood = Glucose & amino acid Urine = Trace proteins (no AA/glucose) pH = 4.5 - 8.0 Can see a shift b/c we can eliminate bicarbonate ions & hydrogen ions

Dynamic of Blood Flow

Blood Pressure (hydrostatic pressure)

Out of Bowman's capsule into PCT?

Blood plasma w/ out proteins (filtrate).

Regulate changes in Blood Pressure

Blood pressure = Driving Force of Filtration 1. Tubuloglomerular Feedback - Afferent arterioles adjust diameter depending on blood pressure. 2. Macula Densa Cells - In DCT (sends signals to glomerulus to change diameter size of arterioles)

Hypophyseal Portal System

Blood travels from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary.

Renal vein

Blood vessel that carries blood away from the kidney The right and left renal veins drain the kidneys.

Renal artery

Blood vessel that carries blood to the kidney

Composition of Blood vs Urine

Blood, blood plasma, intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid = 300 osm/L Urine = 500 - 1200 osm/L

Superior sagittal sinus

Blue cavity surrounding the brain which collects blood draining from the brain tissue

GH (growth hormone)

Bones

Subclavian arteries

Both a left and right, blood vessels that supply blood to the shoulders and upper limbs. R. subclavian - neck and R. upper limb L. subclavian - neck and L. upper limb

Somatic NS vs Autonomic NS

Both have motor fibers. Differ in: 1. Their effectors (ANS = cardiac muscle, smooth muscles, glands). 2. Their efferent pathways & ganglia 3. Target organ responses to their neurotransmitters

Blood Pressure vs Osmotic Pressure

Both oppose each other. BP drops as it goes from ARTERIAL END to VENOUS END. BP = Pulls fluid outward Osmotic pressure = inward; Common solute = PROTEINS, stays in blood plasma pulls fluid into capillary.

Quadrate lobe of Liver

Bounded on left by round ligament of liver, Bounded on right by gallbladder

C5 to T1

Brachial plexus. The radial nerve is the largest nerve to come from the brachial plexus; it is a continuation of the posterior cord. Other important nerves are: Axillary nerve, musculocutaneous nerce, median nerve, ulnar nerve.

Central canal of Spinal Cord (model)

Brain

From the CNS structures do all nerves arise?

Brain or spinal cord.

Matter in brain vs spinal cord?

Brain: Gray is outer cortex as well as inner nuclei; white is deeper. Spinal cord: White is outer, gray is deeper.

Cerebral peduncle

Brainstem. Dorsal view.

Middle cerebellar peduncle

Brainstem. 1 way communication that connects pons to cerebellum. Dorsal view.

Inferior cerebellar peduncle

Brainstem. Connect medulla to cerebellum. Dorsal view.

Superior cerebellar peduncle

Brainstem. Connects cerebellum w/ the midbrain. Dorsal view.

Location and function of the Peritubular Capillaries

Branch off the efferent arterioles and surround PCTs and DCTs. Reabsorb substances from tubules back into the blood.

Telodendria (axon terminals)

Branches at the end of an axon, with each process containing a synaptic knob at its end

Common fibular (peroneal) nerve

Branches into superficial & deep fibular.

Tibial nerve (Sciatic nerve [Sacral plexus])

Branches off sciatic proximal to knee. Supplies the skin & muscles of posterior calf & sole of foot. Calf muscles can't plantar flex resulting in shuffling gait.

Dendrites

Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information. *RECIEVES INFORMATION*

Prolaction

Breasts

Corpus callosum (type of commissural fiber)

Bridge of nerve fibers connecting the 2 cerebral hemispheres. Not truly left & right brained.

What does the condition hydrocephalus have to do with CSF?

Build up of CSF due to improper drainage. Likely to cause brain damage b/c accumulating fluid compresses blood vessels & crushes the soft nervous tissue. TX: Inserting a shunt into the ventricles to drain excess fluid into the abdominal cavity.

More CO2 in bloodstream vs exhaling it out =

Building carbonic acid (H2CO3) to INCREASED H+ in bloodstream = Causes RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS.

Nerve

Bundle of axons in PNS.

What is cauda equina?

Bundle of nerve roots that occupy the vertebral canal from L2 to S5.

Tracts

Bundles of axons in CNS (white matter)

In the PNS:

Bundles of neuronal cell bodies are GANGLIA. NERVES are bundles of neural fibers (axon).

In the CNS:

Bundles of neuronal cell bodies are NUCLEI. TRACTS are bundles of neural fibers (axon).

Equal volumes of blood are pumped to the pulmonary and systemic circuits at any moment

But the two ventricles have very unequal workloads. The pulmonary circuit, served by the right ventricle, is a short, low-pressure circulation. In contrast, the systemic circuit, associated with the left ventricle, takes a long pathway through the entire body & encounters about 5x times as much friction, or resistance to blood flow.

Sperm must be capacitated prior to fertilization

By reorganizing molecules in the sperm, capacitation allows them to swim quickly up the fallopian tubes to an egg. Eggs can only be fertilized for a few hours after ovulation, and fertilization is aided by chemicals produced by the egg (positive chemotaxis) (but sperm remain viable for 4-6 days in the female reproductive tract) 2 million sperm- 50 sperm make it to the egg.

Lateral funiculus (diagram)

Hepatic portal vein

C. A vein connecting the capillary bed of the intestines with the capillary bed of the liver. This allows amino acids and glucose absorbed from the intestines to be delivered first to the liver for processing before being transported throughout the circulatory system.

Midpiece of sperm

C. Contains mitochondria.

Cremaster muscle

C. Muscle that pulls the scrotum closer to the body in cold temperatures and relaxes to let the testicles be farther away from the body in warmer weather

Spinal cord nerves

C1 - C8 Cervical spinal nerves T1- T12 Thoracic spinal nerves L1- L5 Lumbar spinal nerves S1- S5 Sacral spinal nerves CO1 Coccygeal nerve

Cervical Enlargement of Spinal Cord

C4 - T1

Brachial Plexus graph

C5 - T1

Which nerves from the roots of the plexus in the diagram?

C5 - T1

Parafollicular cells (C cells) secrete

CALCITONIN - Inhibits osteoclast activity - Slows rate of bone breakdown - Released in response to high blood calcium levels. -.. but, DOES NOT have a strong physiological role in humans. (High Ca2+ isn't something we really deal with)

Function and Structural Organization

CNS = **INTEGRATING CENTER** ( BRAIN/ SPINAL CORD) ↓↑ PNS = CRANIAL NERVES & SPINAL NERVES ↓ Motor (Efferent) → Somatic (voluntary) OR Autonomic (involuntary) ex: cardiac, smooth muscles, or glands. ↓ Parasympathetic (rest/digest) or Sympathetic (fight or flight)

Somatic NS Pathway

CNS to AcH: Nicotinic receptors

Parasympathetic NS Pathway

CNS to AcH: Nicotinic receptors to AcH: Muscarinic receptors @ Target Cells

Sympathetic NS Pathway

CNS to AcH: Nicotinic receptors to NE: Alpha receptors @ Target Cells

Adrenal Sympathetic Pathway

CNS to Adrenal Medulla (chromatin cells) release E in blood. Alpha & Beta

Trace the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid, beginning with its origin and ending with its removal.

CSF is produced by the choroid plexus, flows from the lateral ventricles through the interaventricular foramen to the third ventricle, then through the cerebral aqueduct to the fourth ventricle. It then flows from the lateral apertures & median apertures to the subarachnoid space or into the central canal of the spinal cord (removing waste along the way). Excess CSF flows into the arachnoid granulations (villi) and drains into dural venous sinuses and into the internal jugular vein.

Find parafollicular "C" cells. What is produced here?

Calcitonin.

Exchange of gases and nutrients occurs by diffusion between the __________.

Capillaries and tissue cells. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, most nutrients, and metabolic wastes pass between the blood and interstitial fluid by diffusion through the capillaries.

The only vessels that provide direct access to nearly every cell in the body are the __________.

Capillaries. If blood vessels are compared to a system of expressways and roads, the capillaries are the back alleys and the driveways that provide direct access to nearly every cell in the body.

KNOW

Cardiac output MUST EQUAL Venous Return

Congestive heart failure (CHF)? What might have caused it?

Cardiac output is so low that blood circulation is inadequate to meet tissue needs Myocardial infraction, atherosclerosis, hypertension.

Cardiac vs Skeletal Muscle

Cardiac: - Short, branching cells - Uninucleate - Striated - Involuntary - Intercalated discs (gap junctions) - Rich mitochondrial density (HIGH) - Works continuously - Autorhythmic cells (pacemaker cells) Skeletal: - Multinucleated - Long cylindrical cells - Striated - Voluntary (can rest)

Important Reflex Center (medulla oblongata)

Cardiovascular function (cardiac center & vasomotor center) Regulate heart rate & blood pressure Respiratory function Autonomic functions (eg swallowing, vomiting, coughing, sneezing, vomiting)

Pulmonary artery (trunk)

Carries blood from the right ventricle to the lungs

Lumbosacral trunk (does?)

Carries fibers from the lumbar plexus to join the sacral plexus.

Dorsal (posterior) funiculus

Carries information on joint/muscle position (proprioception) & fine touch.

Ventral (anterior) funiculus

Carries information on pain, temp, pressure, coarse touch; also used in relaying motor information to control skeletal muscles, posture, visceral muscle functions, muscle tone, & balance.

Axons

Carry impulses away from the cell body of a neuron.

Gray rami (sympathetic division only)

Carrying postganglionic fibers headed for the periphery issue from every trunk ganglion from the cervical to the sacral region, allowing sympathetic output to reach all parts of the body.

Bronchi (Lab)

Cartilage present - Irregular plates of hyaline cartilage Smooth muscle present - More smooth muscle as passageways become smaller. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.

Lumen of Uterus

Cavity of uterus.

Supplies the stomach, liver, and spleen via branches

Celiac trunk

Macula Densa

Cells in DCT, located where DCT & glomerulus meet. Senses NaCl. Adjust renal blood flow and filtration as part of an autoregulatory process.

Neuroglia

Cells that support within the CNS 1. Astrocytes - 1/2 of all neural tissue; support neurons & connect them w/ capillaries, by making the exchanges for them (this keeps the brain safe from potential blood pathogens) * B/n blood cap. + neurons * 2. Microglia - Phagocytic cells that clean up debris. 3. Ependymal cells - In the brain & spinal cord, responsible for circulating cerebrospinal fluid. * ciliated * 4. Oligodendrocytes - Wrap around nerve fibers producing fatty insulating sheaths called MYELIN SHEATHS

Central canal of spinal cord

Center of spinal cord which contains cerebrospinal fluid.

Control of Respiration

Central Pattern Generators (in pons) Dorsal Respiratory Group - Inspiration - Source of phrenic nerve Ventral Respiratory Group - Active expiration (not passive) - Very active inhalation (heavy exercise)

Oropharynx

Central portion of the pharynx between the roof of the mouth and the upper edge of the epiglottis

Cerebral hemispheres (neomammalian brain)

Cerebral hemispheres comprise 83% of brain mass. The surface has wrinkles: sulci (depressions) and gyri (ridges) that massively increase brain surface area. = MORE NEURONS (16.3 billion neurons).

Cerebral peduncle, superior cerebellar peduncle, middle cerebellar peduncle, & inferior cerebellar peduncle.

Cerebral peduncle Superior cerebellar peduncle Middle cerebellar peduncle Inferior cerebellar peduncle

Midbrain (reptilian brain)

Cerebral peduncles are large pyramidal tracts of motor fibers descending towards spinal cord. Corpora quadrigemina 1. Superior colliculi (visual reflex centers) 2. Inferior colliculi (sensory receptors... startle reflex)

The subarachnoid space contains

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

C1 to C5 create?

Cervical plexus.

Thermoreceptors

Change shape in response to temp. changes. A few temp-sensitive proteins are activated by both temp and chemicals. In the mouth, they respond to "hot peppers" and "cool" mint that same way they do to hot/cold temps. Thermo - and chemo- overlap! Peppers = fire.. Ex: Snakes (pit vipers). On their face pits lined w/ thermo- causes temp to to felt in room & help them form an image of their enviro.

What causes an influx of calcium ions ?

Changes in voltage due to the action potential cause the voltage-gated calcium ion channels to open, allowing calcium ions to move into the cell.

Genetic structure of our population

Changes over time. Look & see what alleles are expressed.

Both want equilibrium !

Changing the electrical gradient means changing the concentration gradient.

Synthesis Pathways for Steroid Hormones

Chart

2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG)

Chemical in the red blood cells that affects hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen. 2,3 DPG Added DPG during exercise.

Pheromones

Chemical messengers that mediate interactions between individuals. 1. Species recognition 2. Territory marking 3. Parent-offspring interactions 4. Sexual receptivity

What receptors were most likely responsible for the change in pulse that occurred following hyperventilation? To what do these receptors respond?

Chemoreceptors ; affected by change in O2, CO2, or blood pH.

Network of anastomoses supplying the brain

Circle of Willis

Coronary circulation

Circulation of blood through the coronary blood vessels to deliver oxygen & nutrients to the heart muscle tissue

Structure of Sensory Receptors

Classified by their structure: Our general senses can either have encapsulated (C.T. capsule) or nonencapsualted (no protective covering) dendrites. Most encapsulated receptors are mechanoreceptors. Our special senses (hearing, taste, smell, etc) are housed in complex sensory organs.

Visceral layer of glomerular capsule

Clings to the glomerulus, consists of branching cells call podocytes, and plays an important role in the formation of filtrate

Nuclei

Clusters of cell bodies in the CNS. (gray matter)

Right and Left Hepatic Duct

Collect bile from all bile ducts.

Adrenal Cortex Hormones

Collectively the adrenal cortex secretes - 24 hormones collectively referred to as the CORTICOSTERIODS 1. Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone) are secreted by the ZONA GLOMERULOSA. - Regulate water & electrolyte balance of the body by targeting kidney tubules for selective reabsorption of ions, specifically by reabsorbing NA+ & secreting K+ 2. Glucocorticoids (cortisone & cortisol) secreted by the ZONA FASCULATA (primarily) & RETICULARIS. - Work in management of long-term stress by promoting glucose metabolism, release of prostaglandins, reduce swelling. 3. Gonatocorticoids (adrenal sex hormones) are secreted by the ZONA FASICULATA & RETICULARIS (primarily) - Small amounts of androgens are made throughout life - these are weak hormones that can be converted to testosterone or estrogen in tissue cells.

Lumbosacral plexus

Combination of the lumbar plexus & the sacral plexus. Sciatic nerve is the largest nerve to come from the lumbosacral plexus.

Plasma, buffy coat, erythrocytes (centrifuge)

Components of blood: Plasma- 55% of whole blood LEAST DENSE COMPONENT Buffy coat- Leukocytes and platelets - < 1% of whole blood Erythrocytes 45 % of whole blood (hematocrit) MOST DENSE COMPONENT

SA and AV nodes

Composed of AUTORHYTHMIC CELLS. First component of intrinsic conduction system

Buffy coat

Composed of leukocytes and platelets

Lesser curvature

Concave medial surface of the stomach.

What factors determine in which direction ions will move through an open channel?

Concentration gradient & electrical gradient.

Diffusion means?

Concentration gradient.

Axon

Conducting region of the neuron. Generates nerve impulses & transmits them, typically AWAY from the cell body.

Trigeminal (V) Function V3

Conducting sensory impulses from lower teeth.

Trigeminal (V) Function

Conducting sensory impulses from upper teeth.

Axon Hillock

Cone shaped region of an axon where it joins the cell body.

Efferent ductules

Connect rete testis to epididymis.

Right ejaculatory ducts

Connected with the seminal vesicle.

Serosa

Connective tissue Continuation of the peritoneum, which lines the abdominal cavity. The peritoneum also forms mesentery, which helps to hold the coiled intestines in place.

Submucosa

Connective tissue w/ large blood vessels & lymphatic tissue (Peyer's Patches) in small intestine are most obvious. Additionally, contains submucosal plexus, 1/2 of the enteric nervous system. Neurons innervate the epithelial layer as well as the muscularis mucosae. - To help regulate gut motility.

Type of tissue is blood

Connective tissue, cells (the formed elements) are suspended in a matrix (blood plasma) Blood volume: ERYTHROCYTES = 45% LEUKOCYTES/ PLATLETS = < 1% PLASMA = 55 % Blood: - Metallic taste - Varies in color from scarlet red (O2 rich- arterial blood) to dull red (O2 poor- venous blood) - Slightly basic 7.35 - 7.45 pH - Slightly warmer than body temperature (Apx. 100.4 degrees F) - 8 % of our body weight: 5- 6 LITERS

Vermis

Connects cerebellar hemispheres.

Infundibulum

Connects hypothalamus to pituitary gland.

Coronary Ligament

Connects liver to diaphragm.

Gray commissure

Connects masses of gray matter; encloses central canal.

Cerebral aqueduct

Connects the third & fourth ventricles.

Urine Formation

Consists of 3 Processes: 1. Filtration 2. Tubular Reabsorption - Back in blood 3. Tubular Secretion - Out of blood

Three-neuron reflex arcs that exist entirely within the walls of the digestive tract.

Consists of five elements: receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, and effector

Endocrine System

Consists of glands that control many of the body's activities by producing hormones. Endocrinology- A.A Burtle in the mid-1800s removed the testes of roosters.

Cyton (cell body, soma)

Consists of spherical nucleus (w/ a conspicuous nucleolus) surrounded by cytoplasm. Diameter = 5 - 140 micro meters.

Digestive System

Consists of: - GI Tract (mouth to anus) - Accessory Organs; salivary glands, pancreas, liver.

Homeostasis

Constant internal environment. External/internal environment is always changing. ex: body temperature = 98.6 F blood glucose levels *maintain a constant state*

Intercalated Discs of Cardiac muscle

Contain contain anchoring desmosomes & gap junctions.

Cerebral peduncles (midbrain)

Contain pyramidal motor tracts.

Lateral gray horn

Contain visceral motor nuclei.

Parietal cavity

Contains a film of serous fluid. The serous membranes, lubricated by the fluid, glide smoothly past one another, allowing the mobile heart to work in a relatively friction-free environment.

Dorsal root ganglion

Contains cell bodies of sensory neurons. #2

Pericardial Sac

Contains fibrous pericardium & parietal layer of the serous membrane

Acrosome cap

Contains hydrolytic enzymes that break down the corona radiata and penetrate the zona pellucida membrane surrounding the oocyte

Pons (book)

Contains nuclei that are part of the reticular formation and some that help the medulla oblongata maintain the normal rhythm of breathing.

Head (sperm)

Contains nucleus 23 chromosomes; 1N, acrosome contains enzymes that penetrate the egg

Epithalamus

Contains pineal body + posterior commissure forms the caudal border of the epithalamus. Involved in olfactory senses & sleep/wake cycle. - Pineal gland (body)

Epithalamus (model)

Contains pineal body. Involved in olfactory senses and sleep/wake cycle

Cell body (Soma)

Contains the nucleus & other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life. - Rough E.R. - Nucleus - Mitochondria

Adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary)

Controlled by the hypothalamus via releasing factors, synthesizes hormones and releases them

Pyloric sphincter

Controls passage of food from stomach to small intestine.

Hepatopancreatic Sphincter

Controls release of both bile and pancreatic juice into the duodenum.

Greater curvature

Convex lateral surface of the stomach.

To what blood vessel do all the coronary veins return blood? Where does this blood vessel empty the blood?

Coronary sinus; right atrium

Differentiate between the cortex and the medulla.

Cortex is the outer region of the adrenal gland. Whereas, the medulla is the center/inner region.

Adrenal hormone

Cortex: 1. Glucocorticoids (Cortisol) 2. Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone) 3. Gonadocorticoids (Sex hormones) Medulla: 1. Epinephrine 2. Norepinephrine

Adrenal Gland

Cortex: 1. Glucocorticoids (cortisol) 2. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) 3. Sex Steroids (testosterone) Medulla: 1. Epinephrine 2. Norepinephrine

Two types of nephrons

Cortical nephrons Juxtamedullary nephrons

Nephron Labeled

Cortical radiate artery/vein

Right Coronary Artery (RCA)

Courses to the right side of the heart, where it also gives rise to two branches: ● The right marginal artery serves the myocardium of the lateral right side of the heart. ● The posterior interventricular artery runs to the heart apex & supplies the posterior ventricular walls. Near the apex of the heart, this artery merges (anastomoses; junction of blood vessels) with the anterior interventricular artery.

The nerves that arise from CNS structures are categorized as either?

Cranial or spinal.

Loop of Henle

Creates a salt gradient in the interstitial fluid. - strong at bottom of Loop of Henl Thin descending limb = Permeable to H2O Thick / Thin ascending limb = Permeable to ions - Na+ all the way up; K+ and Cl- only in THICK limb.

Cardiac Skeleton

Crisscrossing, interlacing layer of connective tissue. - Anchors cardiac muscle fibers - Supports great vessels & valves - Limits spread of action potentials to specific paths

Palatine tonsil

Muscularis Externa of Stomach

D. Inner oblique, middle circular, outer longitudinal, myenteric plexus

Tail (flagellum)

D. Propels sperm.

Chief cells (mucosa layer)

D. Secrete pepsinogen (inactive form of pepsin)

Corticospinal tracts (pyramidal tracts)

DESCENDING / MOTOR 1. LATERAL Corticospinal tracts 2. VENTRAL Corticospinal tracts

ANS (parasympathetic and sympathetic branch)

DO affect the RATE at which autorhythmic cells launch Action Potentials . Sympathetic N.S - INCREASE heart rate - Increases permeability of the "pacemaker" cells to NA+ & Ca2+ (speeds depolarization) Parasympathetic N.S. - DECREASE heart rate - Increases permeability to K+ (slows rate of depolarization)

Sensory (afferent) root

DORSAL ROOT

Important Muscles

Dartos = built into C.T. that makes up the scrotum (lines scrotum) Cremaster muscle = around testes. Help control testes temperature Hot = down; cool = up

Carotid and aortic sinuses (baroreceptors)

Decreased HR

Parasympathetic innervation

Decreased HR

Blood loss

Decreased SV

What physical principle is demonstrated when performing the Heimlich maneuver?

Decreased thoracic cavity volume (w/ maneuver) -> Increased pressure in lungs -> Forced air w/ increased pressure expelled from lungs.

Pulse rate after Hyperventilation?

Decreases

Weakness or loss of dorsiflexion of the foot and extension of the toes

Deep fibular nerve

Aortic arch artery

Deep to the sternum, begins and ends at the sternal angle (T4 level). Its three major branches (R to L) are: (1) the brachiocephalic trunk, which passes superiorly under the right sternoclavicular joint and branches into the right common carotid arteryand the right subclavian artery (2) the left common carotid artery and (3) left subclavian artery. These three vessels provide the arterial supply of the head, neck, upper limbs, and part of the thorax wall.

Different strategies for digestion

Deers = 4 chambers - large cecum (site of secondary fermentation to get more nutrients) Rabbits= From group called LAGOMORPHS - Coprophagic "feces-eating" 2 sets of feces. They eat 1st set; go through fermentation again!! Get nutrients from it in stomach.

Delta cells

Delta cells in pancreatic islets secrete somatostatin, which inhibits growth hormone (somatostatin = growth hormone inhibiting hormone) - Islets have a very rich blood supply. They only comprise 1-2% of pancreatic mass, but receive ~15% of pancreatic blood flow. They are also innervated by both parasympathetic and sympathetic neurons.

Axillary nerve

Deltoid & teres minor

Where on the neuron would you find the ion channels? E

Dendrites or cell body (soma).

Saltatory conduction

Depolarization waves jumps from one node to another.

Which of the processes is part of the action potential?

Depolarization, propagation, & repolarization.

Hypocalcemia

Depresses heart.

Nephron Loop (Loop of Henle)

Descending limb (thin segment) Ascending limb (thick segment)

Cerebral dominance

Designates the hemisphere that is dominant for language. 90% use the left hemisphere for language abilities, math, and logic. Right hemisphere is more free-spirited, visual-spatial, intuition, emotion, & artistic.

Mechanoreceptors

Detect motion in multiple forms; movements, stretch, & vibrations. Activation causes ion channels to open in these sensors. These types of receptors are often very specialized. (Ion channels open & change membrane potential to possible A.P.) EX: Stretch= Urinary bladder/ bowels. Walls of blood vessels Vibrations= Hearing Movement= Muscles (know their position) Fish scales w/ mechanoreceptors.. H2O goes inside.

Urine is positive for ketones and glucose, what disease should be checked for?

Diabetes mellitus.

The minute-to-minute blood flow through the capillary beds is determined by the __________.

Diameter of arterioles. The diameter of arterioles determines the amount of blood flow through the capillary beds.

Sympathetic & parasympathetic branches?

Differ anatomically in 2 primary ways. Sympathetic: Thoracic/Lumbar origins Short pre- Long post- Sympathetic chain ganglion Close to CNS Parasympathetic: Cranial/Spinal Long pre- Short post- Not chained, but close Close to target.

Membrane potential (mV)

Difference in electrical charge measured across a plasma membrane. ELECTRICAL GRADIENT IS ALWAYS AT ZERO.

Pulse

Difference in pressure of blood in an artery; caused by expansion and recoil of elastic arteries as pressure changes

Neurotransmitters can bind TO?

Different types of receptors

Fick's Law of Diffusion (Gas Movement and Transport)

Diffusion Rate is proportional to Surface Area x Concentration Gradient x Membrane Permeability / Membrane Thickness

How do ions move in and out of cells?

Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, or active transport.

Pylorus

Distal region of the stomach, opening to the duodenum.

Which of the following types of blood vessels have the proportionally thickest tunica media of all vessels?

Distributing arteries. Distributing arteries have the thickest tunica media of all vessels.

Organization of the gray matter of the spinal cord

Divided according to somatic & visceral regions SS—somatic sensory VS—visceral sensory VM—visceral motor SM—somatic motor MAY GO TO THE BRAIN OR INTEGRATE W/IN THE SPINAL CORD.

Right and Left Primary Bronchi

Dividing branches that enter the lungs off the trachea

Lateralization

Division of labor between the two hemispheres.

False vocal folds (ventricular folds)

Do not vibrate during speech but close tightly during swallowing to prevent material from entering the trachea; (L. ventriculus, little belly).

Spinal nerves are formed by?

Dorsal and ventral roots.

Radial nerve

Dorsal or posterior brachium and antebrachium (extensors)

Axons of Sensory Neurons

Dorsal root of a spinal nerve contains the axons of sensory neurons.

Atlas vertebrae (brainstem)

Dorsal view.

Inferior colliculus

Dorsal view.

Medulla oblongata (brainstem)

Dorsal view.

Midbrain (brainstem)

Dorsal view.

Pineal body (epithalamus)

Dorsal view.

Pons (brainstem)

Dorsal view.

Superior colliculus

Dorsal view.

Trochlear (IV)

Dorsal view.

Dural venous sinuses

Drain blood from brain and drain into the internal jugular veins. Capillaries for drainage of blood coming from the brain tissue.

Inferior sagittal sinus

Drains into the straight sinus.

Internal iliac vein

Drains the pelvis. Joins the external iliac vein to form the common iliac vein.

The ligamentum arteriosum is a remnant of what structure? Where do you find it?

Ductus arteriousus which allows lung bypass prior to birth; located between pulmonary trunk and aorta.

Embryonic Development

During the first 26 days of development: - Ectoderm thickens forming the neural plate. - The neural plate invaginate, forming the neural groove. - The neural groove fuses dorsally and forms the neural tube.

Main Pancreatic Duct (pancreas)

Oropharynx (label)

Labia minora

E. Smaller pair of skin folds that protect the vaginal opening

Lacteal (small intestine)

Each villus of small intestine has capillary network and a lymph vessel. Nutrients absorbed through wall of small intestine pass into capillary network and lacteal

Gender determination depends on the Y Chromosome

Early embryonic tissues make bipotential structures— they are indistinguishable as male or female There are two pairs of ducts: Wolffian Ducts and Müllerian Ducts (internal bipotential genitalia) The presence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome will determine which set of bipotential ducts develop into genitalia, and which degenerate

Paleomammalian Brain (limbic system)

Eating, drinking, having sex, fighting, running away. Your LIMBIC SYSTEM is also where your EMOTIONS come from.

Brachiocephalic veins

Either of the veins formed by the union of the internal jugular and subclavian veins above the heart. Carries deoxygenated blood to right atrium of heart through the anterior vena cava R. brachiocephalic- R. side of head and R. upper limb L. brachiocephalic- L. side of head and L. upper limb

Veins and arteries

Elsewhere in the body, veins carry relatively oxygen-poor blood to the heart, & arteries transport oxygen- rich blood from the heart. The opposite oxygenation conditions exist in veins & arteries of the pulmonary circuit.

Cingulate gyrus

Emotional & visceral responses to emotion.

Corpus luteum (model)

Empty ovarian follicle that secretes progesterone after release of the egg cell

Axon Terminal (synaptic knob)

End of the axon, furthest from the soma

Corpus luteum

Endocrine tissue which produces hormones, estrogen, and progesterone which prepares the uterine lining for receiving an embryo

Endoneurium, perineurium, epineurium

Endoneurium = around Axon Perineurium = around Fascicle Epineurium= around the entire Nerve

Papillary muscles

Enlarged muscles in ventricles that are attached to chordae tendinae. Play role in valve function.

Coronary Sinus

Enlarged vessel on the posterior aspect of the heart that empties blood into the right atrium

Laryngeal Spaces: Aditus

Enter larynx from the pharynx

Na+/K+ ATPase

Enzyme that pumps 3 Na+ ions out of the cell and 2 K+ ions into the cell using a single molecule of ATP. 3: 2 ratio. It is meant to correct the leakage. Needs ATP. FACT: 9% of metabolic rate is goes to running Na+/K+ ATPase.

Acinar cells

Enzyme-secreting cells of the pancreas

Parasitic Invasion and Allergic Reactions

Eosinophils (formed element that elevates in number)

Central canal is lined by

Ependymal cells

Adrenal Sympathetic NS

Epinephrine (E) Binds to ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS Subtypes: ALPHA (binds more to E) BETA (binds more to NE)

Sensory receptors

Every animal that can sense light does so with proteins called OPSINS. Opsins always have vitamin A. When light hits opsin, it temp. changes the shape of the protein, signaling the start of a cascade of messages. Not always eyes! Humans = Opsin is inside retina. Coral sense light to release sperm/egg.

If the ion channels in diagram E opened just long enough to cause a small positive change in the RMP, but alone not a great enough change to result in the generation of an action potential, what would you call this occurrence?

Excitatory Post Synaptic Potential (EPSP). (Graded potential)

Pancreas histology

Exocrine = - Relies on ducts - Aids digestion Acinar cells Plural: Acini Secrete hormones via Endocrine - alpha cells - beta cells - delta cells

Volume of air important during Heimlich maneuver?

Expiratory reserve, forced out during maneuver to blow out lodged object.

Trachea

Extends from pharynx to about mid-chest (5th thoracic vertebrae) Reinforced by C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage. Abut the esophagus, allowing it to expand. Keep the airway patent (= open) Lined w/ cilia that beat away from the lungs, further filtering out debris, etc.

Left Bundle Branch

Extends toward the apex of the heart and then radiates across the inner surface of the left ventricle

Right Bundle Branch

Extends toward the apex of the heart and then radiates across the inner surface of the right ventricle

Renal columns

Extensions of the cortex that project inward toward sinus

External and Internal Carotid

External Carotid Artery: Supply most tissues of the head except the brain and orbit Internal Carotid Artery: Supply the orbits and more than 80% of the cerebellum.

Branch of abdominal aorta supplying the lower limbs (via femoral artery)

External iliac artery

Nasal Cavity Anatomy

External nares Internal nares Pharyngotympanic Tube

Scrotum

External sac that contains the testes

Neurilemma (sheath of Schwann)

External to the myelin sheath & is the outer, cytoplasmic part of the Schwann cells.

Location of Sensory Receptors

Exteroceptors (external) Interoceptors, proprioceptors (internal)

Tongue

Third ventricle

F - In the diencephalon via a channel called the interventricular foramen.

Sympathetic Division (Thoracic/Lumbar origin)

FLIGHT OR FLIGHT. When we are excited or find ourselves in emergency, we get a rapid heart rate, deep breathing, dry mouth, cold, sweaty, dilated pupils. Other adjustments: 1. Constricts visceral (sometimes cutaneous) blood vessels. To active skeletal muscles & working heart. 2. Dilates the bronchioles for more O2. 3. Stimulates the liver to release more glucose in the blood. Close to CNS!

Which two nerves transmit impulses regarding test from the tongue?

Facial nerve (VII) = 2/3 anterior of tongue. Glossopharyngeal (IX) = 1/3 posterior of tongue.

Epipolic Appendages

Fat-filled pouches of visceral peritoneum

Myelin

Fatty, insulating sheaths that protects, electrically insulates fibers, & increases the transmission speed of nerve impulses (AXONS ONLY)

Normal hemoglobin Levels

Female: 12- 16 g/ mL Male: 13- 18 g/ mL/

Loss of the ability to extend the knee?

Femoral nerve

7 NA+ & 2 K+. More of fewer K+?

Fewer, so membrane potential is a NEGATIVE #.

Lumbosacral trunk

Fibers from spinal nerves (ventral rami) L4-L5 traveling inferiorly (from lumbar plexus) to enter the sacral plexus.

Cholinergic fibers

Fibers that release ACh. Includes: 1. All ANS preganglionic axons 2. All parasympathetic postganglionic axons at synapse with their effectors.

Filum terminale (model)

Fibrous extension of the pia mater; anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx

Filum terminale

Fibrous extension of the pia mater; anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx.

Function of tonsils?

Fight infection; Located around openings where microbes may have access to enter the body.

Nephron Facts

Filtering units of the kidney that remove wastes from the blood and produce urine. Cortical nephrons = 80% - Stays in cortex Juxtamedullary nephrons = 20%. (HUMANS) - Long Loop on Henle in the Medulla Multiple nephrons per Collecting Duct Cortical radiate artery/vein

Duodenum

First part of the small intestine.

30 million years later

Flatworms showed up, and they have a CENTRAL MASS OF NEURONS. The mass of neurons is the PRECURSOR FOR OUR BRAIN. Now organisms could not only sense and respond to their enviro., but can also INTEGRATE INFORMATION.

What is CSF?

Fluid within the subarachnoid space, the central canals the spinal cord, and the four ventricles of the brain. Buoyancy, Protection, Environmental Stability. Found in/around the brain/spinal cord. Reduces the weight of the brain by 97%.

Comparison of Mucosa

Folds = Missing in Esophagus |ntestinal glands or Duodenal glands (if in small intestine) Large intestine = No villi BUT have glands.

Folia

Folds of the cerebellum surface.

Ovarian Cycle

Follicular phase - Period of follicle growth, typically from the first to the tenth day of cycle. Primordial follicle (squamous cells) becomes Primary follicle (cuboidal cells) → Follicular cells become granulosa cells (stratified epithelium) → connective tissue forms around granulosa cells (thecal folliculi) ; thecal and granulosa cells produce estrogens → transparent membrane forms around oocyte (zone pellucida) ; antrum (fluid-filled cavity) develops between granulosa cells → primary follicle becomes secondary follicle ; granulosa cells form the corona radiata at the edge of the follicle → secondary follicle grows to full size and becomes a Graafian or vesicular follicle. Ovulatory phase- Occurs mid-cycle, between day 10 - 14. Secondary oocyte with its corona radiata are released into the peritoneal cavity when the ovarian wall ruptures. Only one follicle outstrips the others to become the dominant follicle that will undergo ovulation; the others degenerate (atretic follicles). Luteal phase- Period of corpus luteum activity, typically occuring 10 days after ovulation. Corpus luteum (yellow body) develops from granulosa and thecal cells after secondary oocyte has been released → secretes estrogen and progesterone for 10 days until fertilization occurs → 1. if pregnancy occurs, corpus luteum persists until placenta takes over its hormone-releasing duties → 2. if pregnancy does not occur, corpus luteum degenerates in about 10 days to become corpus albicans (white body) and hormone secretion ceases.

Podocytes

Foot processes with filtration slits.

The fossa ovalis is a remnant of what fetal structure ? What is the patent foramen ovalis and what is the problem caused by it?

Foramen ovale; remains open after birth. Allows deoxygenated blood to mix with oxygenated blood in left atrium.

Prepuce

Foreskin or hood

Oligodendrocytes (CNS) LAB

Form myelin insulation on axons in CNS. ---- Wrap around axons.

The function of a Schwann cell is to

Form the myelin sheath around the axon of a neuron

Oligodendrocytes (CNS)

Form the myelin sheath in the brain & the spinal cord

What is the physical relationship between the gland and the thyroid?

Found on the back of the thyroid.

Muculocutaneous nerve (brachial plexus)

From lateral cord. Innervates flexor muscles in anterior arm (biceps, brachialis, & coracobrachialis)

Ulnar nerve (brachial plexus)

From medial cord. Innervates some flexor muscles in forearm and intrinsic hand muscles; also adducts & abducts medial fingers. Injury: Claw hand (last 2 fingers become hyperextended), thus can't spread fingers (abduct) and can't make a fist or grip objects.

Radial nerve (brachial plexus)

From posterior cord. Innervates extensors of forearm & hand (elbow extension, supination of forearm, extension of wrist & fingers, & abduction of thumb); extends forearm (triceps, brachioradialis). Injury: Wrist drop (unable to extend hand at wrist)

Axillary nerve (brachial plexus)

From posterior cord. Innervates deltoid and tres minor muscles.

Paranasal sinuses

Frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, maxillary

4 paranasal sinuses; function?

Frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, maxillary. Resonance for sound, warm, circulation, and moisten air.. Produce mucus.

Renal Pelvis

Funnel-shaped reservoir that collects the urine and passes it to the ureter.

Frontal sinus

Clusters of cell bodies in the PNS are called

Ganglia

Stomach histology

Gastric pits Gastric glands Mucosa Muscularis mucosae - layer of smooth muscle Submucosa - c.t. w/ blood vessels * folded *

Mucosa (cont.)

Gastrointestinal stem cells are also found in the mucosa. Replacement of these epithelial cells is a constant process. Because of the HIGH rate of mitosis, colon and rectal cancers are common. 3rd most deadly cancer in the US.

Greater vestibular glands (Bartholin glands)

Glands that keep the vaginal mucosa moist and provide a lubricant for the vagina during sexual intercourse.

Anterior Pituitary Gland Embryonic Origin

Glandular Epithelial Tissue

Renal corpuscle

Glomerulus and bowman's capsule

Damage to which nerve might result in difficulty swallowing & loss of salivation from paratoid gland?

Glossopharyngeal (IX)

Pancreatic Islets (pancreas)

Glucagon and insulin are made and secreted

Both are Intending to Keep Us Alive (Adrenal Medulla vs Adrenal Cortex)

Glucocorticoids: Too long = Not good! Can lead to Diabetes Mellitus. Your immune system makes you feel sick but w/ it suppressed you don't feel it.

Glucose Transporters

Glucose + galactose = Na+ dependent Fructose = NOT Na+ dependent SLGT = glucose transporter GLUT2 = on the antilumenal side - "GLUT" stands for glucose transporter NOT always glucose, may be galactose or fructose.

Pulse rate when you stand up? When you stand?

Goes up slightly; increases

Gonadal vein (left)

Gonadal (testicular or ovarian) veins. The right gonadal vein drains the ovary or testis on the right side of the body and empties into the inferior vena cava. The left gonadal vein drains into the left renal vein superiorly.

What are basal nuclei?

Gray matter neuron cell deep inside the cerebrum. Influence muscle movements, especially starting, stopping, & monitoring movements.

Neuronal synapses would be most common in the?

Gray matter.

Cortex of the brain

Gray matter. Formed from neuronal cell bodies.

Atrioventricular Sulcus

Groove on the surface of the heart that marks the division between an atrium & a ventricle

Coronary sulcus (atrioventricular groove)

Groove that marks border b/n atria & ventricles

Anterior Pituitary hormones

Growth hormone (GH), Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), Luteinizing hormone (LH), & Prolactin (PRL)

Longitudinal muscle layer (small intestine)

Sphenoidal sinus

Ventral root

H Contains axons of motor neurons.

Nucleus of neuron

H Function: Contains DNA; produce RNA for protein synthesis

Parietal cells

HCL and Intrinsic Factor (necessary for B12 absorption) HCl Function: - acid environment = immune function - denatures proteins (pepsinogen cleaves off chains of AA; not individual AA) - mucus protects stomach lining - stomach acid: < 1.0 Note: Intracellular fluid of parietal cells : pH = 7. Concentration gradient of H+ ions across the membrane of these parietal cells its 7 million times

Contractility of Heart

HEARTS ABILITY TO CONTRACT @ A GIVEN FIBER LENGTH. SV (force) vs End Diastolic Volume (stretch) As SV increases, contractile increases.

Negative Feedback Loops

HOMEOSTATIC. They stabilize the variable within the normal range of function. They restore the normal state. Ex: - Body temp. - Blood glucose levels - Blood Ca2+ level. Hormonal Regulation

Heart's efficiency as a pump

HR (beats/minute) x SV (mL/beat) Rest: 72 beat/min x 70 ml/beat = 5040 ml/min. = 5 L/min, so heart is pumping the entire blood volume once per minute. @ REST Exercise: Cardiac output = 30 - 35 L/min

Haploid vs diploid cells

Haploid - Contain only one set of chromosomes 23 chromosomes - 22 autosomes - 1 sex chrome Diploid - Contains two sets of chromosomes; one from each parent 46 chromosomes - 44 autosomes - 2 sex chromes

fetal hemoglobin (HbF)

Has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin (primarily HbA), which also assists in the transfer (and retention) of oxygen into the fetal circulatory system. GAMMA instead of BETA, so 2 alpha and 2 gamma.

Phasic Contractions

Have cycles of contraction & relaxation that last a few seconds. These are associated w/ cycles of depolarization and repolarization called SLOW WAVE POTENTIALS, originating in cells called Interstitial Cells of Canal (ICC) ( -> pacemaker cells of GI tract ) Random, not scripted! They can serve the function of moving food through the gut (PERISTALSIS = move), or just simply to mix it within the GI Tract (SEGMENTAL CONTRACTIONS = mix)

Visceral reflex arcs

Have essentially the same components as somatic reflex arcs - receptors, sensory neurons, integration center, motor neuron, effector 3 Main Differences: 1. Has 2 consecutive neurons in its motor component. 2. Afferent fibers are visceral sensory neurons rather than somatic sensory neurons. 3. The effectors are smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands (not skeletal). Ex: Empty the rectum and bladder

Fenestrated capillaries

Have pores in vessel wall; found in kidneys, intestines, and endocrine glands. - Pores b/n cells - Allows for bulk transport of fluid/materials - Found: Digestive Tract/Kidneys

Primary auditory cortex

Hearing, temporal lobe.

Cardiovascular

Heart + blood vessels Serves organ systems eg. Respiration, digestive (nutrients to blood) JOB: distribute things to the body. Single cell organism = Use diffusion ex. gas for aerobes, wastes, & nutrients BUT... We are multicellular - 75 trillion cells in the body. We CANNOT DIFFUSE/ must be distributed. Size: Fist w/ large blood vessels in/out of heart.

Hyperkalemia

Heart block and cardiac arrest.

Extrinsic Innervation of the Heart

Heart is stimulated by the sympathetic cardioacceleratory center Heart is inhibited by the parasympathetic cardioinhibitory center

Alpha and Beta Chains

Held by dissulfide bonds & hydrogen bonds + salt bridges. 1 Hb = 4 O2 molecules. Changes color when O2 sits in heme group = Shift = Color change - Reflects light differently! - Way iron is bound or unbound.

Arytenoid Cartilage

Help control tension of vocal cord to produce different sounds.

Role of Thalamus

Helps in mediating sensation, motor activities, cortical arousal, learning, and memory; acts as a relay station for most sensory information ascending to the cerebral cortex.

Erythoroblastosis fetalis? Cause and results?

Hemolytic disease of newborn babies; Results when a pregnant Rh- mom carries a Rh+ baby. As a result, the mother forms anti-Rh antibodies. Subsequent pregnancy w/ an Rh+ baby, her antibodies will destroy the baby's RBC, resulting in serious damage to organs.

Hormonal Synergism

Here the effect is NOT additive, BUT MULTIPLICATIVE. One hormone seems to potentiate the others. Ex: Glucagon, epinephrine, & norepinephrine = INCREASE BLOOD GLUCOSE.

Hemophilia ? How do you get it? Most common cause?

Hereditary bleeding disorder most commonly caused by missing clotting factor VIII or IX.

Follicular and Luteal phase

High estrogen = spike of LH (midcycle) Endometrium gets thicker

Hemoglobin concentration in males?

Higher in males

Bronchoconstriction

Histamine (vasodilator) Asthma

Negative Feedback Example

Home-heating system 1. Thermometer: Sensor, measures the actual temperature 2. Thermostat: Comparator, receives sensors signal & compares actual temperature - Thermostat compares actual temperature to SETPOINT (the desired temperature): too cold! - Thermostat sends a signal to furnace 3. Furnace: Effector - Heat from the furnace raises the temperature; when the set point temp. is reached, furnace is shut off.

Types of STIMULI

Hormonal, humoral, & neural = 3 mechanisms for control. Hormonal = Stimulated by another hormone! EX: Anterior Pituitary Gland stimulates the thyroid, adrenal cortex, & testes. Humoral = Means Body Fluids. Something sensed in body fluids. Ex: Low CA2+ in blood = Parathyroid hormone release Neural = Neuron releases NE & E.

Erythropoietin (EPO)

Hormone secreted by the kidney to stimulate the production of red blood cells by bone marrow

Antagonistic Hormones

Hormones work antagonistically to one another. Where 1 hormone NEGATES (balances) the effects of another. Ex: Insulin & glucagon

Size/shape of hyaline cartilage sections from trachea to bronchioles?

Horseshoe-shaped in trachea to Irregular plates in bronchi to None in bronchioles!

40 million years ago

Humans show up, our brain was incredibly evolved. VERY ADVANCED THOUGHT, MEMORIES, EMOTIONS.

Trachea (Lab)

Hyaline cartilage; Horseshoe-shaped Pseudostratified cilitated columnar epithelium. Goblet cells; produce mucus Trachealis muscle (smooth muscle) - Allows food passage in esophagus. It may also contract decreasing the diameter to push air out w/ greater force (during coughing).

Which nerve innervates the muscles of the tongue?

Hypoglossal (XII).

How do these "signals" get to the anterior pituitary?

Hypophyseal Portal System. Consists of: 1. Primary capillary plexus 2. Hypophyseal portal veins 3. Secondary capillary plexus The portal system ensures that the minute quantities of hormones released by the hypothalamus arrive rapidly at the anterior pituitary without being diluted by the systemic circulation. All these hypothalamic regulatory hormones are amino acid based, but they vary in size from a single amine to peptides to proteins.

Distal convoluted tubule

Hyposmotic fluid @ 100 mosm - Dilute URINE! Always/ No matter if hydrated or dehydrated Why? To fine-tune urine in our collecting duct.

Creates levels of Integrating Centers

Hypothalamic hormones release Anterior Pit. hormones

Where do these 'signals' come from?

Hypothalamus

Suprachiasmic nucleus (SCN)

Hypothalamus = Limbic system/ Autonomic. Above the optic chiasma. "Master clock"

Dorsal median sulcus (diagram)

Name and numbers of Cranial Nerves

I. Olfactory II. Optic II. Oculomotor IV. Trochlear V. Trigeminal VI. Abducens VII. Facial VIII. Vestibulocochlear IX. Glossopharyngeal X. Vagus XI. Accessory XII. Hypoglossal.

Alpha motor neuron cell bodies (in ventral gray horn)

IN VENTRAL GRAY HORN ONLY

Another name for Tunica Intima?

INTERNA Contains the endothelium.

Electron Properties of the Cell

IONS Equal Na+ (outside) & K+ (inside) = NO ELECTRICAL GRADIENT. BUT there IS a CONCENTRATION GRADIENT (K+ inside only & Na+ outside only)

CNS

IS THE INTEGRATING & CONTROL CENTER OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

What is the advantage of forming nerves from a mix of many spinal nerves rather than from individual spinal nerves?

If a spinal nerve is damaged, you wouldn't lose total innervation to a limb or limb region.

What is the duration of the corpus luteum?

If fertilization does not occur, it degenerates in about 10 days into corpus albicans and its hormonal output ends. If fertilization occurs, it will continue to produce hormones until the placenta takes over its hormone-producing duties in about 3 months.

Diffusion

If you're a single-celled organism, diffusion works great. Unfortunately, it's a slow process. In order for us to rely on it, we have to maximize surface area as much as possible. This is common theme in our bodies: where have you seen it already? - Lungs - Kidneys (PCT) - Brain (Cortex) The digestive system is a prime example of the maximization of surface area.

Ileum and Cecum

Ileocecal valve

Circuit Level (sensory integration)

Impulses are delivered to the proper area of the cerebral cortex.

Perceptual Level (sensory integration)

In addition to knowing the stimulus has occurred, you need to know: - How big it was (# of A.P.) - Where it was - What else is happening around you. - Decipher patterns. (in cerebral cortex)

Estrogens and sex characteristics

In addition to the production of ova, the production of estrogens also begins at puberty Female secondary sex characteristics include: • Enlargement of accessory organs • Development of the breasts • Appearance of axillary and pubic hair • Increased deposits of fat, around hips and breasts • Widening and lightening of the pelvis • Onset of menses

When might you need to use a differential count?

In an elevated leukocyte, one needs to determine whether it is a bacterial, viral, parasite, or chronic infection.

FEEDBACK LOOP

In order to maintain homeostasis, these signals cannot be turned on forever: they must be turned off at some point. Homeostasis is regulated largely by reflex pathways, which have 2 loops: 1. RESPONSE LOOPS (Turns the Signal On) 2. FEEDBACK LOOPS (Turning the Signal Off)

Somatosensory cortex

In parietal lobe, registers touch sensations.

Ependymal Cells (CNS)

In the brain & spinal cord, responsible for circulating cerebrospinal fluid. * ciliated cells *

The nucleus of a neuron is located ?

In the soma (cell body)

Spinal Nerves (Lecture)

In the thoracic region, T2 - T12, rami innervate the body cavity. In all other regions, the ventral rami branch and rejoin each other, creating spinal nerve plexus.

Secondary Brain Vesicles

In week 5 of embryonic development. 1. Telencephalon 2. Diencephalon = Arise from Forebrain 3. Mesencephalon = Remains undivided 4. Metencephalon 5. Myelencephalon = Arise from hindbrain.

Thyroxin

Increase HR

Nasal Conchae

Increase surface area & air turbulence of nasal cavity. Increases "trapping" of debris on mucus-covered surfaces. Increases efficiency of air warming. - Air swirls! 1. Particles hit olfactory receptors = better smell ; sense environment. 2. Cold to warm air 3. Filters!!

Exercise (increased action of skeletal muscle contraction on veins)

Increased SV

Increased venous blood return

Increased SV

Sympathetic innervation

Increased SV Increased HR

Epinpherine

Increases HR

Hypercalcemia

Increases heart irritability. Increased spastic contractions.

Neurons

Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, & transmit information. --- Excitable cells that transmit electrical signals.

What might cause a larger than normal Buffy Coat?

Infection, invasion (bacterial, viral, parasitic), and leukemia (abnormal response).

Supplies the distal colon

Inferior mesenteric artery

Inferior mesenteric vein

Inferior mesenteric vein: Drains the distal portions of the large intestine and rectum and joins the splenic vein just before that vessel unites with the superior mesenteric vein to form the hepatic portal vein.

Larynx

Inferior to pharynx Formed by 8 rigid hyaline cartilages & the epiglottis (elastic cartilage) Thyroid cartilage protrudes anteriorly, forming the "Adam's apple" Epiglottis closes over the trachea when we swallow, preventing anything but air going into the airways Folds in the mucus membrane form the vocal folds, allowing us to speak

Returns blood from trunk to lower extremities to heart?

Inferior vena cava

If a postsynaptic membrane had small regions of hyperpolarization, these local occurrences of hyperpolarization would be called?

Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potential (IPSP).

What type of neurotransmitter would cause results IPSP's when bound to a postsynaptic receptor?

Inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Secretin

Inhibits stomach acid secretion & slows gastric emptying; stimulates duodenal bicarbonate secretion.

Axon hillock (trigger zone)

Initial segment of axon where the action potential is initiated.

Endocardium

Inner layer of the heart - Glistening white sheet of endothelium (squamous epithelium) resting on a thin connective tissue layer. - Located on the inner myocardial surface, it lines the heart chambers & covers the fibrous skeleton of the valves. - Continuous w/ the endothelial linings of the blood vessels leaving & entering the heart.

Tunica Intima

Innermost layer and lines the lumen of the blood vessels. It consists of simple squamous epithelium and a thin layer of areolar CT(basement membrane) to "stick it to the Tunica media." The basement membrane is often seen as a squiggly line right under the simple squamous epithelium. The simple squamous epithelium provides a smooth surface for the blood to "slide past." The tunica intima is continuous with the endocardium, makes-up the capillaries and is collectively referred to as the endothelium.

Mucosa (small intestine)

Innermost layer of small intestine; contains villi to maximize surface area

Oculomotor nerves (III)

Innervate smooth muscles in the eyes that cause pupils to constrict and lenses to bulge. The preganglionic axons found in the oculomotor nerves issues from the accessory oculomotor nuclei in the midbrain. Cells bodies of the postganglionic neurons are in the ciliary ganglia within eye orbits.

Obturator nerve (lumbar plexus)

Innervates adductor muscles of thigh (adductor magnus, longus, brevis, and gracilis)

Median nerve (brachial plexus)

Innervates flexor muscles of forearm, the first two fingers, pronates forearm, flexes wrist & fingers and opposes thumb. Injury: Loss of pincher grasp (oppose thumb & index finger), thus can't pick up small objects.

Sciatic nerve (sacral plexus)

Innervates hamstrings (thigh extensors & knee flexor) & part of the adductor magnus). Injury: Pain radiating down leg along the branches of sciatic nerve as a result of herniated disc; transected sciatic nerve results in inability to flex foot & ankle movements are lost, thus foot drops into plantar flexion (dangles).

What cerebral lobe is deep to the lateral sulcus?

Insula, contains the Gustatory Cortex which is responsible for taste. May be connected to autonomic system.

What is the major function of the Islets of Langerhans?

Insulin and glucagon production in order to control blood sugar levels.

Muscles that contract for forced or labored expiration?

Internal intercostals, oblique and transverses abdominal muscles.

Pectinate muscles

Internal ridges of myocardium in right atrium & both auricles

Internal and External urethral sphincters

Internal urethral sphincters is formed by smooth muscle and is involuntarily controlled. External urethral sphincters is formed by skeletal muscle and is voluntarily controlled.

Spinal nerves exit the vertebral column by passing through openings called?

Intervertebral foramina.

Medial & Lateral Plantar nerves

Intrinsic foot muscles Branch from tibial nerve

Internal sphincter

Involuntary, smooth muscle

What chemical element is critical in the production of the major thyroid hormones?

Iodine

Trabeculae Carneae

Irregular ridges of muscle on ventricular walls.

Significance of Vital Capacity

It can be used to determine if problems are obstructive or restrictive in nature. It will be reduced in restrictive disorders.

Clinical significance of the size and position of the right primary bronchus?

It has a larger diameter and is more vertical so is a more common site for inhaled foreign objects.

How far down the vertebral column does the spinal cord extend?

It typically ends between L1 and L2.

Gray commissure (diagram)

580 million years ago

Jellyfish showed up, and they had something new: A NETWORK OF NEURONS (keep alive). 1. Sense their environment. 2. Respond to it.

Interventricular foramina

Join lateral ventricles with third ventricle.

Dorsal gray horn (diagram)

Ions in the body

K + = primarily + charged inside Na+ = primarily + charged outside NA+ OUTWEIGHS K+

What type of ion channels are opening and/or closing in the non-highlighted region? How are they gated?

K+ channels are opening, Na+ channels are closing. Voltage-gated! Must reach + 30 mV.

Common hepatic duct

K. Large bile duct leading from liver; joins with the cystic duct to form the common bile duct

K Rat vs Beaver

Kangaroo rat = Urinate 1 or 2 drops a year. Get H2O from their food. Conserve H2O. 10-12 x concentrated than humans. Beaver = Rodent lives in aquatic environment and urinate a lot.

ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

Kidneys

The major long-term mechanism of blood pressure control is provided by the __________.

Kidneys. The kidneys act both directly and indirectly to regulate arterial pressure and provide the major long-term mechanism of blood pressure control by altering blood volume.

Ventral gray horn

L Motor neurons

Oropharynx

L - Palatine tonsils (2) J - Lingual tonsil

Lungs

L/R primary bronchus.

Lumbar plexus

L1-L4 Femoral nerve Obturator nerve L4 & L5 Lumbosacral trunk

Medial & Lateral Plantar

L4-S3. Tibial nerve has what two branches?

External jugular vein

LARGER IN CATS. Drain superficial scalp and face structures served by external carotid arteries. Empty into subclavian veins.

Internal jugular vein

LARGER IN HUMANS. Arise from the dural venous sinuses, exit skull via jugular foramina. Descend through neck alongside internal carotid arteries.

Cellular membranes are?

LEAKY. The membrane is permeable! K+ leaks outside the cell. Na+ leaks inside the cell. B/c of concentration gradient (diffusion)

The Cingulate Gyrus is associated with what cerebral system?

LIMBIC SYSTEM. Plays role in expressing emotions via gestures and resolves mental conflict

Ventricular fibrillation ? Can it be corrected?

Lack of synchronized contraction of cardiac fibers. Yes, must defibrillate with electrical shock.

Superior mesenteric artery

Large abdominal artery; feed large and small intestine

Elastic artery, two examples?

Large artery with numerous elastic fibers in the tunica media (is present in other two). Aorta and common iliac artery

Circumvallate papillae

Large papillae with taste buds

Medulla oblongata (reptilian brain)

Large pyramidal tracts (motor neurons) descend from the motor cortex, through the medulla, and into the spinal cord. The tracts cross over in the medulla at the decussation of the pyramids (crossing of tracts). NO REAL BBB in the medulla oblongata! - > You can vomit if toxins are present.

Cerebral peduncles (midbrain/reptilian)

Large pyramidal tracts of motor fibers descending towards spinal cord.

Larger vs smaller stimulus (Graded Potential)

Larger stimulus = More Na+ into the cell Smaller stimulus = Less Na+ into the cell

Parotid Glands (2)

Largest of the salivary glands

Superficial fibular nerve

Lateral lower leg Foot eversion & plantar flexion

Common Fibular nerve

Lateral to fibula. Supplies muscles of anterolateral lower leg (extensors that dorsiflex foot), knee joint, skin of lateral calf & dorsum of foot. Injury: Causes foot drop

Adult Neural Canal Regions

Lateral ventricles (Telencephalon) Third ventricles (Diencephalon) Cerebral aqueduct (Mesencephalon) Fourth ventricle (Metencephalon/Myelencephalon) Central canal

Thoracodorsal nerve

Latissimus dorsi #13

What contributes to the negative RMP?

Leakage channels (Na+ ion channels & K+ ion ion channels are open, helping to maintain the RMP. Na+/K+ ATPase too.

Celiac Trunk Artery Branches

Left gastric artery Splenic artery Common Hepatic artery

Cardiac notch

Left lung only

Goblet cells change from trachea to bronchioles? Why?

Less numerous the closer to bronchioles. NONE IN ALVEOLI.

Interstitial (Leydig) cells

Lie between the seminiferous tubules ; produce androgens (mainly testosterone)

Suprachiasmic nucleus (SCN) & Biological Rhythms

Light to SCN that produces GABA that send messages to the PINEAL GLAND. W/ light = Negative feedback that prevents melatonin release.

Blood is the Only Fluid Tissue in the Body

Like all C.T., cells (the formed elements) are suspended in a matrix (blood plasma) 45% of blood volume = ERYTHROCYTES, < 1% are LEUKOCYTES and PLATLETS, and 55 % is PLASMA.

Red Nuclei (midbrain/reptilian)

Limb flexion.

Unique structures

Limited to the internal genitalia - Ductus deferens - Uterine tubes - Uterus = Different embryonic tissue

Surfactant ? Produces? When does it produce?

Lipid and protein complex that reduces the surface tension w/in alveoli. Type 2 cells; produced the last 2 months of fetal development.

Lipid vs Water soluble hormones

Lipid-soluble hormones have longer half-lives, meaning that they stay in the blood longer. They are not as readily excreted by the kidneys because they are bound to plasma proteins, & most need to be metabolized by the liver before they can be excreted.

What can/can't cross the Blood-Brain Barrier?

Lipid-soluble molecules (ex. alcohol, nicotine, anesthetics) can cross, as well as other things by facilitated diffusion (glucose, amino acids, electrolytes, etc.) Metabolic wastes, proteins, certain toxins, & most drugs are denied entry.

Steroid hormones bind to CYTOSOL or NUCLEUS

Lipophilic molecules bind receptors either (a) in the cytosol, or (b) in the nucleus. This MESSENGER-RECEPTOR COMPLEX acts as a transcription factor, & results in initiation of transcription. This either causes genes to be turned on or off. Effects are slower to see (can be days or hours)

__________ inhibits fibrinolysis by competing with plasminogen and may contribute to the formation of atherosclerotic plaques.

Lipoprotein (a). Lipoprotein (a) competes with plasminogen but cannot dissolve clots, and it participates in the formation of atherosclerotic plaques.

Elevated levels of urobilinogen and bilirubin may indicate problems with what organ?

Liver

Hepatocytes

Liver cells; produce bile, absorb and secrete nutrients like glucose, and secrete plasma proteins

Broca's area

Located anterior to primary motor cortex (frontal lobe) & coordinates speech.

Lingual tonsils

Located at the base of the tongue

Cerebellar peduncles

Located b/n cerebellum & brainstem, & relays impulses to and from cerebellum.

Reticular formation function

Located in the brainstem & activates state of wakefulness.

Where are the cell bodies of the preganglionic parasympathetic neurons that innervate the head?

Located in the brainstem.

Hypothalamus

Located in the diencephalon & regulates body temperature & many visceral activities.

Thalamus

Located in the diencephalon & relays sensory impulses to cerebral cortex.

Vasomotor center

Located in the medulla oblongata & controls diameter of blood vessels & blood pressure.

Cardiac center

Located in the medulla oblongata & regulates heartbeat.

Respiratory center

Located in the medulla oblongata & regulates rate and depth of breathing.

Corpora quadrigemina function

Located in the midbrain & contains visual (SC) & auditory reflex centers (IC).

Cerebral peduncles

Located in the midbrain & provides motor pathways b/n cerebrum & lower parts.

Fossa ovalis (foramen ovale in fetus)

Located in the right atrium.

Thymus Gland

Located in the upper thorax, posterior to the sternum. Secretes THYMOSIN which helps the thymus act as an incubator for T cells, which help boost your immune response. As we age, the thymus is replaced with fibrous and fatty tissue, but continues to produce immunocompetent cells. Thymus to fibrous and fatty tissue (when we age)

Submandibular Gland (2)

Located on the floor of the mouth

How does location affect stimulus ?

Location of sodium channel can make a difference. Closer = Takes less

Merkel Discs

Location: Exteroreceptors Stimulus type: Mechanoreceptors Body Location: At base of epidermis of skin.

Ruffini's Corpuscles

Location: Exteroreceptors Stimulus type: Mechanoreceptors (deep pressure & stretch) Body Location: Deep dermis, hypodermis, and joint capsules.

Root Hair Plexuses

Location: Exteroreceptors Stimulus type: Mechanoreceptors (hair detection) Body Location: In & surrounding hair follicles.

Krause's Bulbs

Location: Exteroreceptors Stimulus type: Mechanoreceptors (light pressure & discriminative touch) Body Location: CT of mucosae (mouth, conjunctiva, & hairless skin near body openings of lips.

Meissner's Corpuscles

Location: Exteroreceptors Stimulus type: Mechanoreceptors (light pressure & discriminative touch) Body Location: Dermal papillae of hairless skin (lips, nipples, & fingertips)

Pacinian Corpuscles

Location: Exteroreceptors, interoreceptors Stimulus type: Mechanoreceptors (deep pressure & stretch) Body Location: Subcutaneous tissue of skin, periostea, mesentery, tendons, ligaments, joint capsules, fingers, soles of feet, external genitalia, & nipples.

Free Nerve Endings

Location: Exteroreceptors, interoreceptors Stimulus type: Nociceptors (pain), thermoreceptors (temp), & mechanoreceptors (pressure). Body Location: Most body tissues; abundant in epithelia & connective tissue.

Golgi Tendon Organs

Location: Proprioreceptors Stimulus type: Mechanoreceptors (tendon stretch) Body Location: Embedded in tendon.

Muscle Spindles

Location: Proprioreceptors Stimulus type: Mechanoreceptors (muscle stretch) Body Location: Skeletal muscles, particularly those of extremities.

Greater Saphenous vein

Longest vein in the body

Node of ranvier

Longitudinal section Where 2 myelin sheaths come together.

What parts of the nephron are associated with the medulla?

Loop of Henle (collecting ducts and papillary ducts are in the medulla but are NOT part of the nephron)

Laryngopharynx

Lower part of the pharynx, just below the oropharyngeal opening into the larynx and esophagus.

Lateral gray horn (diagram)

Functionally, a spinal nerve is an example of a?

MIXED

In terms of function, spinal nerves are classified by?

MIXED.

Oculomotor III (Cranial Nerve)

MOTOR. 1/4 of Autonomic: - Pupillary muscles & ciliary muscles. Muscles can sense damage to it also. Propriocentric afferent to the same muscles. GOES: Fibers extend from the ventral midbrain, pass though the superior orbital fissure, & to 4/6 extrinsic eye muscles (inferior oblique, inferior/medial/superior rectus muscles). Function: Raise the eyelid, directing the eyeball, constricting the iris (autonomic), & controlling lens shape (autonomic).

Trochlear IV (Cranial Nerve)

MOTOR. Function: Directs the eye ball. GOES: Fibers emerge form the dorsal midbrain & enter the orbits via the superior orbital fissure; innervate the superior oblique muscle.

Hypoglossal XII (Cranial Nerve)

MOTOR. GOES: Fibers arise from the medulla and exit via the hypoglossal canal. Function: Motor: to intrinsic & extrinsic tongue muscles (move the tongue) Proprioceptive afferents back from same muscles.

Abducens VI (Cranial Nerve)

MOTOR. GOES: Fibers leave the inferior pons & enter the orbit via the superior orbital fissure to eye. Function: Motor to lateral rectus muscles (an extrinsic eye muscle/ rotates eye laterally). Convey proprioceptor impulses from the same muscle to brain.

Accessory XI (Cranial Nerve)

MOTOR. GOES: Formed from a cranial root emerging from the medulla & a spinal root arising from the superior region of the spinal cord. Function: Motor: to the muscles of the shoulder, neck (sternocleidomastoid & trapezius), pharynx, & larynx. Proprioceptive afferents from the same muscles.

Kupferr Cells

Macrophages in the liver.

Body (of uterus)

Major portion of uterus.

Pons (reptilian brain)

Major relay center b/n cerebrum, cerebellum, & spinal cord. Trigeminal, abducens, & facial cranial nerves are found here. Together w/ the midbrain, controls voluntary eye movement (part of reticular formation).

Femoral vein

Major vein of the thigh that receives blood from the deep femoral and great saphenous vein

Kidney is a collection of tubules and blood vessels

Make up 4/10 of 1% of body mass, but they receive about 20 - 25 % of our cardiac output. Metabolically active!

Motor homunculus

Map showing portion of motor cortex devoted to each body region

Why is there no visible wave during atrial repolarization?

Masked by QRS complex (electrical events during ventricular depolarization)

Tonsils

Masses of lymphatic tissue in the back of the oropharynx

Nervous System

Master controlling system on the body.

What is the Graafian follicle?

Mature ovarian follicle ready for ovulation.

Channels on dendrites and soma?

Mechanically & chemically gated channels

Formed from branches of the lateral & medial cords

Medial nerve.

Medial & lateral pectoral nerves

Medial pectoral = pectoralis major & pectoralis minor. #17 Lateral pectoral = pectoralis major. #11

Ulnar nerve

Median & ventral antebrachium (wrist & finger flexors).

Difficulty picking up a penny with a pincher grasp

Median nerve.

Within what cavity is the heart located?

Mediastinum Heart = in thoracic cavity. Subdivision = Mediastinum

Adrenal Medulla Hormones

Medullary CHROMAFFIN CELLS secretes catecholamines, E and NE, with epinephrine being dominant.

Pineal hormone

Melatonin

Resting Neuron

Membrane Potential (RMP) : - 70mV

Threshold Voltage

Membrane potential @ which V-G Na+ channels open. - 55 mV. #2

Together, the dura mater, pia mater, & the arachnoid membrane are the ?

Meninges

Mesosalpinx (of broad ligament of the uterus)

Mesentery that supports uterine tubes

Central canal with ependymal cells

Microscope

Hilum of Lung

Mid-line region where the bronchi, blood vessels, and nerves enter and exit the lungs

Corpora quadrigemina

Midbrain

Brainstem

Midbrain, Pons, Medulla Oblongata. 2.5% of the total brain mass.

Left common carotid artery

Middle branch off aortic arch

Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube

Middle ear = Sealed off by tymp. mem & entrance to inner ear (auditory nerve, etc.) Pressure (outer ear) = ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. Middle ear DOES NOT, so PHARYNGOTYMPANIC TUBE allows for ATM. P. to change. P. Tube = Normally flat, BUT - chewing, yawning, or swallowing = open up. High altitude = Feeling to pop ears AKA Pop P. Tube open to equalize pressure b/n outer & middle ear.

Which of the layers of an artery wall is regulated by the sympathetic nervous system and many hormones?

Middle layer. The middle layer of an artery, which contains smooth muscle, is regulated by the sympathetic nervous system and many hormones.

Jejunum

Middle portion of the small intestine.

2 types of Cholinergic Receptors

Mimics Ach's effects. 1. Nicotinic Found on: - All postganglionic neurons (cell bodies/dendrites), both parasympathetic & sympathetic - Hormone producing cells of adrenal medulla. - Sarcolemma of skeletal muscle cells at neuromuscular junctions. (somatic, not autonomic targets) Always stimulatory, opens ion channels, depolarizes the postsynaptic cell. 2. Muscarinic On all effector cells stimulated by postganglionic cholinergic fibers - that is, all parasympathetic target organs & a few sympathetic target (eccrine sweat glands). Can be inhibitory or stimulatory. Ex: AcH on Cardiac muscle receptors = slows heart activity. AcH on Smooth muscle of the GI increases its motility.

Ovaries

Missing - corpus albicans Primary follicles = MOST ABUNDANT

What function types can you name?

Mixed, sensory, & motor.

Function of nerve?

Mixed, sensory, or motor.

Semen

Mixure of sperm and accessory gland secretions. It is a vehicle for sperm, but also: - activates sperm via enzyms - provides energy for sperm -> glucose - protects sperm via antibodies - stimulates reverse peristalsis in the female reproductive tract; prostaglandins

Exteroreceptors

Monitor external environment.

interoreceptors

Monitor internal environment.

Somatic neurons

Monitor the length of & tension on our skeletal muscles. Muscles spindles consist of sensory neurons attached to noncontractile muscle fibers called INTRAFUSAL FIBERS. During times of non-stretch, the sensory neurons send regular action potentials to the CNS indicating its okay.

Mononucleosis

Monocytes (formed element that elevates in number)

3 Distinguishing Features of Cardiac Muscle

Mononucleated or binucleate, intercalated discs, and branching fibers

3 K+ & 7 Na+ w/ a sodium channel. Caused membrane potential number to ?

More Na+ inside the cell means the # will move closer to 0.

2 Na+ & 7 K+. More or fewer K+?

More, so membrane potential is a POSITIVE #.

Transport of Oxygen in Blood

Most animals use circulatory systems to move oxygen between the gas exchange organs and the tissues; this bulk flow is much better than diffusion over long distances... but there are serious problems due to the low solubility of O2 in water. Consider and exercising human consuming 4 L of O2/min: - at 37C, only about 4 - 5 mL O2/L can dissolve in the blood - assuming 4 mL O2/L is transfer to the tissues, the heart will need to pump 1,000 L/min ( 1 ton of blood/ min) -- clearly impossible Solution: most (98%) of O2 is NOT transported in the dissolved state. Instead, it is bound to RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS (Hb): O2 in solution ~ 4 mL/L O2 bound to pigment ~ 200 mL/L

Why does calcium matter so much?

Most of our calcium is in our bones (99% or 2.5 lbs), but the remaining 1% is critical for many things: 1. Important signal molecule (eg. triggers exocytosis of synaptic vesicles) 2. It holds cells together at tight junctions. 3. It is a cofactor in the coagulation cascade 4. It affects membrane excitability Ex: In hypoglycemia, neuronal permeability to Na+ increase, making cells hyper excitable. Hyperglycemia has the opposite effect.

Motility: Smooth Muscle

Most of the smooth muscle cells in the GI tract have gap junctions b/n them, creating contracting segments. Different segments exhibit different types of contractions: Tonic contractions: are sustained for long periods of time (up to hours/days) and occur in sphincters, & sometimes in the stomach. Phasic contractions: have cycles of contraction & relaxation that last only a few seconds.

Overlap of Somatic and Autonomic Function

Most spinal & many cranial nerves contain both somatic & autonomic fibers. Adaptations usually involve both skeletal muscles and visceral organs.

Fundus (of uterus)

Most superior & widest portion of uterus.

Regulation of Gut Function

Motility & secretion are the 2 processes of the gut regulated the most. The enteric nervous system (myenteric & submucosal plexus) can act as an integrating center (short reflexes) The CNS also acts as an integrating center (long reflexes)

Autonomic ganglia

Motor ganglia containing cell bodies of motor neurons. Site of synapse b/n pre- & post-.

What non-parasympathetic function does Vagus (X) have?

Motor to muscles of pharynx & larynx (involved in swallowing).

Intestinal phase (cont. 4)

Movement of food into (and within) the small intestine must be tightly regulated. The entrance of chyme into the duodenum triggers the enteric nervous system to slow gastric emptying. - Secretin - Cholecystokinin - Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) - Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) - Chyme is hyperosmotic; the duodenum is sensitive to this and will also slow gastric emptying (mechanism is unknown)

Accessory (XI) Function

Movement of trapezius & sternocleidomastoid muscles.

Oculomotor (III), Trochlear (IV), & Abducens (VI) Function

Moving eyes.

Neuron's Structural Classification

Multipolar neuron - many dendrites associated with the cell body. * common in the brain * Bipolar neuron (RARE) - has two cell processes * common in the eyes eg. rods/cones * Unipolar neuron - on the axon, always sensory!

Most of the arteries we are studying are ?

Muscular arteries

Vagus (X)/ Accessory (XI)/ Hypoglossal (XII)

Muscular movements associated with speech.

Vagus (X), Accessory (XI), & hypoglossal (XII)

Muscular movements associated with swallowing.

Myometrium (uterus)

Muscular wall, large contractions during labor, small contractions during menstruation

Myocardium

Muscular, middle layer of the heart. Mainly of cardiac muscle & forms the bulk of the heart. CONTRACTS. In the myocardium, the branching cardiac muscle cells are tethered to one another by crisscrossing connective tissue fibers & arranged in spiral or circular BUNDLES. These interlacing bundles effectively link all parts of the heart together.

Lateral cord

Musculocutaneous nerve.

Weakness or loss of elbow flexion

Musculocutaneous nerve.

Saltatory Conduction

Myelin Sheath speeds up the Action Potential. A.P. jumps b/n node of Ranvier. Depolarized in the node of Ranvier. 400 ft/ second. Rapid transmission of a nerve impulse along an axon, resulting from the action potential jumping from one node of Ranvier to another, skipping the myelin-sheathed regions of membrane.

Stomach

Myenteric plexus = B/n longitudinal & circular

Name for Supporting cells in the CNS ?

NEUROGLIA

Undamaged endothelial cells secrete

NITRIC OXIDE and PROSTACYCLIN (molecules) to prevent platelets from sticking.

Antigens of O- blood type?

NONE.

Positive Feedback Loops

NOT HOMEOSTATIC, RARE The response must be stopped by some OUTSIDE FACTOR (in this example, the delivery of the baby. Head pushes against cervix. Cervix stretch releases oxytocin from posterior pit. gland. The most stretch = more release = more stretch. Contractions amplify. Stretch allows babies head to fit.) Other examples are: Milk Letdown Reflex during breastfeeding. Oxytocin = suckling on mammary gland causes milk to be ejected. Full baby = stops sucking.

What 2 factors contribute to the existence of a resting membrane potential?

Na+ & K+ concentration gradient intracellularly & extracellular, & membrane permeability to these ions.

If a stimulatory neurotransmitter binds to the structure, what will occur as a result?

Na+ channels open -> Na+ rushes in -> DEPOLARIZED.

What maintains the concentration gradients of Na+ and K+ across the membrane and how is this achieved?

Na+-K+ pump by ejecting 3 Na+ from the cell and 2 K+ back into the cell.

Seminferous tubules

Narrow, coiled tubules that produce sperm in the testes.

Avoid Respiratory alkalosis & Respiratory acidosis

Need to match rate of CO2 production to rate of CO2 expiration to remain at a constant pH.

Hypothalamic-Hypophyseal Tract

Nerve bundles that run through the infundibulum and connect the neurohypophysis & the hypothalamus.

Spinal nerve (diagram)

Nerve that arises from the spinal cord.

Splanchnic Nerves

Nerves leading from the sympathetic chain to collateral ganglia. The post-ganglionic neurons leaving these collateral ganglia often form plexuses.

Rete testis

Network of tubules between the seminiferous tubules and the epididymis

Posterior Pituitary Gland Embryonic Origin

Neural tissue (extension of hypothalamus)

Basal nuclei (cerebral nuclei)

Neuronal cell body of clusters that include the caudate nucleus, putamen, & globus pallidus. Caudate nucleus + putamen form the striatum. Very similar in function to the cerebellum; precise function is difficult to decipher.

Myenteric plexus

Neuronal ganglia ! - important for digestive system to integrate signals

Nervous System is composed of ?

Neurons & supporting cells!

What do synaptic vesicles carry?

Neurotransmitters!

Cell type most numerous in a differential count?

Neutrophil; high neutrophil count indicates a bacterial infection.

Bacterial Infection

Neutrophils (formed element that elevates in number)

Alveoli (Lab)

No cartilage. No cilia. No goblet cells. Smooth muscle present. - There are small bands! Simple squamous epithelium - Type 1 squamous cells = Source of angiotensin converting enzyme Septal cells - Type 2 cells = Produce pulmonary surfactant to coat alveolar surfaces ( Cuboidal epithelial cells p. 831)

Are proteins or blood normally found in urine? if they are why?

No; Kidney infection, glomerulonephritis, trauma, kidney stones.

What hormones are produced by the posterior pituitary?

None, ADH and oxytocin are stored/released here. NOT PRODUCED.

Muscles that contract to cause normal/passive expiration ?

None. Passive expiration its caused by relation of diaphragm and external intercostals.

Type of antibodies on type AB positive blood? Why?

None; because it only possesses A, B, and Rh antigens.

Sympathetic NS

Norepinephrine (NE); contraction Binds to ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS Subtypes: ALPHA (binds more to E) BETA (binds more to NE)

Nose

Nostrils - external nares Nasal cavity is divided in half by the nasal septum; perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone & Volmer. Olfactor receptors are located in superior part of nasal cavity, near ethmoid bone. Respiratory mucosa is lined by 100s of veins, to warm air (b/c of warm blood) - nose bleeds = respiratory mucosa dries out. Cilia on respiratory mucosa trap bacteria & other debris; allowing us to swallow it to get destroyed in the stomach.

Clusters of cell bodies in the CNS are called

Nuclei

Medulla oblongata contains?

Nuclei related to sensory information eg inferior olivary nuclei shaped like olives/stain green.

Ethmoid sinus

Numerous cavities within the ethmoid bone

Central canal (diagram)

Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve

O2 is released more readily in areas of LOW PO2. Shows how local PO2 controls oxygen loading and unloading from hemoglobin

Nuclei of Cardiac Muscle

ONE nucleus.

Glossopharyngeal nerves (IX)

OTIC GANGLIA: Synapses with the glossopharyngeal nerve and controls the parotid salivary gland.

Lobe responsible for vision?

Occipital lobe (Primary Visual Cortex)

Primary visual cortex

Occipital lobe. Receives visual info that originates on the retina of the eye.

Filtration

Occurs in glomerulus 3 Barriers: 1. Capillary endothelium (filter out RBC, WBC, platelets) 2. Basement membrane (filter out plasma proteins, proteins, negative charge proteins) 3. Podocytes (part of Bowman's capsule; filtration slits; filter albumin & immunoglobulins)

What 4 cranial nerves carry parasympathetic fibers?

Oculomotor III Facial VII Glossopharyngeal IX Vagus X (3, 7, 9, & 10.)

Which nerve innervates four of the six extrinsic muscles?

Oculomotor nerve (III).

Sensory only cranial nerves?

Olfactory (I) Optic (II) Vestibulocochlear (VIII)

Membranes and therefore myelin are made of

Oligodendrocytes (CNS) & Schwann cells (PNS).

Cranial Nerve Name Acronym

On On On They Traveled And Found Voldemort Guarding Very Ancient Horcruxes.

Repolarization

Once NA+ have flooded the neuron, the NA+ channels close. At this point, the K+ channels open & the K+ ions rush out of the axon, & the electrical changes reverse again, so it is negative on the inside, & positive on the outside. Once the charges are restores, the section of the neuron is said to be repolarized. Increased K+ permeability. MP is becoming more -.

Diverging Circuit

One input, many outputs • An amplifying circuit • Example: A single neuron in the brain can activate 100 or more motor neurons in the spinal cord and thousands of skeletal muscle fibers

Anterior tibial artery

One of the popliteal arteries (the other is the posterior tibial artery) that supplies blood to the lower leg muscles and to the muscles and skin on the top of the foot and adjacent sides of the first and second toes. This artery continues to the foot where it becomes the dorsalis pedis artery.

Temporal summation

One point constantly giving action potentials.

Dura mater on skull

Opening = Diaphragma sella

CHONAE

Opening between nasal cavity and nasopharynx

FAUCES

Opening between oral cavity and oropharynx

Cardiac sphincter (lower esophageal sphincter)

Opening from the esophagus to the stomach.

Stimulus

Opening of Na+ channels on the membrane of the neuron. (Sometimes chemically or mechanically gated depending on the neuron) Na+ goes in ONLY at POINT OF STIMULI.

External os (of uterus)

Opening of the cervical canal into the vagina.

Coronary Sinus Orifice

Opening of the coronary sinus directly into the right atrium. The coronary sinus is the large vein that drains blood from the heart itself

External Urethral Orifice

Opening of urethra

Lumen? Type of vessel generally has the largest lumen?

Opening; VEIN

Sacral part of parasympathetic division

Originates from neurons located in the lateral gray matter of the spinal segments S2-S4 & serves pelvic organs & distal half of large intestine. Some preganglionic fibers synapse with ganglia in this plexus, but most synapse in intramural ganglia in the walls of the following organs: distal half of the large intestine, urinary bladder, ureters, and reproductive organs.

Cerebral cortex (cerebrum)

Our abilities to reason, feel emotions, form language, etc. are entirely human, and are the result of a huge number of neurons in our cerebral cortex. Over the course of several hundred million years, our brains evolved from organs that kept us alive (basic autonomic functions) , to organs that allowed us to respond to our environment, and finally to organs that make us.. us.

LH (luteinizing hormone)

Ovary

HbO2

Oxyhemoglobin (bright red)

Ventral Median Fissure (diagram)

Law of Laplace

P = 2T/ r P = pressure T = surface tension r = radius

Most Reabsorption =

PASSIVE REABSORPTION. ATP is required when coupled with potassium K+

Ganglia and Nerves

PNS

Preganglionic axon and postganglionic axon

PRE: Thin, lightly myelinated fibers. POST: Even thinner, & nonmyelinated. SLOW conduction. Somatic motor system is also faster b/c it has one motor neurons vs ANS w/ a 2-neuron chain.

Intellect, recall, & personality

PREFRONTAL CORTEX. Matures slowly in children. Contains working memory, needed for abstract ideas, judgment, reasoning, persistence, & planning.

Anterior Pituitary Gland

PRODUCED & SECRETES its own hormones. (Stand alone gland) Epithelial cells = Dark purple ! Portal vessels = Capillary beds are joined here to create HYPOTHALAMIC-HYPOPHYSEAL PORTAL SYSTEM. - Secreted under the direction of the hypothalamus. - Ant. pit. hormones are ALL released b/c of HORMONAL STIMULUS from HYPOTHALAMIC AKA TROPIC HORMONES.

Sinoatrial (SA) node (Intrinsic Conduction System of the Heat, PART 1)

Pacemaker - Mass of autorythmic cells located in right atrium just inferior to the entrance of the superior vena cava. - Depolarizes spontaneously 70 - 80 times / min . Consequently it sets the pace for the heart as a whole. - Depolarization spreading throughout atria causes them to contract.

SA node (sinoatrial node)

Pacemaker of the heart

Nociceptor

Pain receptors Highly modified: 1. Mechano- 2. Chemo- 3. Thermo- Getting hot pan, paper cut.

Corniculate cartilage

Paired

Arytenoid cartilage

Paired.

What is the function of the papillary muscles and the chordae tendineae?

Papillary muscles contract putting tension on the chordae tendineae to hold valve shut.

Terminal ganglia, intramural ganglia

Parasympathetic Division. Ganglionic neurons are found in either terminal ganglia, which are located close to the target organ, or intramural ganglia, which are located with the wall of the target organ.

What is the innervation of the trachealis muscle (in trachea)?

Parasympathetic innervation = Constricts to reduce airflow. Sympathetic innervation = Dilates to increase air flow.

Parathyroid hormone

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

What hormone is produced by the parathyroid gland? What is its target?

Parathyroid hormone (PTH). bone -> bone reabsorption -> Ca2+ release.

Oxytocin (posterior pit.)

Paraventricular nucleus of hypo- S: Impulses from hypothalamic neurons in response to cervical uterine stretching & suckling of infant @ breast I: Lack of appropriate stimuli TO: Uterus → stimulate uterine contraction/ initiates labor. Breast → initiates milk ejection Effects of Hormones ↓/↑: Unknown

Serous pericardium

Parietal layer & visceral layer (epicardium) D & F Its parietal layer lines the internal surface of the fibrous pericardium. At the superior margin of the heart, the parietal layer attaches to the large arteries exiting the heart, & then turns inferiorly & continues over the external heart surface as the visceral layer, also called the epicardium ("upon the heart"), which is an integral part of the heart wall.

Superficial peroneal & deep peroneal

Part of Common Fibular.

Integrating Center

Part of the CNS!!

Medulla oblongata

Part of the brainstem that controls vital life-sustaining functions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, & digestion.

Measured on X-axis?

Partial Pressure of O2

Dalton's Law

Partial pressure of Gases

Pelvic splanchnic nerves (sacral)

Pass through inferior hypogastric (pelvis) plexus. Distal half of the large intestine, urinary bladder, ureters, reproductive organs.

Internal os (of uterus)

Passage from uterine cavity to cervical canal

Cervical canal (of uterus)

Passes through cervix to connect uterus to vagina.

Prostatic urethra

Passes through the prostate gland.

Membranous urethra

Passes through urogenital diaphragm.

Bulbo-urethral Glands

Pea-sized glands inferior to prostate Produce thick, clear mucus during sexual arousal Lubricate glans penis Neutralize traces of acidic urine in urethra

Chief cells

Pepsin (pepsinogen) and gastric lipase

Chemoreceptors

Peripheral Chemoreceptors - Carotid artery - Aorta (monitors changes in blood that dictate change in BREATHING RATE) Central Chemoreceptors - Brain (monitors cerebrospinal fluid for changes that might indicate a change in BREATHING RATE)

Small intestine histology (cont.)

Peyer's patches: lymph tissue (not nodes) - most prevalent in last 1/3 of intestine toward ileum. Why? Lot of bacteria so it's meant to protect us from the bacterial flora that lives that low in the digestive tract. Intestinal glands aka Duodenal glands: - most prevalent in duodenum - can be in the mucosal layer - may extend to submucosa - secrete mucus! to protect stomach acid.

Neutrophil (granulocytes)

Phagocytizes BACTERIA • Purple, multilobed nucleus • Inconspicuous pink cytoplasmic granules • 10 - 14 micrometers • 3,000 - 7,000 (cells/microliter of blood) D: 6 -9 days LS: 6 hours to a few days

What nerve from the cervical plexus innervates the diaphragm for breathing? What are its spinal roots?

Phrenic nerve, C3, C4, & C5.

Negative Feedback Turns Response Loop Off

Physiological set points can be changed either by ACCLIMATION (done artificially in a lab) or ACCLIMATIZATION (done naturally) - Neg. feedback allows us to regulate our variables around a setpoint. Acclimation & acclimatization means to Change or Expand/ Contract a SETPOINT. Exposing an organism to a new set of circumstances & there physiology changes as result. - Ex. Seasonal temperature changes = We become adapted.

Substantia Nigra (midbrain/reptilian)

Pigmented nuclei (melanin) responsible for dopamine release. These degenerate in Parkinson's disease patients (inhibition of dopamine)

Sagittal Brain (model)

Pineal gland = Not visible

Pineal Gland

Pinecone shaped gland located in the brainʼs third ventricle. Melatonin is secreted based on Information received via visual pathways Melatonin levels are highest at night, and are lowest around noon Believed to regulate the sleep cycle as well as regulate the timing of sexual maturity Histology: 1. Pinealocytes = SECRET MELATONIN 2. Pineal sand, CONCRETIONS OF CA2+ - No function or detrimental.

Axolemma

Plasma membrane of an axon

Cingulate gyrus and amygdala (amygdaloid body) both? (paleomammalian brain)

Play a role in emotion.

Cingulate gyrus (emotions & visceral responses to emotion)

Plays role in expressing emotions via gestures and resolves mental conflict.

Small intestine histology

Plicae = largest fold Intestinal crypts - folds b/n villi (goes down to submucosa) - Analogous to the gastric glands in the stomach NO OBLIQUE Goblet cells: secrete mucus to protect gastrointestinal epithelium from acid

Resting neuron

Polarized, K+ inside. Na+ outside. E

Anterior tibial vein

Popliteal vein

Posterior tibial vein

Popliteal vein

Tibial nerve

Posterior calf Plantar flexors & toe flexors

Circle of Willis (arteries)

Posterior cerebral artery Posterior communicating artery Internal carotid artery Anterior cerebral artery Anterior communicating artery Encircles the pituitary gland and optic chiasma and unites the brains anterior and posterior blood supplies. Equalizes blood pressure in two brain areas & provides alternative routes for blood to reach the brain tissue is the carotid or vertebral artery is blocked.

Weakness in wrist extension, forearm supination, & abduction at the shoulder joint

Posterior cord.

Muscle that is the only abductor of the vocal folds?

Posterior cricoarytenoideus.

Middle cardiac vein

Posterior interventricular sulcus

Neurohypophysis

Posterior pituitary.

Dorsal (posterior) gray horn

Posterior portion of the "H" in the gray matter

Sciatic nerve

Posterior thigh & lower leg. Knee flexors & thigh extensors

Seminal glands (vesicles)

Posterior to bladder, joins ductus deferens to form ejaculatory duct; produces alkaline secretion containing fructose & other nutrients which supplies energy to sperm cells or promotes fertilization; produces 60% of seminal fluid

Somatosensory association area

Posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex. Integrate sensory inputs (temp, pressure, etc) relayed via the primary somatosensory cortex to produce an understanding of an object being felt: its size, texture, & relationship of its parts. Ex: Looking in pocket you remember past sensory experiences.

What would cause the ion channels to open? What type of channel?

Postive change in RMP.

Haustra

Pouches that form in the large intestine when the longitudinal muscles are shorter than the colon.

Our life cycle consists of a haploid phase and a diploid phase (2)

Presence of a Y chromosome will determine genetic maleness or femaleness (i.e., an XXY individual will become male) Once ovaries develop, one X chromosome in females degenerates into a Barr body - Active x chromosome = passed to offspring

Fibrous capsule

Prevents spread of infection to kidney

White Matter

Primarily made of tracts of nerve fibers. Association fibers = Connect different lobes of the brain on the same hemisphere. Commissural fibers = connect 2 hemispheres ex. corpus callosum Projection fibers = connect the cerebral hemispheres w/ lower areas of the CNS ex. anterior & posterior commissures.

Superior Temporal Gyrus

Primary auditory cortex & Wernicke's area - understanding language, written and spoken.

Function of the Superior Temporal Gyrus

Primary auditory cortex. Hearing & understanding speech

Function of precentral gyrus

Primary motor cortex that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

Precentral gyrus (motor)

Primary motor cortex. E

Small intestine

Primary site for DIGESTION and ABSORPTION

Postcentral gyrus (sense)

Primary somatic sensory cortex. D

Function of postcentral gyrus

Primary somatosensory cortex. Sensory - eg. itch, tickle, vibration Integrate sensory input (temp. pressure, etc) relayed to it via the post central gyrus to produce an understanding of an object being felt.

Calcarine sulcus (median sagittal view)

Primary visual cortex.

Phrenic nerve

Probably the most important nerve to come from the cervical plexus. Innervates the diaphragm. C1, C2, C3 = Hypoglossal nerve. "C3, C4, C5 keep the diaphragm alive."

What is the function of the corpus luteum?

Produce and secrete progesterone and estrogen.

Interstitial (Leydig) cells

Produce testosterone in response to LH.

Testosterone

Produced continuously from puberty on. Necessary for sperm production. The rising blood levels also stimulate growth spurts, and development of SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS: - deepening of voice - increased hair growth - enlargement of skeletal muscles - increased heaviness of skeleton

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Produced from the choroid plexus (in all 4 ventricles). 1. Very similar to blood plasma (but it contains less protein than plasma, and different ions (more Na+, Cl-, & H+ & less Ca2+ & K+). 2. Circulated though the CNS. 3. Flushes out cellular debris. 4. Acts as a CUSHION for the brain.

Paraventricular nucleus

Produces oxytocin

Utero

Produces surfactant @ week 32 of pregnancy. Premature babies = can't ventilate lungs. W/ Surfactant = Decreases pressure A lot of surfactant in smaller radius

Ovarian Hormones

Product estrogens & progesterone Estrogens are produced by Graafian follicles & promote the development of secondary sexual characteristics in females (WHEN MATURE, FOLLICLES SECRETE ESTROGEN) Estrogens also play a large role in the menstrual cycle & help the breasts to produce milk (ONCE THE FOLLICLES DEGENERATES AFTER OVULATION OCCURS, THEY PRODUCE PROGESTERONE) Progesterone quiets the muscles of the uterus during pregnancy to discourage abortion Progesterone is secreted by the corpus luteum

Pituitary Gland is

Protected by the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. Stalk = Infundibulum

Dura mater function?

Protects & anchors brain to the skull. Extra: Supports vessels & forms venous sinuses.

Antigen (antiglutinogens)

Protein found on the RBCs plasma membrane

Cerebellum (book)

Provides precise timing and appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle contraction, allowing smooth, coordinated movements and agility

How does epithelial cells change as respiratory system changes from trachea to alveoli?

Pseudostratified cilated columnar epithelium in bronchi. Simple columnar and simple cuboidal in bronchioles. Simple squamous epithelium in the alveoli.

Nerve responsible for voluntary control of urination?

Pudendal nerve.

Name two valves that are open as the ventricles contract?

Pulmonary & aortic semilunar valves. Valves ensure 1 way blood flow in the heart.

How does pulmonary blood pressure compare to systemic?

Pulmonary blood pressure is LOWER; Normal systolic pulmonary pressure is 30/10 mmHg.

Right and left ventricles

Pump blood away from the heart.

Pulmonary Veins

Pumps blood to Left Atrium

Coronary sinus

Pumps blood to Right Atrium

Inferior and Superior vena cava

Pumps blood to Right Atrium

Right Ventricle

Pumps blood to the lungs into the pulmonary artery - Tricuspid valve - Trabeculae carneae - Papillary muscles - Chordae tendineae - Moderator band (sheep) - Pulmonary trunk opening w/ pulmonary semilunar valve

Left Ventricle

Pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta - Bicuspid (mitral) valve - Trabeculae carneae - Chordae tendineae - Opening to aorta w/ aortic semilunar valve - Apex (external feature)

Function of cilia in the trachea?

Push microbes and debris-containing mucus up into esophagus.

Pia mater (diagram)

What region does the femoral nerve innervate?

Quadriceps, anterior thigh muscles.

Femoral nerve

Quadriceps, thigh flexors & knee extensors.

Arachnoid mater (diagram)

Resistance of Air Flow

R is proportional to Ln/r4 R= resistance L= length of tube n= viscosity of fluid r = radius MOST physiologically relevant variable ! Bronchioles change diameter - NO CARTILAGE

Subclavian vein

R. subclavian- R. head, neck, and upper limb

Parasympathetic Divison (Cranial/Sacral origin)

REST & DIGEST. Keeps body energy use as low as possible, even while carrying out maintenance activities like digesting food, eliminating urine & feces. Pupils are constricted and lens accommodate for close vision when reading. Close to target!

Depolarization of SA node contracts?

RIGHT AND LEFT ATRIA

If a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor on a postsynaptic membrane channel resulting in the entrance of chloride ions, what would happen to the RMP of the postsynaptic neuron? What is is Calle when this happens?

RMP more negative. IPSP (hyperpolarization)

Posterior cord

Radial & axillary

Wrist drop

Radial nerve.

Oculomotor (III) Function

Raising eyelids focusing lenses of eyes adjusting light entering the eye moving eyes.

Reflex System

Rapid & predictable responses to stimuli.

Acquired reflexes

Rapid, automatic learned motor patterns Repetition enhances over time.

Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)

Reabsorbs nutrients from the filtrate (now called tubular fluid) PRIMARY REABSORPION SITE.

Multimodal association area

Receive multiple senses and gives outputs to multiple areas, where sensations, emotions, and thoughts become conscious; anterior, posterior, limbic

Common iliac vein

Receives blood from the internal and external iliac veins and returns blood to the inferior vena cava L. common iliac- pelvis and L. lower limb R. common iliac- pelvis and R. lower limb

Left Atrium

Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins - Pectinate muscles - Pulmonary vein orifices - Auricle

Schwann cell nuclei

Red dots. Longitudinal section.

Surfactant

Reduces surface tension of fluid layer of alveolus. - Mixture of lipids and proteins.

Intrinsic reflexes

Reflexes we are born with. Although "preprogrammed" - can be changed over time.

What is a Juxtaglomerular apparatus and where is it located? Distinguish b/n the JG cells and the macula densa cells.

Region where the ascending loop of Henle / DCT lies against the afferent arterioles feeding the glomerulus. JG cells are enlarged smooth muscle cells present in afferent arteriole walls. They produce renin & monitor blood pressure in afferent arteriole. Macula densa cells are closed packed distal tubule cells that responds to solute concentration changes of the filtrate. Both regulate the need for release of renin.

Anal canal

Region, containing two sphincters, through which feces are expelled from the body

Primary sensory cortex

Regions of the cerebral cortex that initially process information from the senses.

G cells

Release of hormone gastrin -> regulation rate of things ejected into duodenum.

Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) and Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)

Released if a meal contains carbohydrates. They promote insulin release and slow gastric emptying.

Adrenergic fibers

Releases norepinephrine - includes the majority of sympathetic postganglionic axons. Exception: Sympathetic postganglionic fibers that secrete AcH onto sweat glands.

What are the chemical "signals" that cause the anterior pituitary to release its hormones?

Releasing & inhibitory hormones

Microglia (CNS)

Remove cell debris, wastes, & pathogens by phagocytosis.

Coronary veins

Remove waste products from the myocardium Contains: - Great cardiac vein - Coronary sinus - Middle cardiac vein - Small cardiac vein - Anterior cardiac veins (empty directly into the right atrium anteriorly.

What does a lumbar puncture have to do with CSF? Why?

Removes CSF for testing by tapping into the subarachnoid space. Aids in diagnosis of life-threatening conditions.

What parts of the nephron are associated with the cortex?

Renal corpuscle, PCT, and DCT.

When is the process (Na+/K+ pump) used to re-establish a negative RMP?

Repolarization.

Outer longitudinal layer (muscularis externa)

Responsible for the motility that propels food and residue through the tract.

Prefrontal Cortex

Responsible for thinking, planning, and language.

Polarization

Resting @ -70 mV

Rugae

Ridges on the hard palate and the wall of the stomach.

When the AV valves (tri/bi) closes, which heart chamber is contracting?

Right and Left Ventricles

Which coronary artery usually gives rise to nodal arteries that supply both the SA and AV nodes?

Right coronary artery.

Lobar (secondary) bronchi

Right lung has 3. Supplies the lobes of the lungs.

Longest renal artery ?

Right renal artery ; because the aorta is furthest to the left.

Liver Lobes

Right, left, caudate, quadrate

Nissl body

Rough ER of the neuron, located in cell body. Responsible for protein synthesis.

Fungiform papillae

Rounded with taste buds

Great Cardiac Vein

Runs alongside the anterior interventricular artery

Great cardiac vein

Runs alongside the anterior interventricular artery

Middle Cardiac Vein

Runs alongside the posterior interventricular artery

Broad ligament (uterus)

Runs parallel to the uterine horns and holds uterus in place

Spongy urethra

Runs through penis; opens at external urethral orifice

Posterior Interventricular Artery

Runs to the apex of the heart & supplies the posterior ventricular walls

Posterior interventricular artery

Runs to the heart apex & supplies the posterior ventricular walls In posterior interventricular sulcus

Left coronary artery (LCA)

Runs toward the left side of the heart & then divides into two major branches: ● The anterior interventricular artery (also known clinically as the left anterior descending artery) follows the anterior interventricular sulcus & supplies blood to the interventricular septum & anterior walls of both ventricles. ● The circumflex artery supplies the left atrium & the posterior walls of the left ventricle.

Dura mater (diagram)

Pudendal nerve (diagram)

S2-S4

Glucocorticoids (cortisol) (cortex)

S: ACTH I: Feedback inhibition exerted by cortisol TO: Body cells: promote gluconeogenesis & hyperglycemia; mobilizes fats for energy metabolism; stimulates protein catabolism, assist body to resist stressors; depress inflammatory & immune responses Effects of Hormones ↓: Addison's disease ↑: Cushing's syndrome

Gonadocorticoids (Sex Hormones) (cortex)

S: ACTH ; mechanism of inhibition incompletely understood, but feedback inhibition not seen I: Insignificant effect in males. Contributes to formal libido; development of pubic and axillary hair in females; source of estrogen after menopause TO: Sex organs?? Effects of Hormones ↓: No effects known ↑: Masculinization of females (adrenogenital syndrome)

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) (anterior pit.)

S: CRH; stimuli that increase CRH release include fever, hypoglycemia, & other stressors. I: Feedback inhibition exerted by Glucocorticoids TO: Adrenal cortex: promotes release of glucocorticoids & androgens (mineralocorticoids to a lesser extent) Effects of Hormones ↓: Rare ↑: Cushing's Disease

Prolactin (PRL) (anterior pit.)

S: Decreased PIH; release enhanced by estrogens, birth control pills, breast-feeding, & dopamine-blocking drugs. I: PIH (prolactin-inhibiting hormone) aka dopamine. TO: Breast secretory tissues → promotes lactation Effects of Hormones ↓: poor milk production in women ↑: Inappropriate milk production (galactorrhea); cessation of menses in females; female infertility; impotence in males

Estrogen (ovaries)

S: Follicle-Stimulating hormone (FSH) I: Feedback inhibition initiated by estrogen TO: All cells → develop 2ndary sexual characteristics (wide hips/breasts) Effects of Hormones ↓: Failure of sexual maturation ↑: N/A

Growth hormone (GH) (anterior pit.)

S: GHRH release, which is triggered by ↓ blood levels of GH & secondary triggers including hypoglycemia, ↑ amino acids in blood, ↓ levels of fatty acids, exercise, & other stressors I: Feedback inhibition exerted by GH & IGFs, & by hyperglycemia, obesity, & emotional deprivation via ↑ GHIH or ↓ GHRH release. TO: Liver, muscle, bone, cartilage, & other tissue. Anabolic hormone; stimulates somatic growth; mobilizes fats: spares glucose. Effects of Hormones ↓: Pituitary dwarfism in children ↑: Gigantism in children/ Acromegaly in adults.

Luteinizing hormone (LH) (anterior pit.)

S: GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormones) I: Feedback inhibition exerted by estrogens & progesterone in females & testosterone in males TO: Ovaries → triggers ovulation & stimulates ovarian production of estrogen & progesterone Testes → promotes testosterone production Effects of Hormones ↓: Failure of sexual maturation ↑: Acne (seb. glands) and male baldness

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (anterior pit.)

S: GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormones) I: Feedback inhibition exerted by inhibition & estrogens in females & testosterone in males. TO: Ovaries → stimulates ovarian follicle maturation & estrogen production Testes → in males, stimulates sperm production Effects of Hormones ↓: Failure of sexual maturation ↑: No important effects

Glucagon (Alpha cells in islets of Langerhans) (pancreas)

S: Humoral stimuli, sympathetic NS, & ↑ amino acid levels I: ↑ blood glucose levels, insulin, & somatostatin TO: Liver (glycogen to glucose or lactic acid to glucose Adipose tissue (HSL) breaks down lipids Effects of Hormones ↓/↑: Hypotension, hyperglycemia, headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting

Progesterone (ovaries)

S: LH I: ??? TO: Uterus & Mammary glands Effects of Hormones ↓: Not regulated menstrual cycle or pregnancy; no lactation preparation ↑: ???

Testosterone (testes)

S: Luteinizing hormone (LH) I: ??? TO: Sex organs (ovaries/testes) Effects of Hormones ↓: Unusual sperm production, can't maintain reproductive organs; hypogonadism ↑: ???

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine (medulla)

S: Preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system I: ?? TO: Sympathetic nervous system organs: effects mimic somatic nervous system activation, ↑ heart/metabolic rate, ↑ blood pressure by promoting vasoconstriction Effects of Hormones ↓: Unimportant ↑: Prolonged fight-of-flight response, hypertension

Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone) (cortex)

S: Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism (activated by ↓ blood pressure & ↓ blood volume I: ↑ blood pressures & ↑ blood volume & ↓ blood K+ levels. TO: Kidneys; ↑ Na+ blood levels & ↓ K+ blood levels since H2O reabsorption follows Na+ retention, blood volume/pressure rise. Effects of Hormones ↓: Addison's disease ↑: Aldosteronism

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) (anterior pit.)

S: TRH and in infants indirectly by cold temperature I: Feedback inhibition exerted by thyroid hormones on anterior pituitary & hypothalamus & by GHIH TO: Thyroid gland → stimulates thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones Effects of Hormones ↓: Cretinism in children; myxedema in adults ↑: Hyperthyroidism; similar affects to Grave's Disease in which antibodies mimic TSH

Thyroxin (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3) (thyroid gland)

S: TSH (from anterior pit. gland), TRH trigger TSH (in cold infants) I: GHIH dopamine & ↑ levels of glucocorticoids & ↑ blood iodine concentration TO: BMR, metabolism, nervous sys, cardiovascular sys, muscular, skeletal, GI, reproductive, and integumentary Effects of Hormones ↓: P. 612 ↑:

Thymosin & thymopoietin (thymus gland)

S: Unknown I: Negative feedback TO: Mostly act locally as paracrines; involved in T lymphocyte development & in immune response (immune cells). Effects of Hormones ↓: No T lymphocyte development & a weak immune response ↑: ???

Melatonin (pineal gland)

S: Via Visual pathways I: Light (circadian rhythms) TO: Brain Effects of Hormones ↓: Sexual maturity earlier than normal ↑: Depression, sleepiness

Calcitonin (parafollicular cells) (thyroid gland)

S: ↑ blood calcium or phosphate levels; stimulate Ca2+ uptake & incorporate in the bony matrix I: ↓ blood calcium or phosphate levels TO: Skeletal system Effects of Hormones ↓/↑: Unknown

Insulin (Beta cells in islets of Langerhans) (pancreas)

S: ↑ blood glucose levels ↑ blood levels of amino acids & fatty acids, ACH released by parasympathetic nerve fibers, Hyperglycemia hormones I: Somatostatin & sympathetic nervous system activation. TO: Most tissues Effects of Hormones ↓: Diabetes myelitis (DM) ↑: Hypoglycemia

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) (parathyroid gland)

S: ↓ blood calcium or phosphate levels I: ↑ blood calcium or phosphate levels TO: Skeletal system, kidneys, & intestine Effects of Hormones ↓: Hypoparathyroidism → hypoglycemia ↑: Hyperparathyroidism → hyperglycemia

Junctional Rhythm

SA node is nonfunctional, P waves are absent, and heart is paced by the AV node at 40-60 beats/min

Vestibulocochlear VIII (Cranial Nerve)

SENSORY ONLY. 2 Branches: Cochlear Branch - Afferent fibers from cochlea in inner ear carrying auditory messages. Vestibular Branch - Afferents from vestibule & semicircular canals carrying info on equilibrium.

Olfactory I (Cranial Nerve)

SENSORY ONLY. Bipolar sensory, nasal mucosa. Function: Carry smell sensation from nasal cavity. Originate in nasal cavity Pass through cribriform plate of ethmoid bone to olfactory bulb. GOES: Olfactory nerves → olfactory bulb → olfactory tract → frontal & medial temporal lobes.

Optic II (Cranial Nerve)

SENSORY ONLY. Originate from retina of the eye. GOES: Optic nerves → optic chiasma → optic tracts → lateral geniculate bodies of thalamus → optic radiations → visual cortex in occipital lobe. Function: Carry afferent impulses for vision. Superior colliculi optic chiasma pathway.

Maxillary Division V2 (Cranial Nerve)

SENSORY. Pons via the foramen rotundum (V2). Convey sensory impulses form the upper teeth, gum, and lip, palate & skin of cheek & lower eyelid.

Ophthalamic Division V1 (Cranial Nerve)

SENSORY. Pons via the superior orbital fissure (V1). Convey sensory impulses from the upper eyelid, eye surface, tear glands, nose, scalp, and forehead.

Measured on Y-axis?

Saturation of hemoglobin (Hb) w/ O2.

What is corpus albicans?

Scar tissue remaining after the corpus luteum degenerates.

Name for Supporting cells in the PNS?

Schwann cells (form myelin sheath) & Satellite cells (protect & cushion neurons.

With the exception of the anterior thigh, what nerve branches supply the entire lower limb?

Sciatic nerve & its branches

Platelet

Seals small tears in blood vessels; instrumental in blood clotting (CLOT FORMATION) • Discoid cytoplasmic fragments containing granules • Stain deep purple • 2 - 4 micrometers • 250,000 to 500,000 (cells/microliter of blood) D: 4 - 5 days LS: 5 - 10 days

Goblet cells (small intestine)

Secrete mucus that lubricates chyme and protects intestinal wall from enzymatic digestion

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Secreted if a meal contains FAT, and slows gastric emptying ; fat digestion takes a long time, so it's crucial to slow gut motility.

What is the importance of the medulla?

Secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream in response to sympathetic stimulation.

Adrenal medulla

Secrets = Epinephrine and norepinephrine. Adrenal medulla is regulated by sympathetic system. Some fibers traveling in the thoracic splanchnic nerves pass though the celiac ganglion without synapsing and terminate by synapsing with the hormone-producing medullary cells secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood, producing the excitatory effects we have all felt "adrenaline rush"

Proximal Convoluted Tubule

Segment of the nephron between the glomerular capsule and the nephron loop

Accessory glands & semen

Seminal glands (vesicles) - Produce about 60% of fluid volume of semen; rich in sugar, vitamin C that nourish sperm Prostate - Secretes milky fluid that plays a role in activating sperm Swollen - hard to urinate/ejaculate ; effects 60% of males 50+ Bulbo-urethral glands - Produces a clear fluid that passes down the urethra, cleansing it before semen is ejaculated. BEFORE EJACULATION - antimicrobial / antibodies within to cleanses the urethra.

Vestibulocochlear (VIII) Function

Sense of hearing. Sense of equilibrium.

Optic (II) Function

Sense of sight.

Olfactory (I) Function

Sense of smell.

Facial (VII) & Glossopharyngeal (IX) Function

Sense of taste.

Olfactory nerves (I) Function

Sense smell.

Optic nerve (II) Function

Sense vision.

Cerebral Lateralization

Sensory & Motor processing "Intelligence:" learning, memory, language. 2 nearly separate hemispheres, w/ somewhat different functions. -- left hemisphere usually dominates: mainly concerned w/ "logical" function like math, writing, thought, speech, etc. -- right hemisphere is "emotional:" biased towards spatial relationships, musical, and artistic abilities, and expression of emotions.

Graph

Sensory (unipolar, afferent) Motor (multipolar, efferent)

Maxillary division (V2) Function

Sensory fibers transmit impulses from the upper teeth, upper gum, upper lip, lining of the palate & skin of the face.

Saphenous nerve

Sensory from anteromedial lower leg.

Neuron Functional Classification

Sensory neurons, interneurons, & motor neurons

Reflex arc

Sensory receptor, sensory neuron, Spinal cord, motor neuron, and effector that are involved in a quick response to a stimulus

Longitudinal fissure

Separates cerebral hemispheres.

Transverse cerebral fissure

Separates cerebrum & cerebellum.

Central sulcus

Separates frontal & parietal lobes.

Septum pellucidum (model)

Separates lateral ventricles.

Falx cerebri

Separates the 2 cerebral hemispheres. "Sickle-shaped" fold that dips into the longitudinal fissure b/n cerebral hemispheres. Anteriorly attaches to the crista galli.

Falx cerebelli

Separates the 2 hemispheres of the cerebellum. #7 Continuing inferiorly from the posterior falx cerebri, the small midline partition runs along the vermis of the cerebellum.

Tentorium cerebelli

Separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum, horizontal plane. #5 Resembles a tent over the cerebellum.

Sulcus terminalis

Separates the circumvallate papilla and lingual tonsil

Palate

Separates the nasal cavity from the oral cavity

Interatrial Septum

Separates the two atria.

Septum pellucidium

Separates the two lateral ventricles - Thin, median membrane. #1

Interventricular Septum

Separates ventricles.

Telodendria

Series of fine, terminal extensions branching from the axon tip.

Serosa (stomach)

Serous membrane

Long Thoracic nerve

Serratus anterior muscles

Male histology (cont.)

Sertoli cells w/in seminiferous tubules Spermatogia become spermatids (inject into lumen of seminiferous tubules)

Superior cervical ganglion

Serve head region of ganglia emerge from T1 to T4; skin, blood vessels of head, smooth muscle of eyes, sweat glands, inhibit salivary glands, inhibit nasal mucosa, facial blood vessels; serve heart

Saphenous nerve (lumbar plexus)

Serves the skin of lower leg.

Sulcus

Shallow groove.

Sulci

Shallow grooves that separate gyri.

Filiform papillae

Sharp with no taste buds; act like sandpaper for cleaning of mouth.

Graded potential

Shift in electrical charge in a tiny area of the neuron (temporary); transmits a long cell membranes leaving neuron & polarized state; needs higher than normal threshold of excitation to fire A local voltage change in a neuron membrane induced by stimulation of a neuron, with strength proportional to the strength of the stimulus & lasting about a millisecond (ms).

Hemoglobin-oxygen dissociation curve

Shift to the left- O2 NOT released to tissue adequately Shift to the right- O2 released to tissue more easily Deoxygenated blood = 75% saturation

Cystic Duct (gallbladder)

Short duct between gallbladder and common hepatic duct joins common hepatic duct to form bile duct

Suprascapular nerve

Shoulder joint; supraspinatus & infrapinatus muscles.

Mucosa (large intestine)

Simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells

Capillaries

Single layer of endothelial cells & thin layer of C.T. - 50,000 miles of capillaries! - Exchange surface area = 6,300 m^2 - Density of capillaries is proportional to the metabolic needs of tissues. Runners = More capillaries.

Azygos vein

Single vein that drains the thorax and enters the superior vena cava just before it joins the heart. Drains much of thorax.

Shows no P Wave of ECG due to myocardial infarction. Region damaged/why?

Sinoatrial node; there is no atrial depolarization.

Primary capillary plexus

Site into which releasing hormones or inhibiting hormones are secreted

Endometrium (uterus)

Site of implantation in female.

Autonomic Ganglion

Site of the synapse between the axon of the preganglionic neuron and the cell body of the postganglionic neuron

Secondary capillary plexus

Site that receives the blood and hormones from the primary plexus and into which hormones like GH, TSH, and ACTH are secreted

External sphincter

Skeletal muscle, voluntary.

Brachycardia

Slow HR, less than 60 BPM

The role of the atrioventricular node (AV node) is to

Slow down impulses so that the atria can contract to fill the adjacent ventricles with blood. The impulses of the heart originate at the SA node. The impulse is then transmitted to the AV node, where the impulse slows down to allow the atria to completely contract, thereby filling the adjacent ventricles. The AV node then transmits the impulse to the bundle of His, which branches into left and right bundle branches. The bundle branches give rise to the Purkinje fibers, which transmit the impulse to the ventricle walls and stimulate ventricular contraction.

Vasa Nervorum

Small arteries that provide blood supply to peripheral nerves.

Vesicle

Small membrane-bound sac that functions in moving products into, out of, & within a cell.

Vasa Vasorum

Small vessels that supply blood to outer part of the larger vessels.

Caudate lobe of Liver

Smallest lobe of the liver that folds around the esophagus and stomach, is easily seen when liver is raised, appears to be in two small sections

Detrusor Muscle

Smooth muscle that compresses the urinary bladder and expels urine into the urethra.

Uvula

Soft tissue hanging from the middle of the soft palate.

Anterior (Ventral) gray horns contain

Somatic motor neurons. Which are clusters of cell bodies of somatic motor neurons that provide nerve impulses for contraction of skeletal muscles. E

ANS (Hypothalamus = Critical Role in ANS)

Somatosensory info & input from visceral receptors is sent homeostatic control centers in the hypothalamus, pons, and midbrain. In addition, the hypothalamus contains many of it's own sensors eg OSMORECEPTORS that monitor concentration of body fluids, & temperature receptors.

D cells

Somatostatin (inhibits gastrin release; regulates acid production) - Also in endocrine system + pancreatic islets

Cranial Nerve Function Acronym

Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter More.

Thalamus (Book)

Sorts and "edits" information from sensory areas ascending to the cerebral cortex.

Wernicke's area (Recognition & interpretation of words)

Sounding unfamiliar words. Controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

Laryngeal Spaces: Vestibule

Space between aditus (above) and ventricular folds (below); aryepiglottic folds: lateral boundary

Subdural Space

Space between dura mater & arachnoid mater.

Laryngeal Spaces: Glottis

Space between true folds

Vestibule of Vagina

Space surrounded by the labia minora

What initiates contraction of cardiac muscle cells?

Specialized cardiac autorythmic cells self-initiate contractions. Sinoatrial node Atrioventricular node

What initiates contraction of cardiac muscle?

Specialized cardiac autorythmic cells self-initiate.

Purkinje fiber

Specialized muscle fiber that conducts the cardiac impulse from the AV bundle into the ventricular walls.

Vagus (X) Function

Speech & swallowing.

Broca's area (motor speech area)

Speech production (frontal lobe, left hemisphere only). Prepare to speak/ think about (plan) voluntary motor activities other than speech

Female reproduction

Sperm must go through the ZONA PELLUCIDA + CORONA RADIATA

Testes

Spermatogonia = Stem cells Blood = cooled when entering testis (degree or 2 down) Seminiferous tubule = site of sperm production Tunica albuginea = thick C.T.

In what two structures might the soma associated with the axons of spinal nerves be found?

Spinal cord gray matter & ganglia.

RECIPROCAL ACTIVATION

Spindle organs monitor stretch on our organs, but tendon reflexes monitor extreme contraction. Tendon organs are activated if a muscle contracts too strongly. They signal relaxation of the contracting muscle, and contraction of the antagonist muscles * RECIPROCAL ACTIVATION *.

Facial nerves (VII)

Stimulate large glands in head. Fibers that activate nasal & lacrimal glands have synapse in pterygopalatine ganglia. Fibers that activate submandibular & sublingual salivary glands synapse in submandibular ganglia.

What is the target of the hormone produced by the parafollicular "C" cells?

Stimulates storage of calcium ions (Ca2+) in the bone.

Facial (VII) & Glossopharyngeal (IX)

Stimulating salivary secretions.

Nephrons

Structural and functional unit of kidneys; responsible for urine formation Consists of two main structures: - glomerulus and Bowman's capsule (renal corpuscle) - renal tubule Two types of nephrons: 1. juxtamedullary 2. cortical

Falciform Ligament

Structure that separates right and left lobes of liver.

A lumbar puncture would remove fluid from what space?

Subarachnoid space.

Corpora quadrigemina of midbrain

Superior colliculi & inferior colliculi.

Supplies the small intestine and proximal colon with blood?

Superior mesenteric artery

Superior mesenteric vein

Superior mesenteric vein: Drains the entire small intestine, part of the large intestine (ascending and transverse regions), and stomach.

Lobes

Superior, middle, and inferior

3 features enhanced by NASAL CONCHA BONES

Superior, middle, and inferior concha: 1. Warm air 2. Filter air 3. Olfactory receptors (molecules bind to understand the environment.

Anterior Interventricular Artery

Supplies blood to the interventricular septum & anterior walls of both ventricles

Anterior interventricular artery

Supplies blood to the interventricular septum & anterior walls of both ventricles IN anterior interventricular sulcus

Left Coronary Artery (in coronary sulcus)

Supplies blood to the left ventricle, left atrium, & interventricular septum

Gonadal artery

Supplies blood to the male and female gonads

Inferior mesenteric artery

Supplies large intestine and colon

Pudendal nerve

Supplies muscles & skin of pernerium ex. genitalia & anus region

Femoral nerve (lumbar plexus)

Supplies skin & anterior thigh muscles (thigh flexors & knee extensors - quadriceps & sartorius)

Pudendal nerve (lab chart)

Supplies skin & muscles of pernerium; external anal sphincter.

Circumflex Artery

Supplies the left atrium & the posterior walls of the left ventricle

Circumflex artery

Supplies the left atrium & the posterior walls of the left ventricle

Right Coronary Artery (in coronary sulcus)

Supplies the right atrium, right ventricle, sinoatrial & atrioventricular nodes.

Marginal artery

Supplies the right border of the heart

R and L Coronary Arteries

Supply oxygenated blood to the heart

Segmental (Tertiary) bronchi

Supported by crescent-shaped cartilage plates 10 on right, 8 on left

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin) (posterior pit.)

Supraoptic nucleus of hypo-. S: Impulses from hypothalamic neurons in response to ↑ blood solute concentrations or ↓ blood volume. Pain, some drugs, & blood pressure. I: Adequate hydration of the body and alcohol. TO: Kidneys → stimulate kidney tubule cells to reabsorb H2O. Effects of Hormones ↓: ↑:

Satellite Cells (PNS)

Surround cell bodies of neurons within ganglia (PNS) for support.

Perineurium

Surrounds each fascicle.

Endoneurium

Surrounds each nerve fiber

Epineurium

Surrounds the entire nerve. A

Swallowing (Cephalic)

Swallowing is a reflexive action that moves a bolus of liquid or food into the esophagus. Once bolus touches the back of pharynx, the glossopharyngeal nerve triggers the swallowing reflex. Food in esophagus = UPPER ESOPHAGEAL SPHINCTER OPENS UES re-closes to breath normally

What controls the rate of contraction in cardiac muscle?

Sympathetic & parasympathetic (vagus nerve) innervation.

What controls the rate of contraction of cardiac muscles?

Sympathetic and parasympathetic (vagus nerve) innervation.

Collateral ganglion

Sympathetic ganglion independent of the sympathetic chain. They are located anterior to the vertebral column. Occurs only in the abdomen and pelvis.

Gray rami communicantes

Sympathetic postganglionic fibers that connect sympathetic trunk ganglia with spinal nerves are collectively called the __________________.

Middle and inferior cervical ganglia

Sympathetic preganglionic fibers innervating the thoracic organs originate at T1-T6. From there the preganglionic fibers run to synapse in the cervical trunk ganglia. Postganglionic fibers emerging from the middle and inferior cervical ganglia enter cervical nerves C4-C8 (Figure 14.7). Some of these fibers innervate the heart via the cardiac plexus, and some innervate the thyroid gland, but most serve the skin. Additionally, some T1-T6 preganglionic fibers synapse in the nearest trunk gan- glion, and the postganglionic fibers pass directly to the organ served. Fibers to the heart, aorta, lungs, and esophagus take this direct route. Along the way, they run through the plexuses associated with those organs.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

System of motor neurons that innervates smooth, cardiac muscle, and glands. Signals stream from visceral organs into CNS, & ANS makes adjustments as necessary to ensure optimal support for body activities. Speed/slows heart rate, adjusts blood pressure, body temperature, & increases/decreases stomach secretions.

Which side of the heart is involved in systemic circulation? Which side is involved in pulmonary circulation?

Systemic circulation = LEFT Pulmonary circulation = RIGHT

Blood pressure reading is

Systemic reading, not pulmonary

What is produced by the follicles? How?

T3 and T4 produced when iodinated thyroglobulin is cleaved.

Lumbar Enlargement of Spinal Cord

T9 - T12

Steps in an action potential: 5 steps

TAKES 4 ms (4 of 1000ths of a second) 1. Axon hillock is depolarized to threshold voltage, -55 mV). 2. Voltage-Gated Na+ (sodium) channels open; Na+ rushes into the cell. 3. At about +30 mV, V-G Na+ channels open. 4. K+ leaves the cell. 5. K+ channels close, & resting potential is restored (-70 mV). But, it's not instant where the channels close so it might go less that - 70 mV at first. Na+/K+ ATPase plays a role in restoring RMP. Na+ closes @ about + 30 mV, & K+ open @ + 30 mV.

What are the tropic hormones?

TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH

What have a secondary (CAMP) message system?

TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, and PRL

Tropic Hormones (target tissue is another endocrine gland) of Anterior Pituitary

TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH. All ant. pit. hormones except growth hormone affect their target cells via CAMP.

Total Lung Capacity (TLC)

TV + IRV + ERV + RV

Dead Space Formula

TV x 30%

Aorta

Take their blood to Body Largest artery in the body!

Coronary arteries

Take their blood to Heart muscle

Pulmonary Arteries

Take their blood to Lungs

Insula

Taste & memory.

Adult Brain Structures

Telecephalon - Cerebrum (cortex, hemispheres, white matter, basal nuclei) Diencephalon - Thalamus, hypothalamus, & epithalamus Mesencephalon- brain stem: midbrain Metencephalon- Cerebellum brain stem: Pons. Myelencephalon - brain stem: Medulla Oblongata

Motor Neuron

Tells the muscles to contract. Main job = Allow cells to communicate with each other.

Gas solubility

Temperature - more soluble in cold vs hot) Solubility of Gas - elements / molecules = inherent solubility, CO2 is 20 times as soluble as O2. Pressure Gradient - increased pressure = increased gas solubility Bends= Gas out of blood (bubbles) 18 ft depth = 35,000 ft change in air gas in blood w/ increased pressure

Subscapular nerves

Teres major & subscapularis #12 = Lower #14 = Upper

Common iliac artery (no artery in cat)

Terminal branches of the abdominal aorta, supplies pelvic organs. L. common iliac- pelvis and L. lower limb R. common iliac- pelvis and R. lower limb

Characteristic of the parasympathetic nervous system

Terminal ganglia

Male reproductive anatomy

Testes & scrotum, need lower temperature & site of spermatogenesis

FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)

Testes and ovaries

Testes hormone

Testosterone

Testicular Hormones

Testosterone is the most important of the androgens secreted by the testes. Causes development of male sex characteristics Necessary for continued production of sperm **Seminiferous tubules**

Diencephalon

Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Epithalamus

Relationship between dura mater and "sinuses"?

The 2 dural layers fused together except in certain areas. They separate to enclose DURAL VENOUS SINUSES that collect venous blood from the brain and direct it into the internal jugular veins of the neck.

How are AV valves shut?

The AV valves will be held tightly shut due to the impulse reaching the Purkinje fibers which causes contraction of the papillary muscles.

Interneurons aren't always involved.

The CNS is always the integrating center of reflex arcs, but interneurons aren't always involved. Monosynaptic VS Polysynaptic reflexes.

Functional (Nerve Structure)

The PNS has sensory & motor functions. Individual neurons can only be sensory or motor. However... Mixed nerves have both sensory & motor neurons bundles together Sensory nerves have only sensory neurons Motor nerves have only motor neurons. Most nerves = Mixed in function.

Gender determination depends on the Y Chromosome (2)

The SRY gene produces a SRY protein (= testis- determining factor) that acts as a transcription factor for other genes, such as SOX9, WT1, and SF1. As testes develop, three hormones are secreted: - anti-Müllerian hormone (secreted by Sertoli cells) - Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) (Leydig cells) + - Testosterone (Leydig cells)

Gender determination depends on the Y Chromosome (4)

The Y chromosome consists of only 27 genes on the Y- specific region (the X chromosome has ~1500) Only one of those genes, the SRY, accounts for the largest phenotypic differences between males and females. Other genes have nothing to do with maleness; one codes for tooth enamel, and another for a ribosomal protein.

Gender determination depends on the Y Chromosome (5)

The Y chromosome is particularly vulnerable to mutation because it does not recombine with any other chromosomes during crossing over (the X chromosome can cross over with another X in XX individuals) Many of these mutations result in the loss of genes within a population Conservative estimates suggest that the remaining genes on the Y chromosome will completely disappear in the next 10 million years or so

Ventral median fissure

The anterior, more open of the 2 grooves that partially divide the spinal cord into left & right halves. WIDE.

Which of the following blood vessels is the most susceptible to atherosclerosis?

The aorta. Although all arteries are susceptible to atherosclerosis, the aorta is the most susceptible.

Hypothalamus (model)

The area of the brain that secretes substances that influence pituitary and other gland function and is involved in the control of body temperature, hunger, thirst, and other processes that regulate body equilibrium. Control endocrine & regulate sleep/wake cycles (biological clocks). Controls the ANS of the PNS.

primary sex characteristics

The body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible male - penis & scrotum female = clitoris & labia

CNS Basics

The brain, and to a lesser extent, the spinal cord, are very soft structures. (Watery bag of neurons) As such, there are multiple levels of protection for our CNS structures.

Dendrite

The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages & conduct impulses toward the cell body. Main receptive (INPUT) regions. Convey messages towards the cell body.

Vasa Recta

The capillaries that surround the tubules of the nephron. The vasa recta reclaims reabsorbed substances, such as water and sodium ions. - Helps to maintain salt gradient in the interstitial space.

Pia Mater

The delicate innermost membrane enveloping the brain & spinal cord. "gentle mother" Delicate C.T. & richly invested w/ tiny blood vessels. Clings tightly to the brain! Follows the contours of the brain (topography).

Common Bile Duct

The duct that carries bile from the gallbladder and liver to the small intestine (duodenum).

Hepatopancreatic Ampulla

The ducts that deliver bile and pancreatic juice from the liver and pancreas, respectively, unite to form the ________.

Sperm Anatomy Reflects its Function

The entire process of spermatogenesis takes 60 - 72 days, but men produce ~200 million sperm a day from puberty on. Sperm are released from Sertoli cells into the lumen of the seminiferous tubule; they are not yet capable of swimming. - Maturation is completed during the next ~ 2 weeks as sperm travel through the epididymis.

Axon (an have collateral branches)

The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands *OUTPUTS INFORMATION*

Vulva (pudendum)

The female external genitalia; external opening to the urogenital tract and consists of the vaginal orifice, vestibular glands, clitoris, hymen and urethral orifice

Hepatic Portal Vein

The first capillary beds are in the stomach and intestines and drain into tributaries of the hepatic portal vein, which brings them to the second capillary bed in the liver. The short hepatic portal vein begins at the L2 level.

Brachiocephalic artery (lab)

The first major branch off of the aorta and the major artery to the forelimbs and head. Head, neck, and R. upper limb

If mating remains random?

The genetic structure will remain relatively stable over time.

The gray area on the right and left sides of the cord are connected by an area called?

The gray commissure, which contains the central canal.

Epicardium (visceral pericardium)

The inner layer of the pericardium that covers the surface of the heart. Visceral layer of the serous pericardium. It is often infiltrated with fat, especially in older people.

Inner oblique layer (muscularis externa)

The inner most layer of the muscularis externa - responsible for muscle contractions

Intestinal phase (cont. 5)

The large intestine has traditionally been viewed to have 3 main jobs: - Absorb water (9 L of fluid is absorbed) - Absorb vitamins - Produce vitamins (gut flora produce vitamins K and B) However.. we are starting to change our view: Fermentation that takes place in the large intestine converts long carbohydrates into lactate and short-chain fatty acids that can directly be absorbed by diffusion. This might be more significant than we originally thought. - we can't breakdown cellulose from plants = dietary fiber - gut fermentation of these indigestible carbs might be contributing to our nutrition.

Labia majora

The larger outer folds of the vulva. F

Corona radiata

The layer of granulosa cells that surround an oocyte after is has been ovulated.

Which heart chamber has the thickest myocardium?

The left ventricle, because it needs more force in contraction to push blood out of heart to the rest of the body.

Collecting Duct

The location in the kidney where processed filtrate, called urine, is collected from the renal tubules

Hypothalamus (Book)

The main visceral control center of the body responsible for maintaining homeostasis.

Femoral artery

The major artery supplying the leg.

Brachial artery

The major vessel in the upper extremity that supplies blood to the arm.

Vital capacity (TV + IRV + ERV)

The max amount of air that can be expired after a max inspiration. Female = 3100 ml Male = 4800 ml

What histological feature allows the medulla to do its work quickly and efficiently?

The medulla has AcH receptors that caused the release of E & NE in response to the firing of a preganglionic neuron.

Why is the medulla often referred to as a "postganglionic sympathetic neuron"?

The medulla is innervated by preganglionic sympathetic neurons. It contains ACH receptors that cause the release of NE and E just like postganglion neurons.

Dural venous sinuses are areas where

The meningeal & periosteal layers separate to form large blood-filled spaces. Rich in blood vessels, responsible for draining the brain of blood. All blood drained in the brain runs through the dural sinus & will be returned to the heart for circulation.

Frank-Starling's Law of the Heart

The more the cardiac muscle is stretched, the stronger the contraction. Relationship b/n preload (degree to which cardiac muscles are stretched before they contract) and stroke volume.

The Frank-Starling Law of the Heart

The more the heart fills with blood during diastole, the greater the force of contraction during systole. As the stroke volume increases, there's an increase in CONTRACTILE FORCE - describes relationship b/n stroke volume and contractile force. SV (ml/beat) (blood out of the heart) vs End Diastolic Volume EDV (blood back to heart)

Hyperpolarization

The movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from rest potential in a more negative direction.

Nervous system modulation

The nervous system modifies the stimulation of endocrine glands and their negative feedback mechanisms.

Why is the structure of the Vagus nerve X so crucial to normal life function?

The only cranial nerve that extends beyond the head and neck. Parasympathetic motor fibers innervate heart, lungs, & abdominal viscera. Regulates heart rate, breathing, & digestion.

Respiratory Zone Structures

The only site of gas exchange in the lungs; all other structures are part of the conducting zone (terminal bronchiole and before). Include: - Respiratory bronchioles - Alveolar duct - Alveolar sac - Alveoli

Cervix

The opening to the uterus.

Pancreatic Islets

The pancreas is unique in that it has both exocrine function (digestive enzymes) and endocrine function. The hormone-secreting cells are found in pancreatic islets. (lighter circle) Beta cells secrete the hormone insulin, which signals cells to "take up" more circulatory glucose, reducing blood glucose levels (Insulin = from humoral response) The hormone glucagon acts as an antagonist to insulin, causing glucose release from the liver during times of low blood sugar; it is secreted by alpha cells

Parathryroid Hormone (PTH) raises Blood Calcium Levels

The parathyroid glands are located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. They secrete parathyroid hormones, which causes an INCREASE in blood Ca2+ levels by: 1. Causing Ca2+ breakdown in bone (osteoclasts) 2. Enhancing reabsorption in kidneys 3. Promoting activation of vitamin D, which triggers increase of Ca2+ in the gut from meals.

Fourth ventricle

The passageway within the pons that receives cerebrospinal fluid from the third ventricle & releases it to surround the brain & spinal cord

Dorsal median sulcus

The posterior, shallower of the two grooves that partially divide the spinal cord into left & right halves. NARROW.

Depolarization

The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive. Increased NA+ permeability. MP is moving closer to 0.

Chemically-gated ion channel.

The receptor is a closed ion channel that opens when a ligand binds to it.

Lingula

The region of the left lung that corresponds with the right middle lobe.

Cerebral hemispheres

The right & left halves of the cerebrum.

R ventricle vs L ventricle

The right ventricle forms most of the heart's anterior surface & the left ventricle dominates its posteroinferior surface.

Corpus albicans

The scar tissue that replaces the corpus luteum. It is caused by the drop of LH levels in the blood at the end of the 28 day-cycle. as soon as progesterone production ends, the corpus luteum begins to degenerate and is replaced by this.

SRY gene

The sex determining region of the Y chromosome in males. Encodes the testis-determining factor, which turns the primordial gonads into the testes

Intestinal phase (digestion)

The small intestine is divided into 3 sections: the duodenum, jejunem, and ileum. The duodenum is the shortest section (~5% of total length), but is responsible for most intestinal secretion: - Digestive enzymes (includes pancreatic enzymes) - Bile (liver & gallbladder) - Bicarbonate - Mucus - Isotonic NaCl (lubricates the chyme) isotonicity = no osmosis of fluid.

Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is somewhat unique b/c it relays sensory & motor info to/from the brain. But, it can also act as its own integrating center, & processes sensory & motor info in REFLEX PATHWAYS.

Receptor Level (sensory integration)

The stimulus is transduced into an electrical signal, a special type of graded potential called generator potential or receptor potential (special senses). We can adapt to stimuli over time, but not always. ex: mowing lawn.

Fundus

The stomach's dome; tucked under the diaphragm.

Hemostasis occurs in steps

The stoppage of bleeding (hemostasis) occurs in three major steps: 1. Vascular spasms 2. Platelet plug formation 3. Coagulation (clotting)

Hepatic portal vein (histology)

The vein that collects blood from the GI tract and conducts it to the liver

Popliteal vein

The vein that forms when the anterior and posterior tibial veins unite at the knee.

Tidal volume air

The volume of air exchanged each breath under normal resting circumstances. Average = 500 mL

Local Current Flow

The wave of depolarization that moves through the cell. A.P. = 30 ft/ second.

Lateral funiculus

The white matter of the spinal cord lying on either side between the anterior median fissure & the ventral root.

Sympathetic chain ganglia (sympathetic nervous system)

There are 23 in each sympathetic trunk - 3 cervical, 11 thoracic, 4 lumbar, 4 sacral and 1 coccygeal ganglia. Paired, besides the spinal cord. The pre- and postganglionic neurons can: 1. Synapse at the same level. 2. Synapse at a higher or lower level. 3. Synapse in a distant collateral ganglion.

How can one distinguish the parathyroid gland from the thyroid?

There are NO FOLLICLES in the parathyroid gland. It's characterized by densely packed cells.

Internal nares

These are the openings at the rear of the nasal cavity which open into the nasopharynx. Air passes through these openings into the nasopharynx

External iliac artery

These arteries supply the lower limbs. As they course through the pelvis, they give off branches to the anterior abdominal wall. After passing under the inguinal ligaments to enter the thigh, they become the femoral arteries.

Where are the cell bodies of the postganglionic parasympathetic neurons innervated by the vagus nerve?

They are in ganglia found mostly in the walls of visceral organs.

Ketone bodies

They are metabolized when glucose stores have been exhausted (eg starvation).

Striations of cardiac muscle cells

They are modified gap junctions that unite the cells & permit the heart to contract as a unit.

Dura mater

Thick, outermost layer of the meninges surrounding & protecting the brain & spinal cord. Collagen fibers (dense irregular C.T.) w/ thickness like paper. Tough. 2 layers stuck together: - Periosteal layer (skull side) - Meningeal layer (brain side) Outmost covering.

Septum pellucidum

Thin membrane that separates lateral ventricles.

Alveoli (lecture)

Thin wall - Epithelial cells + basement membrane + millions of capillaries surrounding Surface area = Size of tennis court if alveoli were flattened out.

Capillary

Thin-walled blood vessel consisting of just a tunica intima; FUNCTION: Used for exchange of gases, nutrients, wastes, etc. between blood and tissue cells.

Left subclavian artery

Third branch of the aortic arch that distributes blood to the left arm

Ileum

Third part of the small intestine

Tunica media

This is the middle layer. It is made of smooth muscle and elastic fibers. It is responsible for vasodialation and vasoconstriction of the blood vessels. It is also the target tissue for Vasopressin (ADH) Hormone and plays into blood pressure.

Tunica adventitia (externa)

This is the most superficial of the layers. It is made of dense irregular CT with lots of collagen fibers running in all directions for strength in many different directions. In many of the slide preps, you can see the collagen fibers as squiggly lines in this layer.

Thoracic and Abdominal aorta artery

Thoracic aorta: T5- T12. Sends off numerous small arteries to the thorax wall and viscera before piercing into the diaphragm. Becomes the abdominal aorta once in abdominal cavity. Supplies the abdominal walls and viscera. Ends at L4 level. Where it splits into the R and L common iliac arteries (which supply the pelvis and lower limbs).

Bronchioles (Lab)

Thousands of them. Mucosal layer lining inner opening. No cartilage. Smooth muscle present. Simple columnar epithelium in larger openings and simple cuboidal epithelium in terminal bronchioles. No cilia. No goblet cells. Muscle controls diameter of tube.

Tenia coli (large intestine)

Three longitudinal bands of smooth muscle, Facilitate peristalsis, Contribute to formation of haustra (sacculations)

Pharynx

Throat. Continuous with nasal cavity via the internal nares Divided into nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx, which enters the pharynx. Pharyngotympanic tubes empty into the nasopharynx. Pharynx is the site of several clusters of lymphatic tissue = tonsils.

Thyroid Regulates Our Metabolism (rate @ which we oxidize glucose)

Thyroid Hormone is created from thyroglobulin, a glycoprotein secreted by FOLLICULAR CELLS in the thyroid gland. Thyroid hormone is actually 2 hormones: TRIIODOTHYRONINE, T3 THYROXINE, T4 IODINE is a key component of each. More = High met. rate Less = Low met. rate

Laryngeal prominence (Adam's apple)

Thyroid cartilage

Cartilage of Larynx

Thyroid cartilage Arytenoid cartilage Cricoid cartilage Corniculate cartilage Epiglottis (elastic cartilage) Muscles control cartilage to produce sounds.

Laryngeal cartilages

Thyroid cartilage 1 - Laryngeal prominence Cricoid cartilage 1 Arytenoid cartilages 2 Cuneiform cartilages 2 Corniculate cartilages 2 Epiglottis 1

TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)

Thyroid gland

Thyroid Facts

Thyroid hormone is derived from TYROSINE, a lipophilic amino acid (amine hormone) To travel in the blood, it binds to THYROXINE-BINDING GLOBULINS (TBGs) T3 is 10x more ACTIVE that thyroxine (T4), & binds to receptors more strongly. Target cells convert T4 to T3 w/ enzymes called DEIODINASES by taking off extra iodine.

The sciatic nerve is composed of the?

Tibial & common fibular nerves.

Inability to support the weight of the body when stepping forward on foot (weakness or loss of plantar flexion)

Tibial nerve

The medial and lateral plantar nerves branch off what nerve?

Tibial nerve

Liver histology

Tiny cells = Hepatocytes Make up LOBULES Portal triad! @ corners of lobules - Portal vein - Small hepatic artery - Small bile duct

What is the function of the interstitial or Leydig cells?

To produce androgens (most importantly testosterone), which are secreted into the surrounding interstitial fluid.

What is the function of the acrosome cap in the sperm?

To produce enzymes for the breakdown of the zone pellucida on the ovum.

Oblique and horizontal fissures

Top of R lung = Horizontal fissure Bottom = Oblique

Fibrous pericardium

Tough, white fibrous connective tissue that is the outer layer of the pericardium. Loosely fitting superficial part of this sac

Branches of Repiratory System

Trachea = Division 0 Primary Bronchi = Division 1 Repeated branches - Division 2 - 11 Bronchioles = Division 12 -24 Respiratory Bronchioles Alveolar sacs (w/ alveoli)

Trachea Histology

Trachealis muscle

White columns carry impulses along pathways called

Tracts.

Ascending colon

Travels upward from the cecum to the undersurface of the liver.

Renal pyramids

Triangular-shaped areas of tissue in the medulla of the kidney.

Intestinal phase (cont.)

Triglyceride = 3 fatty acids + glycerol broken down b/c of digestion lipases. Michelles break down to protein + chylomicrons Exits to lymph system through lacteals.

Melatonin is derived from ?

Tryptophan

Ejaculatory Duct

Tube through which semen enters the male urethra.

Layers of Blood Vessels

Tunica intima - Endothelium - Subendothelial layer - Internal elastic membrane Tunica media (smooth muscle and elastic fibers) - External elastic membrane Tunica adventitia (collagen fibers) - Vasa vasorumextermal

Artery vs Vein walls

Tunica intima Tunica media Tunica adventitia

The endocardium is continuous with the walls of vessels as which tunic?

Tunica intima (interna)

Thickest tunica?

Tunica media

Atrioventricular (AV) Valves

Two atrioventricular (AV) valves, one located at each atrial-ventricular junction, prevent backflow into the atria when the ventricles contract. ● The right AV valve, the tricuspid (has three flexible cusps (flaps of endocardium reinforced by connective tissue cores). ● The left AV valve, with two cusps, is called the bicuspid (mitral) valve.

The egg presents several barriers to fertilization

Two membranes, the outer corona radiata, and the inner zona pellucida must be crossed by a sperm to fertilize an egg. The acrosome of the sperm releases enzymes to dissolve these layers (the acrosomal reaction) Once a sperm fertilizes an egg, polyspermy is prevented by the cortical reaction, in which the egg's cortical granules create a new, impenetrable layer around the egg.

Lateral apertures

Two openings in the side walls of the fourth ventricle that connect to the subarachnoid space (fluid-filled space surrounding the brain). C B= MEDIAN APERTURE

Corpora cavernosa (penis)

Two side-by-side columns of erectile tissue in the penis

Submucosa (small intestine)

Typical. Dense CT. Vascular & Meissner's plexuses. Submucosal glands.

NE and E are derived from ?

Tyrosine

Medial cord

Ulnar

"Claw hand"

Ulnar nerve.

Vasoconstriction and vasodilation

Under control of Sympathetic Nervous System. High NE = Vasoconstriciton Low NE= Vasodialation

Cause of SA/AV Node Depolarization?

Unstable RMP → OPEN (LEAKY) Na+ channels → depolarize slowly until threshold is reached → Ca2+ channels open

Action Potential Initiation by Pacemaker Cells

Unstimulated contractile cells of the heart (and neurons and skeletal muscle fibers) maintain a stable resting membrane potential. However, about 1% of cardiac fibers are autorhythmic ("self-rhythmic") cardiac pacemaker cells, having the special ability to depolarize spontaneously and thus pace the heart. Pacemaker cells are a part of the intrinsic conduction system. They have an unstable resting potential that continuously depolarizes, drifting slowly toward threshold. These spontaneously changing membrane potentials, called pacemaker potentials or prepotentials initiate the action potentials that spread throughout the heart to trigger its rhythmic contractions. 1. Pacemaker potential. The pacemaker potential is due to the special properties of the ion channels in the sarcolemma. In these cells, hyperpolarization at the end of an action potential both closes K+ channels and opens slow Na+ channels. The Na+ influx alters the balance between K+ loss and Na+ entry, and the membrane interior becomes less and less negative (more positive). 2. Depolarization. Ultimately, at threshold (approximately −40 mV), SLOW CA2+ channels open, allowing explosive entry of Ca2+ from the extracellular space. As a result, in pacemaker cells, it is the influx of Ca2+ (rather than Na+ ) that pro- duces the rising phase of the action potential & reverses the membrane potential. 3. Repolarization. Ca2+ channels inactivate. As in other excitable cells, the falling phase of the action potential & repolarization reflect opening of K+ channels and K+ efflux from the cell. Once repolarization is complete, K+ channels close, K+ efflux declines, and the slow depolarization to threshold begins again.

Anatomical position of the Kidneys

Upper lumbar region on posterior abdominal wall.

Upper, Middle, & Lower Trunks

Upper: Lateral Middle: Posterior Lower: Medial

Urine positive for nitrites, leukocytes, and a slightly higher than normal pH?

Urinary tract infection

Plethysmograph

Used to measure STROKE VOLUME Inserted to ventricle of heart, fed though like the femoral vein (into leg to heart)

Oxytocin

Uterus and mammary glands

The three branches of the Trigeminal?

V1 - Ophthalmic - Sensory from anterior scalp, upper eyelids, nose, cornea, & lacrimal gland. V2 - Maxillary - Sensory from cheek, upper lip, lower eyelid, upper palate, & teeth. V3 -Mandibular - Anterior tongue (no taste), lower teeth, chin, & temporal regions, motor to & proprioception from muscles of mastication.

Average Tidal Volume

VC x 0.1

Expiratory Reserve Volume

VC x 0.25

Inspiratory Reserve Volume

VC x 0.65

Motor (efferent) root

VENTRAL ROOT

Large intestine histology

VERY THIN SUBMUCOSA! crypts = bottom of folds. Longitudinal layer (thin) - NOT continuous w/in large intestine - Sections of longitudinal layer = TENIA COLI

Ileocecal Valve

Valve at the junction of the small and large intestines.

Intestinal phase (cont. 3)

Vary in digestibility ex: Pepsin = Good @ animal protein breakdown SODIUM DEPENDENT to be absorbed into enterocytes! Amino acid absorption is - for the most part - Na+ dependent

Loss of vasomotor tone that results in a huge drop in peripheral resistance is known as __________.

Vascular shock. In vascular shock, blood volume is normal and constant but there is an abnormal expansion of the vascular beds, resulting in a huge drop in peripheral resistance, causing blood pressure to fall rapidly.

Superior and inferior vena cava

Veins that carry deoxygenated blood to the right atrium from the systemic circuit

What type of vessels has valves? Why?

Veins; low pressure in veins require valves to keep the blood from pooling or flowing backwards. Arteries have high pressure so blood keeps moving without the need of valves.

Median nerve

Ventral antebrachium (wrist and finger flexors)

Cervical Plexus

Ventral rami of C1 - C4. Innervate muscles of neck, shoulder, and skin on back of the head, on neck and shoulders.

Phrenic Nerve (cervical plexus)

Ventral rami of C3 - C5. Both sensory and motor fibers to diaphragm.

Brachial Plexus

Ventral rami of C5-T1 Innervates muscles dof upper limbs, neck, & shoulders. Injury: Weakness or paralysis of upper limbs.

Lumbar Plexus

Ventral rami of L1-L4. Innervates lower limb, some of abdomen & pelvis.

Sacral Plexus

Ventral rami of L4-S4.

The roots of plexus are actually?

Ventral rami of spinal nerves.

From what branch of a spinal nerve are all plexuses formed?

Ventral ramus.

Abducens (VI) Nerve

Ventral view.

Cerebral peduncle

Ventral view.

Facial (VII) Nerve

Ventral view.

Glossopharyngeal (IX)

Ventral view.

Hypoglossal (XII)

Ventral view.

Mammillary body (brainstem)

Ventral view.

Middle Cerebellar Peduncle

Ventral view.

Oculomotor (III) Nerve

Ventral view.

Pyramid of medulla

Ventral view.

Trigeminal (V)

Ventral view.

Vagus (X)

Ventral view.

Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII)

Ventral view.

Atlas vertebra

Ventral view. 1st cervical vertebra

Infundibulum of pituitary gland

Ventral view. A narrow stalk connecting the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland (endocrine system).

Optic Nerve (II)

Ventral view. (brainstem) Sensory, vision

Lateral ventricles

Ventricles located in each cerebral hemisphere. A

QRS Complex

Ventricular depolarization and atrial repolarization

T wave

Ventricular repolarization

What is the result of the calcium influx?

Vesicles fuse to membrane & release neurotransmitter.

Nasal vestibule

Vibrissae (hairs) filter coarse particles from inspired air

Pleurae of Lungs

Visceral and parietal.

Occipital lobe

Visual processing.

Muscle that controls the tension of the vocal folds?

Vocalis (located deep to thyroarytenoideus)

Muscle controls the TENSION of the vocal folds

Vocalis / Thyroarytenoideus

Channels on the Axon hillock?

Voltage- Gated NA+ Channels. OPEN AT - 55 mV

What type of ion channel is opening ? How are they gated (what causes them to open) ?

Voltage-gated Na+ channel are opening. It must be depolarized to - 55 mV for it to open.

Boyle's Law

Volume is inversely proportional to pressure

Minute Respiratory Volume (MRV)

Volume of air moved into the respiratory passageways in one minute TV x Respiratory Rate (breaths/minute)

Stroke Volume (SV)

Volume of blood pumped out by one ventricle with each beat.

Primary motor cortex

Voluntary movement. #2.

Brush border

Wall of small intestine. Digestive enzymes are TETHERED TO WALL! Aren't easily brushed away.

What can come out?

Water, glucose, amino acids (individual), ions (NaCl), and urea (nitrogenous wastes)

Composition of CSF?

Water, glucose, ions, & small amounts of protein.

In the mouth:

We chew our food (mechanical digestion) Incisors: good for vegetation (chop/cutting) - Cows/mice (no canines) Canine: good for meat - Dogs/cats (molars = sharp to cut bone) Premolars/molars: good for grinding Topography (bumps on teeth) = omnivorous diet

180 L of filtrate / Day

We make 2 - 3 L/ day. Passive process (filtration) - Occurs through a pressure gradient Glomerular Capillary Pressure (the hydrostatic pressure) = 55 mmHg Plasma Colloid Pressure (osmotic pressure b/n plasma and capillaries) = Opposes filtration = 30 mmHg - opposes filtrate Bowman's Capsule Pressure = 15 mmHg Net Filtration = 10 mmHg

Para vs Symp Work Together

We see as antagonist (one off, the other on) BUT IN REALITY: - Working locally @ different parts of the body @ the same time. - At the same time! Innervate the same effectors.

Circadian Rhythm of Melatonin

What is the function of the pineal gland? What does it secrete for this function?

Peristalsis

When contracted = decreases diameter decreases length

RECIPROCAL INHIBITION

When muscle spindles are activated, they cause a reflexive contraction of the stretched muscle. They also cause inhibition of antagonistic muscles, thus increasing the efficiency of contraction. * RECIPROCAL INHIBITION * THESE STRETCH REFLEXES ARE THE ONLY MONOSYNAPTIC REFLEXES IN THE BODY.

Long loop negative feedback

When the last hormone in a pathway feeds back to suppress secretion of its trophic hormones.

Cardia

Where esophagus contacts medial surface of stomach, near heart.

White rami (sympathetic division only)

Which carry preganglionic axons to the sympathetic trucks, are only found in the T1 - L2 cord.

Spinal cord labeled

White Matter: Dorsal funiculus Lateral funiculus Ventral funiculus Gray Matter: Dorsal gray horn Lateral gray horn Ventral gray horn

Tunica albuginea

White fibrous capsule on testes

Arbor vitae

White matter of the cerebellum. Tree of life.

Oligodendrocytes would be found in the?

White matter or columns.

Redirection of Blood Flow

Why? - Tissues have different metabolic needs - Skeletal muscles at rest: 10% of cardiac output - @ Exercise: 80% of CO.

Why are O blood types universal donors?

Will NOT trigger a rejection response by the recipient.

Cerebellum (reptilian brain)

Works to smooth skeletal muscle movements (mostly inhibition), and is completely autonomic. 11% of total brain mass. We have no control, or conscience of it.

Schwann Cells (PNS)

Wrap around axons of PNS neurons & produce a myelin sheath.

Can ions move in and out of cell?

Yes

Do all sections have gray horns?

Yes. All sections have anterior & posterior gray horns, but not all have lateral horns. Lateral gray horns are found only in the thoracic & upper lumbar regions (T1-L2). S2-S4 have small lateral gray horns.

% Expected VC

Your value/ expected value x 100

In the extracellular fluid, membrane potential is set at?

ZERO !

Critical Zone/ Hormone Class/ Specific Hormones Produced

Zona glomerulosa/ Mineralocorticoids/ Aldosterone Zona fasciculata/ Glucocorticoids/ Cortisol Zona reticularis/ Gonadocorticoids/ Androgens - Testosterone (mainly)

Graafian follicle

a mature follicle containing a secondary oocyte

The sympathetic division promotes

a number of metabolic effects not reversed by parasympathetic activity. It (1) increases the metabolic rate of body cell (2) raises blood glucose levels] (3) mobilizes fats for use as fuels. In short, sympathetic nerve impulses act only briefly, but the hormonal effects they provoke linger. The widespread and prolonged effect of sympathetic activation explains why we need time to "come down" after an extremely stressful experience.

Sigmoid Colon

an S-shaped structure that continues from the descending colon above and joins with the rectum below

Hippocampus

and amygdala play a role in MEMORY.

Nissl bodies

are clusters of ROUGH ER responsible for synthesis of protein. ---- (primary site of protein synthesis)

Major and minor calyces (calyx)

collect urine draining from papillae, empties urine into pelvis.

Myelin increases

conduction velocity.

Proprioreceptors

found within skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, ligaments, and connective tissue coverings of bones and muscles and relay information concerning body movements. Sense position in skeletal muscle!

Oogenesis process

germline cell (2N) starting in the gonad (ovary). The germline cell then divides into two haploid cells (one much larger than the other). From those two haploid cells, two more haploids come out of each. However, three of the four are small and polar and are later destroyed, but one is larger than the others. That one large one is known as the ovum and is the only cell that's used in fertilization. One ovum is released per month (menstrual cycle) until menopause)

Duodenal Glands (Brunner's glands)

in submucosa

Peyer's patches (lymph nodules)

in submucosa

Schwann cells are only found

in the PNS.

Nodes of Ranvier

is an interruption in the myelin sheath which enhances conduction velocity by allowing saltatory conduction.

Infundibulum of Fallopian tube

lateral, trumpet shaped, fimbriae

Ovum

mature egg cell (female gamete)

Vesicles are

membrane bound sacs that contain neurotransmitters.

Gastic glands (mucosa layer)

mucous neck cells, parietal cells, chief cells, G cells

Sensory (afferent)

neurons are always sensory.

Bipolar

neurons can be found in the retina of the eye.

Plica Circulares (in the duodenum)

or Circular folds

Cranial Nerves

the brain has 12 pairs of cranial nerves associated w/ it. Even though they are connected to the brain, they are part of the PNS. These nerves vary in their function. Some are solely sensory, motor, but most are mixed in function.

Right marginal artery

to lateral wall of right ventricle

ANS uses 2-neuron Chain from CNS to Effector Organs

to reach its effortors: 1. The cell body of the first neuron, PREGANGLIONIC NEURON (resides in brain/spinal cord). It's axon, the PREGANGLIONIC AXON, synapse w/ the 2nd motor neurons. 2. The POSTGANGLIONIC NEURON, is the 2nd motor neuron. Its cell body is in an autonomic ganglion outside the CNS. Its axon, the POSTGANGLIONIC AXON, extends to the effector organ.

Converging Circuit

• Many inputs, one output • A concentrating circuit • Example: Different sensory stimuli can all elicit the same memory

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

• Spherical, nucleated cells • 4,000 - 11,000 (cells/microliter of blood)

Cardiac muscle cells

● Some cardiac muscle cells are self-excitable. - Contractile cardiac muscle cells, responsible for the heart's pumping activity - Contain special noncontractile cells, called pacemaker cells, that spontaneously depolarize. This property is called automaticity or autorhythmicity. Because heart cells are electrically joined together by gap junctions, these cells can initiate not only their own depolarization, but also that of the rest of the heart. No neural input is required. ● The heart contracts as a unit. Gap junctions tie cardiac muscle cells together to form a functional syncytium. This allows the wave of depolarization to travel from cell to cell across the heart. As a result, either all fibers in the heart contract as a unit or the heart doesn't contract at all. In skeletal muscle, impulses do not spread from cell to cell... are individually stimulated by nerve fibers. Heart acts as a single huge motor unit. Contraction of all of the cardiac myocytes ensures effective pumping by the heart—a half- hearted contraction would just not do. ● The influx of Ca2+ from extracellular fluid triggers Ca2+ release from the SR. In skeletal muscle, the wave of depolarization directly causes release from the SR of all the Ca2+ required for contraction. In cardiac muscle, depolarization opens special Ca2+ channels in the plasma membrane. These slow Ca2+ channels allow entry of 10-20% of the Ca2+ needed for contraction. Once inside, this influx of Ca2+ triggers Ca2+- sensitive channels in the SR to release bursts of Ca2+ ("calcium sparks") that account for the other 80-90% of the Ca2+ needed for contraction. ● Tetanic contractions cannot occur in cardiac muscles. The absolute refractory period is the period during an action potential when another action potential cannot be triggered. In skeletal muscle, the absolute refractory period is much shorter than the contraction, allowing multiple contractions to summate (tetanic contractions). If the heart were to contract tetanically, it would be unable to relax & fill, & so would be useless as a pump. To prevent tetanic contractions, the absolute refractory period in the heart is nearly as long as the contraction itself. ● The heart relies almost exclusively on aerobic respiration. Cardiac muscle has more mitochondria, dependent on oxygen for its energy metabolism. The heart relies almost exclusively on aerobic respiration Both types of muscle tissue use multiple fuel molecules, including glucose & fatty acids. But cardiac muscle is much more adaptable & readily switches metabolic pathways to use whatever nutrients are available, including lactic acid.

BIO 50B LAB TEST 1, BIO 50B Exam 1, DIGESTIVE/ URINARY EXAM, Respiratory & Urinary Exam (Bio 50B), Heart Exam, BIO 50 B TEST 2

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