Bio review

2 main points of Origin of Species

1. Descent with modification, species adapt to the environment and accumulate differences from ancestors 2. Natural selection, primary mean of darwins observations

Na+/K+ pump process

1. Na+ picked up 2. ATP closes channel 3. Na+ released 4. K+ picked up 5. Channel opens 6. K+ is released

Darwin's observations to natural selection

1. in populations individuals traits vary( many are heritable) 2. populations produce more offspring than can survive to reproduce on their own. 3. species(generally) suited to their environments survive

Phospholipids

2 hydrocarbon chains + a phosphate group linked to a glycerol Cell membrane component (bilayer) amphipathic hydrophobic head hydrophilic tail

chemical formula of Triose

3 carbon

triglyceride

3 fatty acids linked to a glycerol: doesnt create a polymer

chemical formula of pentose

5 carbon

chemical formula of hexose

6 carbon

water + protein content of a cell

70% H2O, 15% protein

essential elements

A chemical element required for an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce. CHNOPS

glycosidic linkage

A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

A double-stranded, helical nucleic acid, stores and transmits biological information, carries info for growth and development

Microtubules

A hollow rod composed of tubulin proteins (alpha- tubulin)(beta- tubulin) that makes up part of the cytoskeleton in all eukaryotic cells and is found in cilia and flagella.

Solution

A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

Flagella

A long, whip-like filament that helps in cell motility. Many bacteria are flagellated, and sperm are flagellated.

surface tension

A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of water

organelles

A membrane-enclosed structure with a specialized function within a cell. suspended in the cytosol

Anion

A negatively charged ion, p<e

Nucleus

A part of the cell containing DNA, chromatin that condenses to the chromosome, surrounded by a nuclear envelope

Cation

A positively charged ion, p>e

natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

functional group

A specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and involved in chemical reactions. have certain properties, shapes and charges

disulfide bridge

A strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer.

Electron

A subatomic particle that has a negative charge, mass 1/2000 of p/n

proton

A subatomic particle that has a positive charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom

Neutron

A subatomic particle that has no charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom

Acid

A substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.

Solute

A substance that is dissolved in a solvent

Golgi apparatus

A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell; has polarity; cis(enter) trans(exit)

Mitchondria

ATP production, inner and outer membrane(highly folded in the matrix with many enzymes), own DNA uses binary fission

glycolation

Adding sugar to a molecule ex: protein in the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus

Purines

Adenine and Guanine

bulk transport

Allows transport of very large/ abundant things across a membrane

phospholipid structure

Amphipathic- hydrophobic tail and hydrophilic head

trace elements

An element indispensable for life but required in extremely minute amounts. F & I

Human Genome Project(HGP)

An international collaborative effort to map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome. The project was begun in 1990 and completed in 2004.

Hemoglobin

An iron-containing protein in red blood cells that reversibly binds oxygen.

Chloroplast

An organelle found in plant and algae cells where photosynthesis occurs in the chlorophyll, contains an inner and outer membranes and a thylakoid membrane, contains it own DNA and uses binary fission

membrane structure

Anchoring points for enzymes, create tissue

Matter

Anything that has mass and takes up space

Cytosol

Aqueous Solution filling the cell

Three domains of life

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

Hydrolysis

Breaking down (separating) complex molecules by the chemical addition of water

Aldehyde

Carbonyl group at the end of a carbon skeleton

Pinocytosis

Cell drinking, vacuole folds inwards

Phagocytosis

Cell eating, vacuole fuses with lysosome

Lysosomes

Centers of cellular recycling(pH 5 =active, required for proper Acid hydrolases digest cellular material) Monomers to cytoskeleton for use in building macromolecules

carrier proteins

Changes shape

gap junctions

Channels between cells, small molecules can flow through and act as signals, can cause change in receiving cells

Aquaporins

Channels for water to directly pass through membranes but water will slowly pass without them

Dynamic of fluid mosaic

Components change or move

Demosomes

Connect cytoskeletons using selective adhesion to create a strong hold

Cytoplasm

Cytosol plus all in it

"central dogma of molecular biology"

DNA transcribed-> RNA translated -> Protein

eukaryotes contain:

DNA(in the nucleus), organelles, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, cytoskeleton, ribosomes, cholesterol proteins, structure and communication

prokaryotes contain:

DNA(no nucleus), plasma membrane, no membrane bound organelles, ribosomes

Tay-Sachs disease

Death before 5 loss of hearing and motor function caused by a malfunctioning lysosomal enzyme

Osmosis diffusion

Dilutes down concentrated gradient where solute was high Concentration and volume changes

Heat of vaporization regulates

Evaporative cooling, sweating

fibrorectin

Extracellular glycoprotein secreted by animal cells that helps them attach to cellular matrix

Laminins

Extracellular proteins that link integrins to the rest of the extracellular matrix

membrane fluidity

Fatty acid tails 1) length - shorter - longer 2) number of double bonds -unsaturated -saturated Cholesterol 1. Less 2. More temperature 1. Higher 2. Lower

base pairing

G-C, A-T(RNA=U)

Golgi processing

Glycosylation of proteins Proteolysis of proteins

Proteoglycons

Ground substance, (core protein with many carbs)

proton pump (active transport)

H+ uses ATP to pump out of cell and rides along with a sucrose through sucrose co-transporter to go back in

Saturation

If a transport protein if saturated Working as hard as possible and increasing amount of substance doesn't effect rate of transport

Integrins

Internal membrane proteins that link the cytoskeleton to extracellular matrix

fluid mosaic model

Membrane is a fluid structure with a "mosaic" of various proteins embedded in or attached to a bilayer of phospholipids floating in fluid

facilitated diffusion

Movement from high to low concentration through a channel/ carrier protein Specific and passive

emergent properties

New properties that arise with each step upward in the hierarchy of life, owing to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases.

Passive transport

No energy Molecules move in response to a concentrated gradient from areas of high to low Equilibrium is reached when diffusion @ =rate/ distribution

Scientific Method Steps

Observing, forming a Hypothesis, testing the Experiment, (edit revise repeat) Data Collection, (report and record)Conclusion, If necessary restart

isomer

One of two or more compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence different properties.

Hypotonic

Out<——- in Cell swell/ lyse

Isotonic

Out=in Cell is stable

Hypertonic

Out—> in Cells shrink

Endocytosis

Phagocytosis - cell eating, vacuole fuses with lysosome Pinocytosis- cell drinking, vacuole folds inwards Receptor -mediated endocytocsis

covalent bonds, polar, nonpolar

Polar: electrons are shared unequally(bully) Nonpolar: electrons are shared equally (same number of valance electrons)

Golgi Sorting

Proteins into vesicles to membrane, lysosomes, vacuoles, or ER

Na+/K+ pump (active transport)

Requires ATP Maintains high K+, low Na+ 3 Na+ out, 2K+ in, 1/3 energy in non-divided cells ATP used to change carrier protein

active transport

Requires ATP moves against concentrated gradient Always takes place through membrane proteins

Monosaccharides

Single sugar molecules, multiple of (CH2O), glucose is C6H2O6, ketone group carbonyl in skeleton, aldehyde group(carboxyl at the end of the skeleton

Collegen

Skin protein that protects and contributes to the elasticity of the skin. triple helix, rope, incredibly strong

Microtubules function

Support the cell shape, cell mobility(flagella and cilia), chromosome /organelle movements

specific heat

The amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of a substance to change its temperature by 1°C. ( water= 1cal/ (g*C)

peptide bond

The covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group on another, formed by a dehydration reaction.

extracellular matrix (ECM)

The meshwork surrounding animal cells, consisting of glycoproteins, polysaccharides, and proteoglycans synthesized and secreted by the cells Cell shape, attachment and defense, consisting of fibrorectin, laminin and integrins

thylakoid membrane

The photosynthetic membrane within a chloroplast that contains light gathering pigment molecules and electron transport chains, converts light energy to chemical energy

discovery science

The process of scientific inquiry that focuses on using the scientific method( observe, hyp., test, revise, repeat) to describe nature

Monomer

The subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer ( amino acids, nucleotides, etc)

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

The transportation system of the cell. It moves materials around the cell

Membrane proteins

Transport Enzymatic activity Signal transduction Cell-cell recognition Intercellular joining Attachment to CS+ ECM

secondary active transport

Uses energy from another gradient

Exocytosis

Vacuole secretes cell matter out of a cell

Exocytisis

Vacuole secretes cell matter out of cell

Golgi Secretion

Vesicles bud off from ends of sacs

universal solvent

Water- due to its polarity and ability to dissolve many different solutes

Van der Waals interactions

Weak attractions between molecules or parts of molecules that result from transient local partial charges. Gecko feet

As pH increases

[H+] decreases [OH-] increases becomes more basic

as pH decreases

[H+] increases [OH-] decreases becomes more acidic

Theory

a broader explanation than a hypothesis(generating a new one), supported by a large body of evidence

Buffer

a solution containing a weak acid/ comp base that minimizes changes in pH, accepts/ dontaes hydrogen ions when needed

basic

a solution that decreased the hydrogen ions concentration in a solution.

protein functions

acts as enzymes, structural support, storage, transport, cellular communications, movement, receptors, and defense against foreign substances

nuclear pores

allow controlled passage of material in and out of the nucleus

tertiary structure includes:

alpha helices, beta pleated sheets, loops, random coils and folds

secondary structure includes:

alpha helix and beta pleated sheets

protein

amino acid

Reductionism

an approach that reduces complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study

Ion

an atom with unequal protons and electrons causing an imbalance of charge

Isotope

an atomic form of an element each with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons and with a different mass

Hypothesis

an explanation that is based on observation and assumption, leading to testable perdictions(experiments)

hydrocarbon

an organic molecule composed of only carbon and hydrogen, tails on fatty acids

electronegativity

attraction of a given atom to the electrons of another, (greater(O>N>S,C,H,P)lesser)

hydrogen bond attraction

between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom.

Specific heat regulates

body and oceans

adhesion regulates

body temp, plant roots uptake of water

phosphodiester linkage

bond between two 5- carbon sugar(carb) and one phosphate, forms the backbone of dna

Amylopectin (starch)

branched

amino acids

building blocks of proteins containing an amino group, carboxyl group and a R- group

4 macromolecules

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

why is 4- bonds with carbon so important?

carbon has for three pairs of electrons allowing for a multitude of molecular bonds and shapes. the covalent bonds of carbon and other atoms are incredibly strong. they make up more organic chains/ mols. hydrocarbons. straight, circular, branched

Ketone

carbonyl is in the carbon skeleton

steroid function:

cell signaling, estrogen and testosterone plasma membrane component: cholesterol

Energy types

chemical electrical- cells, nervous system, membrane mechanical temperature light

Radisotopes

chemically unstable isotopes that emit radiation due to nuclear decay

chromatin

condenses to form chromosomes

cell junctions

contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue cells

disulfide bonds

covalent bonds between cysteines

Strength of bonds

covalent>ionic>hydrogen>van der waals

Elastin

cross-linked fibers that can stretch and recoil, elastic and flexible. EX: hair and skin

Pyrimidines

cytosine, thymine(DNA), uracil(RNA)

nuclear lamina

cytoskeletal structure made from intermediate filaments that support and give structure to the nuclear envelope

Osmosis (passive)

diffusion of water across a membrane

Solvent

dissolving agent of a solution

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

doesnt have ribosomes, it also has enzymes for reactions w lipids, makes needed lipids, breaks down lipids and toxic molecules, and is Ca+ reservoir

unsaturated fats

double bond(s) in fatty acid= kinks which doesnt allow condensing. liquid at room temp, healthy in certain quantities

nuclear envelope/membrane

double phospholipid bilayer

ionic bond

dry ionic compounds formed when atoms of different electronegative completely transfer an electron to form SALTS, weaker than covalent

Triglyceride function

energy storage

glycogen (animal)

extensively branched

lipid

fatty acid

intermediate filaments

fibrous proteins that hold organelles in place

cisternae

flattened stacked membrane folds

ionic bonds

form between side chains with full and opposing charges

monosaccharides in aqueous solutions

form ring structures

Steriods

four ring structure, bulky, cholesterol

Polysaccharide storage in animals

glycogen: branched glucose polysaccharide, in muscle tissue and liver cells,

thylakoid stacks

granum

rough endoplasmic reticulum

has ribosomes, synthesizes proteins which are shipped to other organelles, inserted to the plasma membrane, secreted

human genome project includes:

humans have fewer genes than expected

polar amino acids

hydrophilic

amphipathic

hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail

non polar amino acids

hydrophobic

Cellulose

insoluble, A substance (made of sugars) that is common in the cell walls of many organisms

Quaternary structure

intertwine of multiple proteins that come together to make one large functional unit. complex of individula proteins

Osmosis Solutions

isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic

polymer

large molecule formed by joining of smaller molecules (proteins, sugars, aucleic acids)

peptide bond

link of amino acids carboxyl groups to form proteins by a dehydration reaction. with R- groups sticking out/ away from backbone

Cohesion

linking of water molecules through hydrogen bonds, surface tension.

adhesion

linking of water molecules to another surface,

secondary structure

local areas of folding created through hydrogen bonds between atoms within protein backbone

Polysaccharides

macromolecules, polymers with monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages, storage of sugars/ starches, structure for cellulose (chitin)

intermediate filaments functions

maintenance of cell shape, anchorage of nucleus and certain other organelles, formation of nuclear lamina

nucleolus

makes ribosomes which are transcribed in the nucleus and proteins that are imported from cytoplasm

Ribsosomes

manufacture proteins, free in the cytosol, attached to RER, small and large subunit

pH scale

measurement system used to indicate the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution; ranges from 0(acidic) to 14(basic)

tight junctions

membrane proteins that form water tight seals between cells "sew"

nucleic acids

monomer: nucleotide, Sugar phosphate backbone with nitrogenous bases

carbohydrate

monosaccharide

4 monomers

monosaccharides, fatty acids, amino acids, nucleotides

Protein

most abundant macromolecule, polymers of amino acids

Bacteria

most diverse and widespread prokaryotes in multiple kingdoms

Archaea

multi kingdoms, extreme environments, Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have cell walls

mutation advantages vs. disadvantages

mutations resulting in an advantage are more likely to be passed down, situation- specific

Acidic amino acids

negative, add proton

saturated fats

no double bonds, tightly packed, solid at room temperature, not heart healthy

elicit behavior

no rotation, stronger bond which will offer strength and stability

characteristics of lipids

nonpolar, hydrophobic, insoluble in water

Hydrophobic

nonpolar/ nonionic, Water fearing, lipids

nucleic acids

nucleotides

sickle cell

one change in a primary structure of hemoglobin, shape changes, associates w selves and oxygen carrying capacity is lowered

channel proteins

open tunnel that faces both sides of bilayer

endomembrane system

organelles functioning together to produce, package and deliver proteins. consists of ER, Golgi and lysosomes

Enontiomers

pairs of compounds with special arrangement around a carbon

R group (side chain)

part of amino acid that determines the molecule's physical and chemical properties, stick out

Eukarya

plants, animals, fungi, protists

all cells have

plasma membrane, contain nucleic acid, and require energy

Hydrophilic

polar, water loving

basic amino acids

positive, remove protons

Scientific Method

process of scientific investigation and verification of natural phenomena

dehydration synthesis

reaction when two molecules become COVALENTLY bonded w removal of a water molecule

positive feedback

response to stimulus increases production, EX: platelets cause increased clotting

Natural selection acts on

response to the environment, organisms adapt and change as a response to the environment they live in, over time more favorable traits persist while others are lost to evolution

Membranes

selectively permeable, regulates substances, communication

evolutionary relationship between humans and chimps

shared a common ancestor around 10 million years ago

Cilia

short, hairlike structures that keep particles away from airways; main purpose: movement

ribonucleic acid (RNA)

single-stranded, transmits info in DNA into protein, some enzymatic activity, regulation of genetic processes

Atom

smallest unit of matter retaining properties of an element

trans fats

solid at room temperature; byproduct of hydrogenated oil, contributes to heart disease, thickens blood,

starch

soluble. differs from cellulose by the orientation of glucose

polysaccharide storage in plants

starch: glucose monomers with GYLCOSIDIC LINKAGES, plastids containing starch granules

Energy

the capacity to do work, enters as light and exits as heat , chemical energy is used and recycled

carbonic acid buffer system

the concentration of CO2 in the blood affects plasma pH, an increase in lactic acid increases H+, so equilibrium shifts left to restore pH, (there's a good picture of this example but it wont let me upload my own pic)

phosphodiester bond

the covalent bond that holds together nucleotides from one sugar and one phosphate group

Proteome

the entire set of proteins expressed by a given cell, tissue, or organism

Genome

the genetic material of an organism or virus: the complete complement of an organisms or virus's genes along with noncoding nucleic acid sequences

tertiary structure

the overall, three-dimensional shape of a protein due to interactions of the R groups of the amino acids making up the chain

heat of vaporization

the quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g of it to be converted from the liquid to the gaseous state(580 cal for 1g of water @ 25C)

negative feedback

the response reduces the initial stimulus, EX: insulin reduces glucose levels

Double bonds

the sharing of two pairs of electrons between two atoms

Proteomics

the systematic study of sets of proteins and their properties, including their abundance, chemical modifications, and interactions

Genomics

the systematic study of whole sets of genes (or other DNA) and their interactions within a species, as well as genome comparisons between species

Disaccharide

two monosaccharides bonded together by glycosidic linkages (dehydration reaction)

amylose(starch)

unbranched starch

primary structure

unique sequence of amino acidsdetermined by genetic information, Peptide bonds

primary active transport

uses ATP directly

hydrophobic interactions

water forces hydrophobic(non-polar) side chains together

hydrogen bonds definition

weak chemical bond formed by slightly positive aton of a polar covalent bond, attracting a slightly negative atom of another polar covalent bond in a different molecule, (holds water molecules together)

Van der Waals

weak electrical interactions between hydrophobic(non-polar) side chains

Are viruses living?

yes and no, yes because they reproduce and adapt, no because they are not cellular, there is no DNA genome, doe not respond to environment, and are not made up of cells