BIOCHEM EXAM 1
The (R, R) isomer of methylphenidate (Ritalin) is a treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The (S, S) isomer is an antidepressant. Complete the statement about the structure shown. The structure shows
(S,S)-methylphenidate
What is the one letter abbreviation for tryptophan? A. T B. R C. Y D. P E. W
E. W
Write out the last six amino acid residues in the sequence (QWLMNT) using the three-letter abbreviations:
Gln-Trp-Leu-Met-Asn-Thr
pKa values Amino acid side chains:
Aspartate 3.65 Glutamate 4.25 Histidine 6.00 Cysteine 8.18 Tyrosine 10.07 Lysine 10.53 Arginine 12.48 N-terminal α-amino group 9.60 C-terminal carboxylic acid group 2.34
important ions
H+ Na+, K+, Cl- Ca++, Mg++, H3O+ PO4- -
prokaryotic cells
No nucleus or other organelles, smaller always unicellular
Arabidopsis thaliana, a plant, has twice as many genes as humans. Is Arabidopsis more biochemically sophisticated than humans? No, since Arabidopsis is a plant, chloroplast genes are part of the total number. No, the number of genes does not necessarily indicate the number of unique proteins. Yes, Arabidopsis has added genes that synchronize nuclear, mitochondrial, and chloroplast functions. Yes, a larger number of genes indicates a more diverse set of proteins.
No, the number of genes does not necessarily indicate the number of unique proteins.
common functional groups in biochem:nitrogen
ammonia primary amine amino group ammonium ion alkyl ammonium ion protonated amino group secondary amine tertiary amine quaternary ammonium ion amide amindo group imine iminium guanidine imidazole indole
___ can fix atmospheric carbon dioxide.
autotrophs
amino acids linked by peptide bonds are called
residues
the common set of molecular constituents for life
small molecules -amino acids -monosaccharies -nucleotides -fatty acids -water ions macromolecules; -proteins,nuceleic acids, polysaccharides -large polymers
Identify the functional groups present in each molecule. testosterone glycine
testosterone: hydroxyl group carbonyl group glycine: amino group carboxyl group
common function groups in biochem: sulfur
thiol thiolate disulfide sulfide thioester
12. Which of the following represents the "central dogma" of molecular biology? A. RNA ® protein ® DNA B. DNA ® protein ® RNA C. RNA ® DNA ® protein D. protein ® RNA ® DNA E. DNA ® RNA ® protein
E. DNA ® RNA ® protein
What does the second law of thermodynamics state about energy? Given the opportunity, energy disperses from areas of high energy to areas of low energy. The movement of energy can only occur in systems with a low level of randomness. When a hot object contacts a cold object, coldness moves from the cold object into the hot object. Energy destruction releases heat, whereas energy production results in heat absorption.
Given the opportunity, energy disperses from areas of high energy to areas of low energy.
non-living matter
Soil, sediments, leaf litter, and other organic matter on the ground or at the bottom of an aquatic system
Under what conditions will an exothermic reaction with a negative DS be spontaneous?
Spontaneous at temperatures below DH/DS DG = DH - TDS If DH < 0 and DS < 0, will be negative only when the DH term is smaller than the TDS term, which will be when T
a living system has the ability to
make order out of chaos -uses e derived from thermodynamically favorable processes -oxidation of fuels (glucose, fatty acids) capture of solar photons in high energy electrinuc states -to drive thermodynamically unfavorable processes chemical+physical work increasing order+complexity
Glucagon is a 29 amino acid polypeptide hormone secreted by the pancreas in response to low blood [glucose]. The sequence of glucagon is HSQGTFTSDYSKYLDSRRAQDFVQWLMNT What is the net charge of glucagon at pH 7.0?
0 (4 negative charges - D, D, D and the C-terminal carboxylate and three positive charges - K, R, R, and the Nterminal amino group) His is NOT protonated at pH 7, because it is above the pKa of 6.0.
The (R, R) isomer of methylphenidate (Ritalin) is a treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The (S, S) isomer is an antidepressant. Which numbers indicate the chiral carbons in the methylphenidate structure?
1 2
Classify each description as applying to organisms in one, several, or all of the domains of Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. You are currently in a sorting module. Turn off browse mode or quick nav, Tab to items, Space or Enter to pick up, Tab to move, Space or Enter to drop. Archaea Bacteria Eukarya Archaea and Bacteria All three domains
Archaea most inhabit extreme environments Bacteria E. coli Eukarya cells have a nucleus cells have membrane‑bound organelles many are multicellular animals eukaryotes Archaea and Bacteria cells do not have a nucleus prokaryotes All three domains cells contain genetic material
19. For arginine, the pKa values for the carboxylic acid, a-amino group, and guanidinio group are 1.82, 8.99, and 12.48 respectively. What is the pI of arginine? A. 1.82 B. 5.41 C. 8.99 D. 10.74 E. 12.48
D. 10.74
16. Which of the following elements is least abundant in living organisms? A. Sulfur B. Carbon C. Phosphorous D. Iron E. Oxygen
D. Iron
13. Which of the following amino acids has a side chain which is normally positively charged at physiological pH? A. Asp B. Asn C. Leu D. Lys E. Trp
D. Lys
Glycolysis is the process by which energy is harvested from glucose by living things. Several of the reactions of glycolysis are thermodynamically unfavorable (nonspontaneous), but proceed when they are coupled with other reactions. Reaction A: Pi+glucose⟶glucose-6-phosphate+H2OΔ𝐺=13.8 kJ/molReaction A: Pi+glucose⟶glucose-6-phosphate+H2OΔG=13.8 kJ/mol Reaction B: Pi+fructose-6-phosphate⟶fructose-1,6-bisphosphate+H2OΔ𝐺=16.3 kJ/molReaction B: Pi+fructose-6-phosphate⟶fructose-1,6-bisphosphate+H2OΔG=16.3 kJ/mol Reaction C: ATP+H2O⟶ADP+PiΔ𝐺=−30.5 kJ/molReaction C: ATP+H2O⟶ADP+PiΔG=−30.5 kJ/mol Select every set of coupled reactions where the overall reaction is favorable.
reactions B and C reactions A and C
biochemical similarities underlies biological diversity examples
structural unit cells molecular constitutents proteins, aa, dna/rna, biochemical pathways metabolism mechanisms for storage/transfer of bio info dna->rna->protein
the same chemical and physical principles that govern the behvaior of non living matter also govern
the behavior of living matter
metabolism
the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life. organisms acquire and use the free energy and matter they need to carry out the functions of life -the sum of all the chemical transformation taking place in a life form ex:glycolysis
functional groups
the components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions
An evolutionary tree is shown in the image. Similar genes are represented by boxes. The letters X, Y, and Z represent different species. Similarly colored genes designate genes present in the same species (species X, Y, or Z). For example, the pink "Z" genes (Zα, Zβ1, and Zβ2) are present in species Z. Which genes are paralogs? X and Zβ2 Yα and Yβ Zβ1 and Zβ2 Yα and Zα Zα and Zβ1 Zα and Zβ2 X and Yα Yα and Zβ1
Yα and Yβ Zβ1 and Zβ2 Zα and Zβ1 Zα and Zβ2
all living cells are descended from
a common ancestor
amino acids
a simple organic compound containing both a carboxyl (—COOH) and an amino (—NH2) group attached to an alpha carbon -20 diff -difference in side chain(r group) -is chiral unless (R=h)
cells of all kinds share these structural features
all have a nucleus or nucleoid plasma membrane -hydrophobic barrier -defines boundary -maintains integrity cytoplasm -cystol -aqeuous solution -highly conc -macrmol, small molec, ions -ribsomes and other large insoluable macromolec chromosomes -genetic material
convention chain runs from
amino terminal (N) to carboxyl terminal (c)
major classes of biomolecules
carbs, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids
cells use chemistry for
communication and coordination
peptide bond formation is what type of reaction
condensation
Firewood is chemically unstable compared with its oxidation products, CO2CO2 and H2OH2O. Firewood+O2⟶CO2+H2OFirewood+O2⟶CO2+H2O Which statement about the standard free energy change for this reaction is true?
delta G is negative and relatively large
For each of the following processes, indicate whether the entropy increases or decreases Glucose being oxidized to CO2 and H2O NaCl dissolving in water increases Ice melting A collection of monosaccharides being assembled into a specific oligosaccharide Lipids aggregating in water
increases increases decreases increases
noncovalent interactions
interactions that do not involve the sharing of valence electrons intermolecular(forces involving intermolec btwn 2 diff molec) intramolecular(forces involving btwn same molecule)
the sequence of monomer units in a macromolecule
is nonrandom and contains information
Eukarytoic Cells
larger, contain membrane enclosed organelles, may be unicellular or multicellular
viruses
mobile genetic elements:collection of info stored in the form of genes that may be dna/rna that isnt tied to one particular organism or cell -not really alive, no metabolism, cannot reproduce on own -few genes wrapped in protein coat-no cells -require the machinery of living cells to become replicated
covalent structure
molecules
both peptide bond formation and cleavage are what mechanisms
nucleophilic acyl substitution mechanisms with a tetrahedral intermediate
B. Calculate the pH of a solution containing 30 mM Tris-HCl and 20 mM Tris Base.
pH = pKa + log ([A- ]/[HA]) pH = 8.08 + log (20 mM/30mM) pH = 8.08 + log (0.6667) pH = 8.08 - 0.176 Answer: pH = 7.90
intramolecular hemiacetal formation
pentoses and hexoses cyclize
amino acids are linked by
peptide bonds
common functional groups in biochem:phosphorus
phosphoric acid phosphate monoester phosphate diester phosphoanhydride
protein function is dependent on
protein structure which is dependent on protein amino acid sequence
most biochemical functions are carried out by
proteins
diversity comes from
random changes in biochemical info over time (evolution+natural selection)
Glycolysis is the process by which energy is harvested from glucose by living things. Several of the reactions of glycolysis are thermodynamically unfavorable (nonspontaneous), but proceed when they are coupled with other reactions. Reaction A: Pi+glucose⟶glucose-6-phosphate+H2OΔ𝐺=13.8 kJ/molReaction A: Pi+glucose⟶glucose-6-phosphate+H2OΔG=13.8 kJ/mol Reaction B: Pi+fructose-6-phosphate⟶fructose-1,6-bisphosphate+H2OΔ𝐺=16.3 kJ/molReaction B: Pi+fructose-6-phosphate⟶fructose-1,6-bisphosphate+H2OΔG=16.3 kJ/mol Reaction C: ATP+H2O⟶ADP+PiΔ𝐺=−30.5 kJ/molReaction C: ATP+H2O⟶ADP+PiΔG=−30.5 kJ/mol Select every unfavorable reaction.
reaction B reaction A
all amino acids in proteins have what configuration
L configuration
Living matter is characterized by:
1) high degree of complexity and organization 2) the extraction, transformation, and systematic use of energy to create and maintain structures and to do work 3) the interactions of individual components being dynamic and coordinated 4) the ability to sense and respond to changes in surroundings 5) a capacity for fairly precise self-replication while allowing enough change for evolution
The concentration of the enzyme hexokinase‑1 in a spherical‑shaped yeast cell is 0.0056 M.0.0056 M. Calculate the number of hexokinase‑1 molecules inside the cell with a radius of 5 μm.5 μm. Express your answer in scientific notation. number of molecules:
1.77x10^9
2. The pKa of Tris [Tris(hydroxymethyl)-aminomethane], a common laboratory buffer, is 8.08 at 25 °C. A. Over what range of pH values is a mixture of the acid form of Tris (Tris-HCl) and the conjugate base (Tris Base) an effective buffer?
7.08-9.08 (pKa +/- 1 pH unit)
Glycolysis is the process by which energy is harvested from glucose by living things. Several of the reactions of glycolysis are thermodynamically unfavorable, nonspontaneous, but proceed when they are coupled with other reactions. A. Pi+glucose⟶glucose−6−phosphate+H2OΔ𝐺=3.30 kcal/molA. Pi+glucose⟶glucose−6−phosphate+H2OΔG=3.30 kcal/mol B. Pi+fructose−6−phosphate⟶fructose−1,6−bisphosphate+H2OΔ𝐺=3.90 kcal/molB. Pi+fructose−6−phosphate⟶fructose−1,6−bisphosphate+H2OΔG=3.90 kcal/mol C. ATP+H2O⟶ADP+PiΔ𝐺=−7.30 kcal/molC. ATP+H2O⟶ADP+PiΔG=−7.30 kcal/mol Which of the reactions can be coupled so that the overall reaction is favorable?
A and C B and C
How can the activation energy be supplied to this reaction? A match supplies the thermal energy to overcome the activation energy barrier. Mechanical energy is supplied to overcome the activation energy barrier. Chemical energy is supplied to overcome the activation energy barrier. The firewood undergoes a slow decomposition reaction.
A match supplies the thermal energy to overcome the activation energy barrier.
11. Which of the following processes decreases the entropy of the system? A. Assembly of amino acids by peptide bonds to form oxytocin B. Oxidation of glucose to CO2 and H2O C. Dissolving NaCl in water D. Melting ice E. Formation of a micelle by amphipathic molecules in water
A. Assembly of amino acids by peptide bonds to form oxytocin
1. For each of the following, identify the type of attractive intermolecular force that would be experienced by the two molecules/ions. Possible choices are Ion-ion interactions, dipole-dipole interactions, ion-dipole interactions, London (dispersion) forces, or hydrogen bonds.
A. The hydrocarbon tails of two fatty acids London (dispersion) forces B. Two molecules of water hydrogen bonds C. A water molecule and a sodium ion ion-dipole interactions D. A quaternary ammonium ion and a sulfate ion Ion-ion interactions E. Two molecules of acetone dipole-dipole interactions
For each of the following descriptions, write the one letter abbreviation for one amino acid that matches the description (there may be only one answer or more than one for a given description, but you only need to write one).
Absorbs UV light at 280 nm W,Y,F Has a positively charged side chain at pH 7.0 R, K Has a negatively charged side chain at pH 7.0 D,E Has no chiral centers G Has two chiral centers I, T Forms disulfide bonds C Contains a nonpolar aliphatic side chain A,L,V,I Contains a polar uncharged side chain S,T,C,N,Q
Glycolysis is the process by which energy is harvested from glucose by living things. Several of the reactions of glycolysis are thermodynamically unfavorable, nonspontaneous, but proceed when they are coupled with other reactions. A. Pi+glucose⟶glucose−6−phosphate+H2OΔ𝐺=3.30 kcal/molA. Pi+glucose⟶glucose−6−phosphate+H2OΔG=3.30 kcal/mol B. Pi+fructose−6−phosphate⟶fructose−1,6−bisphosphate+H2OΔ𝐺=3.90 kcal/molB. Pi+fructose−6−phosphate⟶fructose−1,6−bisphosphate+H2OΔG=3.90 kcal/mol C. ATP+H2O⟶ADP+PiΔ𝐺=−7.30 kcal/molC. ATP+H2O⟶ADP+PiΔG=−7.30 kcal/mol Which of the reactions are unfavorable?
B A
15. The sequence of b-endorphin is YGGFMTSQKSQTPLVTLFKNAIIKNAYKKGE. Which of the peptides below would be a product obtained by cleavage of b-endorphin with trypsin? A. Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe B. Asn-Ala-Ile-Ile-Lys C. Asn-Ala-Tyr D. Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Met E. Lys-Lys-Gly-Glu
B. Asn-Ala-Ile-Ile-Lys
Which of the following is an example of the hydrophobic effect? A. Sodium chloride dissolving in water. B. Fatty acids forming micelles when added to water. C. Cleavage of peptide bonds by acid hydrolysis. D. Cleavage of disulfide bonds by DTT E. All of the above. F. None of the above
B. Fatty acids forming micelles when added to water.
. Which of the following can be a hydrogen bond acceptor but not a hydrogen bond donor? A. water (H2O) B. formaldehyde (CH2O) C. ammonia (NH3) D. methanol (CH3OH) E. methylamine (CH3NH2)
B. formaldehyde (CH2O)
For each item below, determine whether it is only present in prokaryotic cells, only in eukaryotic cells, or in both types of cells. Plasma membrane Genome Membrane-enclosed organelles Ribosomes Nucleus ATP
Both Both Eukaryotes Both Eukaryotes Both
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) has pKa values of 2.14, 6.86 and 12.4. Over what range of pH values would a solution containing both H2PO4 - and HPO4 2- be an effective buffer? A. 2.14 - 12.4 B. 2.14 - 6.86 C. 5.86 - 7.86 D. 6.86 - 12.4 E. 11.4 - 13.4
C. 5.86 - 7.86
9. Which of the following phenomena are primarily responsible for the physical properties of water? A. London (dispersion) forces B. Electrostatic attraction/repulsion C. Hydrogen bonds D. The hydrophobic effect E. Steric repulsion
C. Hydrogen bonds
Which of the following functional groups is the most acidic? A. primary amino group (RNH3 +) B. hydroxyl group ROH C. carboxylic acid RCOOH D. thiol group RSH E. amido group RCONH2
C. carboxylic acid RCOOH
Which of the reactions are spontaneous (favorable)? L-malate+NAD+⟶oxaloacetate+NADH+H+Δ𝐺=29.7 kJ/mol DHAP↽−−⇀glyceraldehyde-3-phosphateΔ𝐺=3.8 kJ/molDHAP↽−−⇀glyceraldehyde-3-phosphateΔG=3.8 kJ/mol C6H13O9P+ATP⟶C6H14O12P2+ADPΔ𝐺=−14.2 kJ/mol C6H13O9P+ATP⟶C6H14O12P2+ADPΔG=−14.2 kJ/mol C2H4+H2−→−−Rh(I)C2H6Δ𝐺=−150.97kJ/mol C2H4+H2→Rh(I)C2H6ΔG=−150.97 kJ/mol C4H4O5⟶C4H2O4+H2OΔ𝐺=3.1kJ/mol C4H4O5⟶C4H2O4+H2OΔG=3.1 kJ/mol glutamate+NAD++H2O⟶NH+4+α-ketoglutarate+NADH+H+Δ𝐺=3.7 kcal/mol
C6H13O9P+ATP⟶C6H14O12P2+ADPΔG=−14.2 kJ/mol C2H4+H2−→−−Rh(I)C2H6Δ𝐺=−150.97 kJ/mol
living things can
Capture, store, and transmit energy Reproduce Adapt to environment Change over time generate chemical complexity -large complecated info rich molecules -nonrandom distributio of molecules -complex self assembled structures -replication of info and structure sense and respond to enviormental changes
What does the first law of thermodynamics state about energy? Energy can only transform and is neither created nor destroyed. Replenishment of energy occurs continuously to replace energy consumed. Decreasing the randomness of a system requires energy input. Energy transformation only occurs when an object is in motion.
Energy can only transform and is neither created nor destroyed.
C. Is this change reversible if you bring the pH back to neutral? Why or why not?
No. Once the peptide bonds are hydrolyzed, the protein molecule no longer exists - just a collection of amino acids. The joining of amino acids back into a protein is not spontaneous, and even if it was, there is nothing to drive the amino acids to reconnect in the same sequence they were originally in.
Propranolol is a chiral compound. (R)‑Propranolol is used as a contraceptive. (S)‑propranolol is used to treat hypertension. The structure of one of the propanolol isomers is shown. Complete the statement about propranolol. The structure shown represents ______ and the chiral carbon atom is labeled _____
R-propranolol , 2
10. A. When you add 6 M HCl to a protein in aqueous solution, what happens to the structure of that protein? Be as specific as possible about what aspects of the structure will change and what aspects of the structure will not change. B. Will the protein retain its normal biological function under these conditions?
Strong acid will hydrolyze all of the peptide bonds and reduce the protein to its constituent amino acids. Primary structure is lost as well as all higher levels of structure. No
Arrange the non‑covalent interactions in order of strength.
Strongest ion-ion interactions hydrogen bonding dipole-dipole interactions dispersion forces Weakest
Suppose that the gene for a protein 500500 amino acids in length undergoes a mutation. If the mutation causes the synthesis of a mutant protein in which just one of the 500500 amino acids is incorrect, the protein may lose its biological function. How can a small change in a protein's sequence inactivate the protein? The catalytic site of the protein may be malformed, preventing complementary fit. RNA may not recognize the altered DNA sequence, and bases may pair incorrectly. The resulting protein may fold incorrectly and may not attain its native conformation. The active site may base pair incorrectly with the complementary DNA strand. It may alter the shape of the protein's molecular chaperone, preventing proper protein folding.
The catalytic site of the protein may be malformed, preventing complementary fit. The resulting protein may fold incorrectly and may not attain its native conformation.
Suppose that a rare DNA replication error results in the duplication of a single gene, giving the daughter cell two copies of the same gene. How does this change favor the acquisition of a new function by the daughter cell? The copy can undergo a gain‑of‑function or loss‑of‑function mutation without altering the original gene's function. The copy has already‑formed domains with biological activity, so new functions do not need to evolve de novo. The duplicated gene increases the rate at which the cell can perform the function encoded by the original gene. The two genes can combine to form a new gene that encodes a protein with a new, additional function. The cell can make additional proteins, which then undergo alterations and can give rise to new functions.
The copy can undergo a gain‑of‑function or loss‑of‑function mutation without altering the original gene's function. The copy has already‑formed domains with biological activity, so new functions do not need to evolve de novo.
Suppose you have an enzyme ("firewoodase") that catalyzes the rapid conversion of firewood to H2OH2O and CO2CO2 at room temperature. How does the enzyme accomplish that, in thermodynamic terms? The enzyme increases the activation energy enough for the reaction to occur at room temperature. The enzyme increases the Δ𝐺°ΔG° enough for the reaction to occur at room temperature. The enzyme decreases the Δ𝐺°ΔG° enough for the reaction to occur at room temperature. The enzyme decreases the activation energy enough for the reaction to occur at room temperature.
The enzyme decreases the activation energy enough for the reaction to occur at room temperature.
Why does firewood stacked beside the fireplace not undergo spontaneous combustion to its much more stable products? The thermal energy in the wood is not sufficient to overcome the activation energy. The activation energy for this reaction is too low for it to occur spontaneously. The reaction needs an enzyme to overcome the activation energy. Δ𝐺°ΔG° for this reaction is too large for it to occur spontaneously.
The thermal energy in the wood is not sufficient to overcome the activation energy.
The first law of thermodynamics applies when pumping air into the tire of a bicycle. Which statement best explains why? Work performed on the pump pushes air into the tire. The pump heats the air, allowing it to flow into the tire. Work performed on the tire draws air in from the pump. Pumping air into the tire increases the entropy of the tire.
Work performed on the pump pushes air into the tire.
Ala-Asp-Arg in the ionization state it would have at pH 7.0 B Calculate the pI of this peptide.
There are four ionizable groups - the N-terminal amino group (pKa 9.60), the C-terminal carboxylate (pKa 2.34), and the side chains of aspartate (pKa 3.65) and arginine (pKa 12.48) The peptide has a net charge of 0 after the Asp is deprotonated (above pH 3.65) and while the N-terminus is still protonated (below pH 9.60). So, pI = (3.65+9.60)/2 = 6.63
An evolutionary tree is shown in the image. Similar genes are represented by boxes. The letters X, Y, and Z represent different species. Similarly colored genes designate genes present in the same species (species X, Y, or Z). For example, the pink "Z" genes (Zα, Zβ1, and Zβ2) are present in species Z. Which genes are homologs?
Yα and Yβ Yα and Zβ1 X and Zβ2 Zβ1 and Zβ2
Glycolysis is the process by which energy is harvested from glucose by living things. Several of the reactions of glycolysis are thermodynamically unfavorable, nonspontaneous, but proceed when they are coupled with other reactions. A. Pi+glucose⟶glucose−6−phosphate+H2OΔ𝐺=3.30 kcal/molA. Pi+glucose⟶glucose−6−phosphate+H2OΔG=3.30 kcal/mol B. Pi+fructose−6−phosphate⟶fructose−1,6−bisphosphate+H2OΔ𝐺=3.90 kcal/molB. Pi+fructose−6−phosphate⟶fructose−1,6−bisphosphate+H2OΔG=3.90 kcal/mol C. ATP+H2O⟶ADP+PiΔ𝐺=−7.30 kcal/molC. ATP+H2O⟶ADP+PiΔG=−7.30 kcal/mol What is the net change in free energy if one set of reactions from the previous question is coupled so that the overall reaction is favorable? If you selected more than one pair of reactions in the previous question, enter the net change for any one of your selected sets.
delta G= -3.4kcal/mol
Arrange the following types of interactions in order of strength, from weakest to strongest. dispersion forces, covalent bonds, ion-ion interactions, hydrogen bonds
dispersion forces < hydrogen bonds < ion-ion interactions < covalent bonds
sequence of a protein is encoded in the
dna sequence of a gene
Monosaccharides
glucose, fructose, galactose -polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone -linear chain w 3 or more carbons -linked by glycosidic linkages
____ must obtain at least some carbon from organic materials.
heterotrophs
____ include organisms that can use sunlight to generate energy.
heterotrophs + autotrophs
most abundant elements in cells
hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur
peptide bond cleavage is a ____ reaction
hydrolysis
common functional groups in biochem:oxygen
hydroxyl water alcohol ether hydronium ion oxonium ion hemiacetal acetal aldehyde ketone carbonyl group carbox acid carboxylate carbox ester acid anhydride acetic acid acetate acetyl group