Bio review
2 main points of Origin of Species
1. Descent with modification, species adapt to the environment and accumulate differences from ancestors 2. Natural selection, primary mean of darwins observations
Na+/K+ pump process
1. Na+ picked up 2. ATP closes channel 3. Na+ released 4. K+ picked up 5. Channel opens 6. K+ is released
Darwin's observations to natural selection
1. in populations individuals traits vary( many are heritable) 2. populations produce more offspring than can survive to reproduce on their own. 3. species(generally) suited to their environments survive
Phospholipids
2 hydrocarbon chains + a phosphate group linked to a glycerol Cell membrane component (bilayer) amphipathic hydrophobic head hydrophilic tail
chemical formula of Triose
3 carbon
triglyceride
3 fatty acids linked to a glycerol: doesnt create a polymer
chemical formula of pentose
5 carbon
chemical formula of hexose
6 carbon
water + protein content of a cell
70% H2O, 15% protein
essential elements
A chemical element required for an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce. CHNOPS
glycosidic linkage
A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
A double-stranded, helical nucleic acid, stores and transmits biological information, carries info for growth and development
Microtubules
A hollow rod composed of tubulin proteins (alpha- tubulin)(beta- tubulin) that makes up part of the cytoskeleton in all eukaryotic cells and is found in cilia and flagella.
Solution
A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
Flagella
A long, whip-like filament that helps in cell motility. Many bacteria are flagellated, and sperm are flagellated.
surface tension
A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of water
organelles
A membrane-enclosed structure with a specialized function within a cell. suspended in the cytosol
Anion
A negatively charged ion, p<e
Nucleus
A part of the cell containing DNA, chromatin that condenses to the chromosome, surrounded by a nuclear envelope
Cation
A positively charged ion, p>e
natural selection
A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.
functional group
A specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and involved in chemical reactions. have certain properties, shapes and charges
disulfide bridge
A strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer.
Electron
A subatomic particle that has a negative charge, mass 1/2000 of p/n
proton
A subatomic particle that has a positive charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom
Neutron
A subatomic particle that has no charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom
Acid
A substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.
Solute
A substance that is dissolved in a solvent
Golgi apparatus
A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell; has polarity; cis(enter) trans(exit)
Mitchondria
ATP production, inner and outer membrane(highly folded in the matrix with many enzymes), own DNA uses binary fission
glycolation
Adding sugar to a molecule ex: protein in the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus
Purines
Adenine and Guanine
bulk transport
Allows transport of very large/ abundant things across a membrane
phospholipid structure
Amphipathic- hydrophobic tail and hydrophilic head
trace elements
An element indispensable for life but required in extremely minute amounts. F & I
Human Genome Project(HGP)
An international collaborative effort to map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome. The project was begun in 1990 and completed in 2004.
Hemoglobin
An iron-containing protein in red blood cells that reversibly binds oxygen.
Chloroplast
An organelle found in plant and algae cells where photosynthesis occurs in the chlorophyll, contains an inner and outer membranes and a thylakoid membrane, contains it own DNA and uses binary fission
membrane structure
Anchoring points for enzymes, create tissue
Matter
Anything that has mass and takes up space
Cytosol
Aqueous Solution filling the cell
Three domains of life
Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
Hydrolysis
Breaking down (separating) complex molecules by the chemical addition of water
Aldehyde
Carbonyl group at the end of a carbon skeleton
Pinocytosis
Cell drinking, vacuole folds inwards
Phagocytosis
Cell eating, vacuole fuses with lysosome
Lysosomes
Centers of cellular recycling(pH 5 =active, required for proper Acid hydrolases digest cellular material) Monomers to cytoskeleton for use in building macromolecules
carrier proteins
Changes shape
gap junctions
Channels between cells, small molecules can flow through and act as signals, can cause change in receiving cells
Aquaporins
Channels for water to directly pass through membranes but water will slowly pass without them
Dynamic of fluid mosaic
Components change or move
Demosomes
Connect cytoskeletons using selective adhesion to create a strong hold
Cytoplasm
Cytosol plus all in it
"central dogma of molecular biology"
DNA transcribed-> RNA translated -> Protein
eukaryotes contain:
DNA(in the nucleus), organelles, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, cytoskeleton, ribosomes, cholesterol proteins, structure and communication
prokaryotes contain:
DNA(no nucleus), plasma membrane, no membrane bound organelles, ribosomes
Tay-Sachs disease
Death before 5 loss of hearing and motor function caused by a malfunctioning lysosomal enzyme
Osmosis diffusion
Dilutes down concentrated gradient where solute was high Concentration and volume changes
Heat of vaporization regulates
Evaporative cooling, sweating
fibrorectin
Extracellular glycoprotein secreted by animal cells that helps them attach to cellular matrix
Laminins
Extracellular proteins that link integrins to the rest of the extracellular matrix
membrane fluidity
Fatty acid tails 1) length - shorter - longer 2) number of double bonds -unsaturated -saturated Cholesterol 1. Less 2. More temperature 1. Higher 2. Lower
base pairing
G-C, A-T(RNA=U)
Golgi processing
Glycosylation of proteins Proteolysis of proteins
Proteoglycons
Ground substance, (core protein with many carbs)
proton pump (active transport)
H+ uses ATP to pump out of cell and rides along with a sucrose through sucrose co-transporter to go back in
Saturation
If a transport protein if saturated Working as hard as possible and increasing amount of substance doesn't effect rate of transport
Integrins
Internal membrane proteins that link the cytoskeleton to extracellular matrix
fluid mosaic model
Membrane is a fluid structure with a "mosaic" of various proteins embedded in or attached to a bilayer of phospholipids floating in fluid
facilitated diffusion
Movement from high to low concentration through a channel/ carrier protein Specific and passive
emergent properties
New properties that arise with each step upward in the hierarchy of life, owing to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases.
Passive transport
No energy Molecules move in response to a concentrated gradient from areas of high to low Equilibrium is reached when diffusion @ =rate/ distribution
Scientific Method Steps
Observing, forming a Hypothesis, testing the Experiment, (edit revise repeat) Data Collection, (report and record)Conclusion, If necessary restart
isomer
One of two or more compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence different properties.
Hypotonic
Out<——- in Cell swell/ lyse
Isotonic
Out=in Cell is stable
Hypertonic
Out—> in Cells shrink
Endocytosis
Phagocytosis - cell eating, vacuole fuses with lysosome Pinocytosis- cell drinking, vacuole folds inwards Receptor -mediated endocytocsis
covalent bonds, polar, nonpolar
Polar: electrons are shared unequally(bully) Nonpolar: electrons are shared equally (same number of valance electrons)
Golgi Sorting
Proteins into vesicles to membrane, lysosomes, vacuoles, or ER
Na+/K+ pump (active transport)
Requires ATP Maintains high K+, low Na+ 3 Na+ out, 2K+ in, 1/3 energy in non-divided cells ATP used to change carrier protein
active transport
Requires ATP moves against concentrated gradient Always takes place through membrane proteins
Monosaccharides
Single sugar molecules, multiple of (CH2O), glucose is C6H2O6, ketone group carbonyl in skeleton, aldehyde group(carboxyl at the end of the skeleton
Collegen
Skin protein that protects and contributes to the elasticity of the skin. triple helix, rope, incredibly strong
Microtubules function
Support the cell shape, cell mobility(flagella and cilia), chromosome /organelle movements
specific heat
The amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of a substance to change its temperature by 1°C. ( water= 1cal/ (g*C)
peptide bond
The covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group on another, formed by a dehydration reaction.
extracellular matrix (ECM)
The meshwork surrounding animal cells, consisting of glycoproteins, polysaccharides, and proteoglycans synthesized and secreted by the cells Cell shape, attachment and defense, consisting of fibrorectin, laminin and integrins
thylakoid membrane
The photosynthetic membrane within a chloroplast that contains light gathering pigment molecules and electron transport chains, converts light energy to chemical energy
discovery science
The process of scientific inquiry that focuses on using the scientific method( observe, hyp., test, revise, repeat) to describe nature
Monomer
The subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer ( amino acids, nucleotides, etc)
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
The transportation system of the cell. It moves materials around the cell
Membrane proteins
Transport Enzymatic activity Signal transduction Cell-cell recognition Intercellular joining Attachment to CS+ ECM
secondary active transport
Uses energy from another gradient
Exocytosis
Vacuole secretes cell matter out of a cell
Exocytisis
Vacuole secretes cell matter out of cell
Golgi Secretion
Vesicles bud off from ends of sacs
universal solvent
Water- due to its polarity and ability to dissolve many different solutes
Van der Waals interactions
Weak attractions between molecules or parts of molecules that result from transient local partial charges. Gecko feet
As pH increases
[H+] decreases [OH-] increases becomes more basic
as pH decreases
[H+] increases [OH-] decreases becomes more acidic
Theory
a broader explanation than a hypothesis(generating a new one), supported by a large body of evidence
Buffer
a solution containing a weak acid/ comp base that minimizes changes in pH, accepts/ dontaes hydrogen ions when needed
basic
a solution that decreased the hydrogen ions concentration in a solution.
protein functions
acts as enzymes, structural support, storage, transport, cellular communications, movement, receptors, and defense against foreign substances
nuclear pores
allow controlled passage of material in and out of the nucleus
tertiary structure includes:
alpha helices, beta pleated sheets, loops, random coils and folds
secondary structure includes:
alpha helix and beta pleated sheets
protein
amino acid
Reductionism
an approach that reduces complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study
Ion
an atom with unequal protons and electrons causing an imbalance of charge
Isotope
an atomic form of an element each with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons and with a different mass
Hypothesis
an explanation that is based on observation and assumption, leading to testable perdictions(experiments)
hydrocarbon
an organic molecule composed of only carbon and hydrogen, tails on fatty acids
electronegativity
attraction of a given atom to the electrons of another, (greater(O>N>S,C,H,P)lesser)
hydrogen bond attraction
between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom.
Specific heat regulates
body and oceans
adhesion regulates
body temp, plant roots uptake of water
phosphodiester linkage
bond between two 5- carbon sugar(carb) and one phosphate, forms the backbone of dna
Amylopectin (starch)
branched
amino acids
building blocks of proteins containing an amino group, carboxyl group and a R- group
4 macromolecules
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
why is 4- bonds with carbon so important?
carbon has for three pairs of electrons allowing for a multitude of molecular bonds and shapes. the covalent bonds of carbon and other atoms are incredibly strong. they make up more organic chains/ mols. hydrocarbons. straight, circular, branched
Ketone
carbonyl is in the carbon skeleton
steroid function:
cell signaling, estrogen and testosterone plasma membrane component: cholesterol
Energy types
chemical electrical- cells, nervous system, membrane mechanical temperature light
Radisotopes
chemically unstable isotopes that emit radiation due to nuclear decay
chromatin
condenses to form chromosomes
cell junctions
contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue cells
disulfide bonds
covalent bonds between cysteines
Strength of bonds
covalent>ionic>hydrogen>van der waals
Elastin
cross-linked fibers that can stretch and recoil, elastic and flexible. EX: hair and skin
Pyrimidines
cytosine, thymine(DNA), uracil(RNA)
nuclear lamina
cytoskeletal structure made from intermediate filaments that support and give structure to the nuclear envelope
Osmosis (passive)
diffusion of water across a membrane
Solvent
dissolving agent of a solution
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
doesnt have ribosomes, it also has enzymes for reactions w lipids, makes needed lipids, breaks down lipids and toxic molecules, and is Ca+ reservoir
unsaturated fats
double bond(s) in fatty acid= kinks which doesnt allow condensing. liquid at room temp, healthy in certain quantities
nuclear envelope/membrane
double phospholipid bilayer
ionic bond
dry ionic compounds formed when atoms of different electronegative completely transfer an electron to form SALTS, weaker than covalent
Triglyceride function
energy storage
glycogen (animal)
extensively branched
lipid
fatty acid
intermediate filaments
fibrous proteins that hold organelles in place
cisternae
flattened stacked membrane folds
ionic bonds
form between side chains with full and opposing charges
monosaccharides in aqueous solutions
form ring structures
Steriods
four ring structure, bulky, cholesterol
Polysaccharide storage in animals
glycogen: branched glucose polysaccharide, in muscle tissue and liver cells,
thylakoid stacks
granum
rough endoplasmic reticulum
has ribosomes, synthesizes proteins which are shipped to other organelles, inserted to the plasma membrane, secreted
human genome project includes:
humans have fewer genes than expected
polar amino acids
hydrophilic
amphipathic
hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail
non polar amino acids
hydrophobic
Cellulose
insoluble, A substance (made of sugars) that is common in the cell walls of many organisms
Quaternary structure
intertwine of multiple proteins that come together to make one large functional unit. complex of individula proteins
Osmosis Solutions
isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic
polymer
large molecule formed by joining of smaller molecules (proteins, sugars, aucleic acids)
peptide bond
link of amino acids carboxyl groups to form proteins by a dehydration reaction. with R- groups sticking out/ away from backbone
Cohesion
linking of water molecules through hydrogen bonds, surface tension.
adhesion
linking of water molecules to another surface,
secondary structure
local areas of folding created through hydrogen bonds between atoms within protein backbone
Polysaccharides
macromolecules, polymers with monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages, storage of sugars/ starches, structure for cellulose (chitin)
intermediate filaments functions
maintenance of cell shape, anchorage of nucleus and certain other organelles, formation of nuclear lamina
nucleolus
makes ribosomes which are transcribed in the nucleus and proteins that are imported from cytoplasm
Ribsosomes
manufacture proteins, free in the cytosol, attached to RER, small and large subunit
pH scale
measurement system used to indicate the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution; ranges from 0(acidic) to 14(basic)
tight junctions
membrane proteins that form water tight seals between cells "sew"
nucleic acids
monomer: nucleotide, Sugar phosphate backbone with nitrogenous bases
carbohydrate
monosaccharide
4 monomers
monosaccharides, fatty acids, amino acids, nucleotides
Protein
most abundant macromolecule, polymers of amino acids
Bacteria
most diverse and widespread prokaryotes in multiple kingdoms
Archaea
multi kingdoms, extreme environments, Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have cell walls
mutation advantages vs. disadvantages
mutations resulting in an advantage are more likely to be passed down, situation- specific
Acidic amino acids
negative, add proton
saturated fats
no double bonds, tightly packed, solid at room temperature, not heart healthy
elicit behavior
no rotation, stronger bond which will offer strength and stability
characteristics of lipids
nonpolar, hydrophobic, insoluble in water
Hydrophobic
nonpolar/ nonionic, Water fearing, lipids
nucleic acids
nucleotides
sickle cell
one change in a primary structure of hemoglobin, shape changes, associates w selves and oxygen carrying capacity is lowered
channel proteins
open tunnel that faces both sides of bilayer
endomembrane system
organelles functioning together to produce, package and deliver proteins. consists of ER, Golgi and lysosomes
Enontiomers
pairs of compounds with special arrangement around a carbon
R group (side chain)
part of amino acid that determines the molecule's physical and chemical properties, stick out
Eukarya
plants, animals, fungi, protists
all cells have
plasma membrane, contain nucleic acid, and require energy
Hydrophilic
polar, water loving
basic amino acids
positive, remove protons
Scientific Method
process of scientific investigation and verification of natural phenomena
dehydration synthesis
reaction when two molecules become COVALENTLY bonded w removal of a water molecule
positive feedback
response to stimulus increases production, EX: platelets cause increased clotting
Natural selection acts on
response to the environment, organisms adapt and change as a response to the environment they live in, over time more favorable traits persist while others are lost to evolution
Membranes
selectively permeable, regulates substances, communication
evolutionary relationship between humans and chimps
shared a common ancestor around 10 million years ago
Cilia
short, hairlike structures that keep particles away from airways; main purpose: movement
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
single-stranded, transmits info in DNA into protein, some enzymatic activity, regulation of genetic processes
Atom
smallest unit of matter retaining properties of an element
trans fats
solid at room temperature; byproduct of hydrogenated oil, contributes to heart disease, thickens blood,
starch
soluble. differs from cellulose by the orientation of glucose
polysaccharide storage in plants
starch: glucose monomers with GYLCOSIDIC LINKAGES, plastids containing starch granules
Energy
the capacity to do work, enters as light and exits as heat , chemical energy is used and recycled
carbonic acid buffer system
the concentration of CO2 in the blood affects plasma pH, an increase in lactic acid increases H+, so equilibrium shifts left to restore pH, (there's a good picture of this example but it wont let me upload my own pic)
phosphodiester bond
the covalent bond that holds together nucleotides from one sugar and one phosphate group
Proteome
the entire set of proteins expressed by a given cell, tissue, or organism
Genome
the genetic material of an organism or virus: the complete complement of an organisms or virus's genes along with noncoding nucleic acid sequences
tertiary structure
the overall, three-dimensional shape of a protein due to interactions of the R groups of the amino acids making up the chain
heat of vaporization
the quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g of it to be converted from the liquid to the gaseous state(580 cal for 1g of water @ 25C)
negative feedback
the response reduces the initial stimulus, EX: insulin reduces glucose levels
Double bonds
the sharing of two pairs of electrons between two atoms
Proteomics
the systematic study of sets of proteins and their properties, including their abundance, chemical modifications, and interactions
Genomics
the systematic study of whole sets of genes (or other DNA) and their interactions within a species, as well as genome comparisons between species
Disaccharide
two monosaccharides bonded together by glycosidic linkages (dehydration reaction)
amylose(starch)
unbranched starch
primary structure
unique sequence of amino acidsdetermined by genetic information, Peptide bonds
primary active transport
uses ATP directly
hydrophobic interactions
water forces hydrophobic(non-polar) side chains together
hydrogen bonds definition
weak chemical bond formed by slightly positive aton of a polar covalent bond, attracting a slightly negative atom of another polar covalent bond in a different molecule, (holds water molecules together)
Van der Waals
weak electrical interactions between hydrophobic(non-polar) side chains
Are viruses living?
yes and no, yes because they reproduce and adapt, no because they are not cellular, there is no DNA genome, doe not respond to environment, and are not made up of cells
