Bio Behavioral Anthropology Exam 2 Review:

Adenosine / REM sleep

*Adenosine - increases in blood during wake periods and causes drowsiness; during sleep in decreases. *REM Sleep - REM sleep shares same brainwave pattern as being awake.

Altruism / morality

*Altruism - practice of disinterested and selfless concern for the well-being of others. *Morality - ability to make a distinction between right/wrong or good/bad behavior (based on a particular system of cultural norms and values).

Aphasia / dysphasia

*Aphasia - Aphasia is a language disorder caused by damage to the brain's language centers, typically located in the left hemisphere. It affects a person's ability to communicate effectively, including speaking, understanding language, reading, and writing. Aphasia can vary widely in severity and can result from various conditions, such as stroke, traumatic brain injury, brain tumors, or degenerative neurological disorders. *Dysphasia - Dysphasia refers to a language disorder characterized by difficulty in understanding or producing spoken or written language. It can result from various neurological conditions, such as stroke, traumatic brain injury, brain tumors, or degenerative diseases. Dysphasia may manifest as difficulties in understanding spoken language (receptive dysphasia) or difficulties in producing coherent speech (expressive dysphasia), similar to aphasia.

Attention / inattention blindness

*Attention - selection of stimuli resulting in individual becoming more fully or sharply conscious of it. *Inattention blindness - occurs when person is so focused on one aspect of a scenario that they completely miss other major components.

Broca's / Wernicke's area

*Broca's - Broca's area, named after French physician Paul Broca who first identified its importance, is a region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, typically in the left hemisphere. It is involved in the production of speech and language processing, particularly in the generation of articulate and grammatically correct speech. Broca's area is primarily associated with expressive language function, including the production of spoken language, as well as the formation of grammatical structures and articulation of words. Damage to Broca's area can result in a condition known as Broca's aphasia, also called non-fluent or expressive aphasia. *Wernicke's - Wernicke's area, named after German neurologist Carl Wernicke, is a region of the brain located in the posterior part of the left temporal lobe, typically in the dominant hemisphere (which is usually the left hemisphere for right-handed individuals). Wernicke's area is primarily associated with language comprehension and the understanding of spoken and written language. Damage to Wernicke's area can result in a condition known as Wernicke's aphasia, also referred to as fluent or receptive aphasia. Individuals with Wernicke's aphasia typically have intact speech production but struggle with language comprehension and the ability to generate meaningful language.

CAH / AIS individuals

*CAH - CAH stands for Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia, which is a group of genetic disorders that affect the adrenal glands. These glands, located on top of the kidneys, produce hormones essential for regulating various bodily functions, including metabolism, immune response, and stress response. *AIS Individuals - Individuals with Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS) are born with a genetic condition that affects the development of their reproductive and sexual characteristics. AIS is an intersex condition that primarily affects individuals with XY chromosomes (genetically male), but who may have female or ambiguous external genitalia at birth due to the body's inability to respond to androgens (male sex hormones), such as testosterone.

Dissociation / hypnosis

*Dissociation - when elements of consciousness that are normally bound together are instead experienced separately or cut out of awareness. *Hypnosis - form of dissociation in which a person's field of attention is narrowed to a single thought, feeling or idea.

Dyslexia / hyperlexia / dysgraphia

*Dyslexia - Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects reading and related language-based processing skills. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and fluent word recognition, poor spelling, and decoding abilities. *Hyperlexia - Hyperlexia is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by a precocious ability to read words far above the expected level for a child's age and cognitive development, often accompanied by difficulties in other areas of language and communication. *Dysgraphia - Dysgraphia is a specific learning disorder characterized by difficulties with writing. Individuals with dysgraphia may struggle with various aspects of the writing process, including handwriting, spelling, and composition, despite having adequate intelligence and educational opportunities. Dysgraphia is not solely due to physical limitations or lack of motivation; it is a neurological condition that affects the ability to produce written language.

Empathy / sympathy

*Empathy - ability to experience feelings of another. *Sympathy - ability to understand feelings of another.

Flynn effect / G factor

*Flynn effect - sustained increase in global intelligence test scores. *G Factor (General intelligence factor) - variable that summarizes positive correlations among different cognitive tasks by an individual.

Why is "pruning the branches" important in brain development between 2-to-4 years of age?

*From birth -> 2 years -> 4 years. *Apoptosis: removal of dense connective tissue fibers between neurons to increase efficiency. *"Pruning the branches" refers to a crucial process in brain development called synaptic pruning, which involves the elimination of unnecessary or unused synapses (connections) between neurons. This process is particularly important during the early years of life, typically occurring between the ages of 2 to 4 years. *There are several reasons why synaptic pruning is essential during this developmental period: *Refinement of Neural Circuits: Synaptic pruning helps refine and streamline neural circuits in the brain. During infancy and early childhood, there is an overabundance of synaptic connections formed as a result of rapid neural growth and activity. Pruning eliminates redundant or less efficient connections, allowing the remaining synapses to strengthen and become more specialized in their functions. *Enhancement of Brain Efficiency: By eliminating unnecessary synapses, synaptic pruning improves the efficiency of neural transmission and information processing in the brain. This increased efficiency allows for faster and more precise neural communication, which is essential for various cognitive and behavioral functions.

Haptics / kinesics

*Haptics - Haptics refers to the sense of touch and the study of tactile sensation. *Kinesics - Kinesics is the study of body movements, gestures, and facial expressions as a form of non-verbal communication.

Intelligence / IQ

*Intelligence - ability to acquire and apply knowledge. *IQ (intelligence quotient) - is a total score derived from a set of standardised tests or subtests designed to assess human intelligence.

Larynx / hyoid bone

*Larynx - The larynx, commonly known as the voice box, is a vital structure located in the neck at the top of the trachea (windpipe) and below the pharynx. *Hyoid bone - The hyoid bone is a U-shaped bone located in the anterior midline of the neck, between the chin and the thyroid cartilage (Adam's apple). It is unique in that it is the only bone in the human body that does not articulate (join) with any other bones. Instead, it is suspended by muscles and ligaments, giving it a free-floating position.

Which functions of language are located in the left and right hemispheres of the human brain?

*Left Hemisphere: Function: -Articulating language -Comprehending language -Word recognition *Right Hemisphere: Function: -Recognizing tone -Rythm, stress, and intonation -Recognizing the speaker -Recognizing gestures

Which key structures develop the human brain over the first 25 weeks in utero? Continued:

*Myelencephalon: The myelencephalon develops into the medulla oblongata, which regulates vital functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and reflexes. *Ventricular System: During brain development, a series of interconnected fluid-filled cavities called ventricles form within the brain. These ventricles are lined with ependymal cells and filled with cerebrospinal fluid, which provides cushioning and support for the developing brain. The ventricular system plays a crucial role in neurogenesis and brain morphogenesis. *Cerebral Cortex: The cerebral cortex undergoes extensive growth and folding during prenatal development. Initially smooth, the cortex develops characteristic gyri and sulci through processes such as neuronal migration, axon guidance, and synaptic pruning. These structures increase the surface area of the cortex, allowing for greater cognitive capacity. *White Matter Tracts: Throughout gestation, white matter tracts form as bundles of myelinated axons connecting different regions of the brain. These tracts facilitate communication between neurons and support various cognitive and motor functions.

Which key structures develop the human brain over the first 25 weeks in utero?

*Neural Tube: The neural tube is the precursor to the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord. It forms from the ectoderm during the third week of gestation and eventually differentiates into the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. *Forebrain (Prosencephalon): Telencephalon: This structure develops into the cerebral hemispheres, which are responsible for higher cognitive functions, sensory processing, and motor control. The telencephalon gives rise to the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system. *Diencephalon: The diencephalon develops into structures such as the thalamus and hypothalamus, which play essential roles in relaying sensory information, regulating homeostasis, and controlling hormone secretion. *Midbrain (Mesencephalon): The midbrain contributes to the development of the visual and auditory systems. It contains nuclei involved in sensory processing, motor coordination, and arousal. *Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon): Metencephalon: This region gives rise to structures such as the pons and cerebellum. The cerebellum is involved in motor coordination, balance, and cognitive functions.

Why is "pruning the branches" important in brain development between 2-to-4 years of age? (Continued)

*Selective Reinforcement of Important Connections: Synaptic pruning selectively reinforces the connections that are most frequently used or essential for cognitive development and learning. Connections that are actively engaged through sensory experiences, learning tasks, and social interactions are more likely to be preserved, while unused connections are pruned away. This selective reinforcement contributes to the formation of robust neural networks that support learning, memory, and other cognitive processes. *Developmental Plasticity: Synaptic pruning is crucial for shaping the brain's structural and functional organization during critical periods of development. It allows the brain to adapt to environmental stimuli and experiences by fine-tuning neural circuits in response to changing sensory, motor, and cognitive demands. This developmental plasticity enables the brain to efficiently reorganize and optimize its connectivity in accordance with the individual's experiences and learning experiences. *Prevention of Neural Overload: Without synaptic pruning, the brain would become overwhelmed with excessive synaptic connections, leading to inefficient information processing, cognitive deficits, and neurological disorders. Pruning ensures that the brain remains functionally organized and capable of adapting to new challenges and experiences throughout life.

Self / self conscious

*Self - our subjective and internal thoughts, intentions, habits, and sense of body. *Self-conscious - awareness of one's appearance, actions and existence.

Pruning (neural Darwinism) or "synaptic pruning"

*is a process inspired by principles observed in biological neural networks, particularly during brain development. This process involves selectively removing connections (synapses) between neurons based on certain criteria, with the aim of improving the network's efficiency, performance, and generalization ability. *Pruning helps reduce the computational complexity of neural networks, making them more efficient for deployment on resource-constrained devices or for real-time applications.

What happens to the ventricles, white matter and basal ganglia during natural aging of the human brain?

-Ventricles: *Enlargement: One of the most noticeable changes in the aging brain is the enlargement of the ventricles, particularly the lateral ventricles. This enlargement is primarily due to the loss of brain tissue, including gray matter and white matter, which leads to a decrease in brain volume. As the brain shrinks with age, the ventricles expand to occupy the space left behind. This phenomenon is known as ventricular enlargement or ventriculomegaly. -White Matter: *Degeneration and Demyelination: White matter consists of myelinated axons that form the communication pathways between different regions of the brain. During aging, white matter undergoes degenerative changes, including a reduction in myelin integrity and density. This demyelination process can lead to slower conduction of nerve impulses and impaired cognitive function. Additionally, white matter fibers may become less organized and show signs of damage, such as axonal swelling and fragmentation. -Basal Ganglia: *Volume Reduction: The basal ganglia are a group of subcortical nuclei involved in motor control, cognition, and emotion regulation. With advancing age, the basal ganglia undergo volume reduction, primarily due to neuronal loss and shrinkage of individual nuclei. This reduction in volume may be associated with changes in motor function, such as slower movements and decreased fine motor control. Additionally, alterations in basal ganglia function have been linked to age-related movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease and essential tremor.

Action outcomes

Action outcomes refer to the results or consequences of specific actions taken by individuals or entities. Understanding action outcomes is crucial in decision-making processes, problem-solving, and assessing the effectiveness of strategies or interventions.

Anti-Müllerian hormone

Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) is a protein produced by the cells in the ovaries (granulosa cells) and, to a lesser extent, by the testes in males. It plays a crucial role in the development of reproductive organs during fetal development and also serves as a marker of ovarian reserve in females.

This is the selection of stimuli resulting in an individual becoming more fully or sharply conscious of it:

Attention

What happens in the brain when someone is bilingual?

Being fluent in two languages, particularly from early childhood, enhances various cognitive skills and might also protect against the onset of dementia and other age-related cognitive decline. One reason for this may be that speaking a second language builds more connections between neurons. Studies show that bilingual adults have denser gray matter, especially in the inferior frontal cortex of the brain's left hemisphere, where most language and communication skills are controlled. The increased density was most pronounced in people who learned a second language before the age of five.

Childhood apraxia

Childhood apraxia of speech (CAS), also known as developmental apraxia of speech, is a motor speech disorder that affects a child's ability to accurately and consistently produce speech sounds, syllables, and words. It is characterized by difficulties in planning and coordinating the precise movements of the speech muscles (e.g., lips, tongue, and jaw) needed for clear and intelligible speech.

Communication

Communication is the process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, and feelings between individuals or groups through various means, such as speech, writing, gestures, body language, and facial expressions. It is an essential aspect of human interaction and plays a vital role in personal relationships, social interactions, organizational functioning, and societal development.

This is the ability to experience the feelings of another person (i.e., putting yourself in someone else's place):

Empathy

What are six personality markers seen in human and non-human primates?

Extroversion Aggression Socialization Novelty seeking Cooperation Optimism

What changes in brain activity are associated with each one?

Extroversion - reduced activity in response to stimuli. *Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. *Anterior cingulate cortex. *Thalamus. Aggression - reduced activity in cingulate cortex. *Cingulate cortex. Socialization - engaged in striatum, avoidance in amygdala. *Striatum *Amygdala Novelty seeking - increased signaling in striatum and hippocampus. *Striatum *Hippocampus Cooperation - increased activity in insula. *Insula Optimism - active amygdala and anterior cingulate cortex. *Cingulate cortex * Amygdala

Brain structures differ in size between men and women. From an evolutionary standpoint, which of these differences seen in women may be related to childbirth and child rearing?

From an evolutionary standpoint, certain differences in brain structures between men and women may be related to childbirth and child-rearing, as these are critical aspects of reproductive success and survival of offspring. One such difference is the relatively larger size of certain brain regions associated with social cognition, empathy, and emotional processing in women, such as the prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and insula.

For humans, in what age range does full myelination of the brain occur?

Full myelination of the human brain typically occurs in the third decade of life, roughly between the ages of 20 to 30 years old.

Geschwind's territory

Geschwind's territory, also known as the angular gyrus, is a region of the brain located in the parietal lobe, typically in the dominant hemisphere (usually the left hemisphere in right-handed individuals). It lies at the intersection of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes, in the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus, near the Sylvian fissure.

These are body movements, most often with hands and fingers, that convey meaning:

Gestures

Gestures

Gestures are non-verbal forms of communication that involve movements or actions of the body, particularly the hands and arms, but can also include facial expressions and body movements. Gestures can convey various meanings, emotions, intentions, and ideas, often complementing or reinforcing verbal communication.

Quiz 6:

Growing Into Behaviors

Harry Harlow

Harry Harlow was an American psychologist best known for his groundbreaking research on the importance of maternal care, social isolation, and attachment in primates, particularly rhesus monkeys. His work significantly influenced our understanding of human development, attachment theory, and the effects of deprivation and social isolation.

Module 7:

Key Terminology: Focus: The Communicating Brain Assigned Media: Assigned Reading (Sapolsky's Behave)

Module 6: Growing Into Behaviors

Key Terminology: Lecture 11: Pruning for Adulthood: Lecture 12: Individual Brain Behavior: Assigned Reading (Sapolsky's Behave):

This the interpretation of body motion communication such as facial expressions and gestures, nonverbal behavior related to movement of any part of the body or the body as a whole:

Kinesics

Object permanence

Object permanence is a concept in developmental psychology that refers to the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or otherwise sensed. Object permanence is considered an important milestone in cognitive development, particularly in infants.

Paralanguage

Paralanguage refers to the non-verbal elements of speech, such as tone, pitch, volume, rhythm, and intonation.

These are the consequences of an action being completed:

Positive or Negative

What are the areas of the brain used when reading?

Reading uses various areas across the brain, from the visual cortex at the back to areas of the frontal lobes so that the sound, spelling, and meaning of a word are linked together.

Quiz 7:

Roots of Behavior

What response occurs in male and female brains when they see their own or someone else's child?

Seeing Babies: *Increase in prolactin and oxytocin (amygdala). *Males: decreased testosterone *Females: increased cortical thickness *Amygdala "attachment" and visual response to own child.

This is our subjective and internal thoughts, intentions, habits, and sense of body:

Self

This is the ability to take the perspective of and empathize with others from diverse backgrounds, as well as understand social and ethical norms of behavior:

Social awareness

Stuttering

Stuttering, also known as stammering, is a speech disorder characterized by disruptions or interruptions in the flow of speech. People who stutter may experience repetitions of sounds, syllables, or words; prolongations of sounds; or blocks, where they are unable to produce sounds at all. Stuttering can vary in severity and may be accompanied by secondary behaviors, such as facial grimaces or tension in the jaw or neck muscles, as individuals attempt to overcome speech difficulties.

FOXP2 gene

The FOXP2 gene is a gene that plays a crucial role in the development and function of speech and language in humans. The FOXP2 gene is located on chromosome 7 in humans and is highly conserved across many species, indicating its evolutionary significance.

Arcuate fasciculus

The arcuate fasciculus is a bundle of nerve fibers (white matter tracts) that connects two important language-related regions in the brain: Broca's area in the frontal lobe and Wernicke's area in the temporal lobe. It is a major component of the brain's language processing network, facilitating communication between areas responsible for language production and comprehension.

Mu rhythm

The mu rhythm, also known as the mu wave or sensorimotor rhythm (SMR), is a type of brainwave that occurs in the sensorimotor cortex of the brain. It is characterized by rhythmic oscillations in the frequency range of 8 to 13 Hertz (Hz) and is typically observed when a person is awake and relaxed but not engaged in any specific motor tasks.

This is the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others, and understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions and perspectives that are different from one's own:

Theory of mind

Walter Mischel

Walter Mischel was a renowned psychologist known for his influential work in personality theory, social psychology, and cognitive psychology. He is best known for his research on self-regulation, personality traits, and the concept of delayed gratification. Mischel is particularly famous for his "Marshmallow Experiment," conducted in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

Which of the following structures is referred to as the "superhighway" for data processing between the parietal and frontal lobes? a. Arcurate fasciculus (fascia) b. Geschwind's territory c. Interparietal sulcus d. Superior temporal sulcus

a. Arcurate fasciculus (fascia)

This is the process of sending and receiving meaningful messages: a. Communication b. Productivity c. Kinesics d. Language

a. Communication

In the human brain, Wernicke's area is surrounded by: a. Geschwind's territory. b. anti-Müllerian hormone. c. the inferior frontal cortex. d. the arcuate fasciculus.

a. Geschwind's territory.

Listening to spoken words triggers activity in Wernicke's area and Geschwinds's territory, indicating that the sounds are being turned into meaningful information. a. True b. False

a. True

Right-hemisphere language dominance is more prevalent among left-handers that right-handers. a. True b. False

a. True

Theory of mind

ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others, and understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own.

Social awareness

ability to take perspective of and empathize with others from diverse backgrounds; to understand social and ethical norms for behavior..

Brainwave patters produced during REM sleep indicate that this is the deepest state of sleep that can be reached. a. True b. False

b. False

Early learning studies have shown that it is more helpful for parents to show their babies new actions, rather than letting their babies try out new actions for themselves. a. True b. False

b. False

Standardized assessments of personality include adjustments for the impact that cultural norms and values have on behavior and socialization. a. True b. False

b. False

This is the biological response of becoming unsteady in movement or losing confidence when other organisms do not mirror an individual's actions: a. Inattention blindness b. Interference effect c. Object permanence d. Dissociation

b. Interference effect

In the human brain, which of these structures in approximately 50% larger in females than in males? a. Preoptic nucleus in the hypothalamus b. Massa intermedia (interthalmic adhesion) c. Arcurate fasciculus (fascia) d. Right side of the amygdala

b. Massa intermedia (interthalmic adhesion)

Interference effect

biological response falters when organisms do not mirror actions.

The FOXP2 gene in humans and our evolutionary ancestors has been linked to: a. our ability to survive social rejection during our teen years. b. our response to mothering and forming attachments through life. c. our ability to produce speech and understand language. d. our mathemetical, verbal and abstract reasoning skills.

c. our ability to produce speech and understand language.

Psychopathy

condition marked by an abnormal lack of empathy, to the extent of even enjoying seeing others suffer.

In the 1960s Stanford psychologist Walter Mischel developed the "marshmallow test" to study: a. consequences of bullying. b. feeding practices through mothering. c. cultural basis for sharing. d. gratification postponement.

d. gratification postponement.

Personality

distinctive set of behaviors, cognitions, and emotional patterns that evolve from biological and environmental factors.

Neurulation

formation of the neural tube; basis for development of the nervous system.

Oligodendrocyte

found only in the brain; coat axons in fatty sheath of myelin.

Out-of-body experience

internal representations of the body are out of balance with the real body.

Decision

moment at which we know what we are about to do (a prediction rather than a choice).

Myelination

refers to the formation of a myelin sheath around neuronal axons. These myelin sheaths are made of myelin, a lipid-rich material.

Agency

sense of control over our actions. *Much of our sense of agency and of making decisions is an illusion.