Biodiversity

What can removing species from the various trophic levels cause?

1. It can have a huge impact on energy flows and nutrient recycling.

Why does biodiversity/biological resources need to be carefully managed?

1. It is increasingly recognised that human and ecological wellbeing are interlinked. 2. Threats are posed by the overexploitation of particular species, the introduction of exotic species into established ecosystems and by the broader impacts of population growth, economic development and urbanisation.

Deforestation

1. The clearance of forest cover results in loss of biodiversity and resources for the indigenous populations, with knock on effects on the food web and nutrient cycling. There are also wider environmental impacts, as the removal of forest cover leads to increased soil erosion and flooding.

What is the concept of sustainable yield?

1. This is a key part of sustainable management of ecosystems. It represents the 'safe' level of harvest that can be hunted/caught/utilised without harming the individual ecosystem.

What is genetic diversity?

Genetic diversity is the range of genes found within a particular species. Genetic diversity often determines the degree of resistance to pests and diseases.

Why is diversity needed?

It is needed to enable the ecosystem to carry out its functions, such as carbon cycling, with maximum efficiency

Impacts of 3 different temperature rises.

1. 1 degree C - 10% of land species will face extinction. Coral-reef bleaching will be more frequent, especially in the southern Indian ocean, Great Barrier Reef and Caribbean. Species-rich tropical mountain habitats are likely to lose many species. 2. 2 degree C- Between 15% and 40% of land species could face extinction, with most major species groups affected, including 25-60% of mammals in South Africa and 15-25% of butterflies in Australia. Coral reefs are expected to bleach annually in many areas. Almost 5% of the low tundra and 25% of coniferous forest could be lost. 3. 3 degree C, anything between 20% and 50% of land species could face extinction. Massive losses in biodiversity expected in hotspots. Large areas of coastal wetlands will be lost as a result of rising sea levels. Mangroves will be flooded, removing a natural coastal defence. Coral reefs will die. Strong drying in the tropics could lead to destruction of rainforests.

What are the range of players in biodiversity?

1. A range of players have a role in managing biodiversity. They can operate at a variety of scales, with local players being most closely involved because of their likely dependency on biodiversity for their wellbeing. 2. However, many people argue that the global or international players wield the greatest power. 3. Some groups are committed to conservation, while others rely on exploiting the resource, although not always for the same purposes. Conflicts are thus inevitable.

Which country has the highest levels of biodiversity?

1. A ranking of countries according to their level of biodiversity puts Brazil at the top. 2. Brazil has 55,000 species of flowering plant, 1635 species of bird and nearly 400 species of mammal. 3. Brazil contains Amazonia, the largest rainforest in the world, which also has the highest biodiversity. 4. In 100kmsquared of the Amazon there is 60 species of amphibian, 1500 species of flowering plants, 750 species of tree, 400 types of bird, 150 butterfly species and 100 kinds of reptile.

What does recent research suggest about climate change?

1. A rise as small as 0.05 to 0.1 degree per decade is more than most species would be able to withstand , as they would not be able to migrate polewards fast enough. 2. The pace would be too great for evolutionary process of in situ adaptation. 3. Global warming will lead to not only to increases in temperature and changes in rainfall but also to more damaging and frequent extreme weather events, such as floods, storms and droughts. 4. It will also have an indirect effects through sea level rises and increased risks from pests and diseases. 5. Vulnerable ecosystems such as cloud forests on tropical mountain tops and the tundra are likely to disappear almost completely even at quite modest levels of warming. 6. The threat of climate change and its potential impacts on biodiversity are made worse by the fact that human pressures such as deforestation, pollution and over-exploitation, have already put many species on the verge of extinction , it will need only the smallest change in climate to tip them over the brink.

What do the 4 future biodiversity scenarios predict?

1. All four scenarios predict rapid conversion of ecosystems especially of grassland and forests to farmland or for urbanisation. 2. The rates depend on the changes in population, consumption and overall wealth. 3. Habitat losses will accelerate leading to loss of native species. 4. In 3 of 4 scenarios there will be net improvements in at least one service category, in spite of continued biodiversity loss. The exception is scenario 2. 5.There is a contrast between the industrialised and developing world. 6. The WWF's Living Planet Report has also attempted to model ways of ending the ecological deficit 'overshoot'-the amount by which the ecological footprint exceeds the biological capacity of the space available to the population. Two possible pathways 'actions and ways' are defined. actions=to reduce ecological footprint e.g. by changing consumption patterns to be more equitable and sustainable, improve production systems to lead to more efficient use e.g. of energy, controlling the human population Ways=Maintain/develop biological capacity e.g. by protecting ecosystems, manage ecosystems, restore ecosystems. both actions and ways aim to eliminate the ecological deficit (overshoot)

What is a biodiversity hotspot?

1. An area containing a huge number of species, a large percentage of which are endemic. 2. They cover less than 2% of the Earth's surface, yet they contain 44% of the world's plant species and 35% of its animal species. 3. There are 25 land based hotspots.

Why does the movement of species pose a threat to ecosystems? Invasive species

1. As the world becomes more globally connected the movement of species from one part of the world to another, whether deliberately or by accident, poses an increasingly serious threat to ecosystems. Alien or exotic species may become established at any trophic level in the ecosystem. Such species usually share the following features. 2. -They have enhanced survival rates because they are more efficient competitors than native species. -As alien species, they lack any native predator -They are not susceptible to indigenous diseases. 3. Invasive species can be difficult to control and are easily established and spread fast, many have harmful impacts on existing food webs as they take over.

What is biodiversity strongly correlated with?

1. Biodiversity is strongly correlated with latitude, the highest levels of biodiversity generally occur in tropical countries e.g. in countries in South America such as Brazil. 2. Most of these countries that experience these high levels of biodiversity are developing countries and they have the least resources to support sophisticated conservation strategies to tackle biodiversity loss. 3. There is a gradual decrease in biodiversity towards higher latitudes. This spatial pattern is linked to the presence or absence of limiting factors controlling the amount of primary productivity. There are anomalies, such as the continental island of Australia, which has high levels of endemism.

What is biodiversity?

1. Biodiversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources-terrestrial, marine and aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part. 2. Essentially, the totality of genes, species and ecosystems in a given area.

What does biodiversity result from?

1. Biodiversity results from natural processes and so varies across the world. 2. It is a key resource, providing valuable goods and services to people.

What is the value of coral reefs? e.g. the great barrier reef in australia biodiversity, shoreline protection, food

1. Biodiversity, although coral reefs occupy only 0.15% of the marine environment, they are home to over 25% of all known marine fish. 2. They rival rainforests in their biodiversity, although 4000 species of reef-living fish and 800 species of reef-building corals have been identified and catalogued, scientists think these are only a fraction of the total. Many species could become extinct without ever being discovered. 3. Shoreline protection, they 'buffer' coasts from wave erosion and the impact of storms at much lower cost than artificial defences. These natural self repairing breakwaters will become even more critical as global warming causes sea levels to rise. Reefs have the ability to grow with rising sea levels, provided water conditions are "healthy" for growth. 4.Food, local people eat fish, conch, lobsters, sea urchins and sea cucumbers from reefs. Reefs also make a major contribution to commercial fishing. Globally, 20% of animal protein consumed by people comes from marine environments with coral reefs providing 25% of the total fish catch. Population growth and the introduction of high tech commercial fishing have put increasing pressure on reefs, especially in the far east, where reef fisheries feed 1 billion people.

What 4 scenarios do the WWF anticipate?

1. Business as usual, leading to an increased ecological footprint and no reduction in the overshoot or the degree to which consumption exceeds biological capacities. 2. Slow shift, gradually reducing the ecological footprint by developing many sustainable policies so that biological capacities recover by the year 2100. 3. Rapid reduction, with radical policies to control ecological footprints, leading to the elimination of the overshoot by 2040 . 4. Shrink and share, breaking down the world into regions in order to share the responsibility of controlling the overshoot by global cooperation. these scenarios do not guarantee the future of global diversity, the future is full of unknowns, including the values, attitudes and perceptions of people, particularly the decision makers. The tension between economic development and biodiversity may be irreconcilable.

What 3 categories are biodiversity hotspots divided into?

1. Continental hotspots, these are the richest in terms of biodiversity e.g. the Cape Floral region in South Africa. 2. Large island (or continental island hotspots), these harbour diverse and distinctive species which can include relict fauna long extinct on the main continents. 3. Small island hotspots, these are often low in species numbers but contain a high proportion of endemics. Species on these islands are susceptible to extinction due to small populations, physical disturbances, human exploitation and vulnerability to the introduction of alien species.

What processes are fundamental to ecosystem functioning?

1. Energy flows, primary producers (green plants) at trophic level 1 convert sunlight into energy by photosynthesis. As energy is lost through respiration at each stage of the process, the amount of biomass at each trophic level decreases. A food chain or a more complex food web exists between the trophic levels. For example, caterpillars eat leaves, small birds eat caterpillars and birds of prey catch small birds. People catch or harvest various tertiary consumers 2. Nutrient cycling, this is the circulation of chemical elements from the environment to organisms and back again to the environment. Nutrients are stored in three parts of the ecosystem: in the soil, in the living biomass and in surface litter. They cycle between them via three main pathways 3. In the uptake or growth pathway, compounds of nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium etc are taken from the soil by plants. As plants or animals die, they contribute nutrients to the litter store via the fallout pathway. 4. The decay pathway is formed by decomposition of litter to humus. This is an open cycle, as nutrients can be added or removed by processes such as rock weathering or leaching. People can have an impact on the cycle by adding nutrients via fertilisers, by reducing the biomass through overharvesting and deforestation and by degrading the soil. Once deprived of nutrients, soils are vulnerable to erosion.

What are the local factors that impact biodiversity?

1. Fire was once widely used in Europe and North America to clear forests for settlement and development, but today there is fierce opposition when it is used to clear rainforest for cattle grazing and soya bean production. Fire is an essential part of slash and burn farming practices, but large-scale burning causes a loss of biodiversity. 2. Controlled fire, is used as a management tool on grazing land for example in maintaining heather on the grouse moors of Scotland or managing ecosystems in National Parks to ensure succession. Arson also poses a major threat, causing hazardous fires capable of destroying rare ecosystems and species. 3. Habitat change, for example developing natural habitats for agriculture, mineral working or urban growth inevitably leads to loss of biodiversity. 4. Modern large scale agriculture reduces biodiversity but the impacts can be reduced by creating features such as hedgerows, ponds, copses and shelter belts. 5. Overexploitation, such as overfishing in the North Sea can easily unbalance food webs and lead to species extinction. 6. Recreational use is often made of areas where ecosystems are fragile -plants are vulnerable to trampling and animals to disturbance. its impact depends on the natural carrying capacity, the level of use and how recreational use is managed. 7. There are many recorded examples of rapidly expanding recreation and tourist use damaging ecosystems in near-pristine environments such as Antartica or the Galapagos. 8. Mineral exploitation can also be particularly damaging and disruptive, with open-cast extraction leaving huge holes and toxic spoil heaps scarring the landscape e.g. the deepwater horizon oil spill.

Fynbos, South Africa case study

1. Fynbos is the major vegetation type of the small botanical region in South Africa known as the Cape floral kingdom. 2. only 5 other floral kingdoms are recognised and these cover huge areas, such as the whole of Australia and most of the northern hemisphere. 3. The Cape floral kingdom is both the smallest and the richest , with the higher known concentration of plant species-1300 per 10,000 km squared. 4. The region is home to 7700 plant species, 70% of which are endemics i.e. confined to the cape floral kingdom. 5. Fynbos plants are adapted to the mediterranean climate of the cape particularly summer heat and drought. 6. Current threats to the region include, the spread of alien plants such as Hakea and Australian Acacia. -commercial forestry using non-native species such as european pines. -frequent bush fires (some attributed to arson). -construction of housing estates around Cape Town. -intensification of agriculture. 7. There are 12 nature reserves, 51,000 ha and 4 designated wilderness areas 123,000 ha in the fynbos areas. No development including the construction of power lines and roads may be undertaken here without special approval.

What are examples of invasive species being introduced to the UK and what impact did they have?

1. Game species such as pheasants and rainbow trout, mainly for sporting purposes. 2. Plant species for scenic purposes. The classic examples is the Rhododendron, brought from the Indian subcontinent in the 18th century to add colour to great british estates. Rhododendrons now flourish in many parts of the UK but to such an extent that they hinder the development of natural vegetation and the regeneration of woodland. In National parks and nature reserves there are now programmes to eradicate them and give the native flora a chance to flourish. 3. Species brought in for a particular purpose. The hedgehog was imported from the scottish mainland to the Outer hebrides to deal with a plague of garden slugs. Unfortunately, the hedgehogs developed a taste for the eggs of ground nesting birds, populations of which dwindled at an alarming rate. The important point here is that although the hedgehog is a native species in mainland britain it did not colonise the Hebrides after the last ice age.

What are the three dimensions of diversity?

1. Genetic diversity 2. Species diversity 3. Ecosystem diversity

What futures does the MEA predict (Millennium ecosystems assessments)?

1. Global orchestration-a globally connected society that focuses on global trade and economic liberalisation and takes a reactive approach to ecosystem problems. It takes strong steps to reduce poverty and inequality and invests in public goods such as infrastructure and education. Economic growth is highest in this scenario and predicted population in 2050 is lowest. 2. Order from strength-A regionalised and fragmented world that is concerned with security and protections, emphasises regional markets, pays little attention to public goods and takes a reactive approach to ecosystem problems. Economic growth rates are lowest in this scenario (particularly in developing countries) and decreases with time, while population growth is the highest. 3. Adapting Mosaic- Regional watershed-scale ecosystems are the focus of political and economic activity. Local institutions are strengthened and local ecosystem management strategies are common; societies develop a proactive approach to the management of ecosystems. Economic growth rates are low initially but increase in time and the population in 2050 is nearly as high as in the order from strength scenario 4. Techno garden-a globally connected world relying on environmentally sound technology, using highly managed often engineered ecosystems to deliver services and taking a proactive approach to management of ecosystems. Economic growth is relatively high and accelerates while population in 2050 is in the mid-range of the scenarios.

Who is an important player on a national scale?

1. Governments play a vital role in the management of biodiversity, acting as both regulators and facilitators. 2. In terms of regulation, they establish and enforce laws to conserve genetic biodiversity, protect various areas and species and regulate damaging activities such as using polluting agro-chemicals or releasing invasive species. 3. They also manage natural resources, providing clean air, water or open space. They fund preservation/conservation and development, often by a system of taxes and subsidies. Positive incentives to conserve are increasingly used, for example paying farmers to be stewards of the landscape and to farm in environmentally friendly ways.

What are the global factors that threaten biodiversity?

1. Habitat change/deforestation 2. Climate change 3. Invasive species 4. Over exploitation 5. Pollution (nitrogen, phosphorus).

What has led to genetic erosion and genetic pollution? What do these two problems cause?

1. In agro-ecosystems, breeding new varieties of cereal, such as rice and wheat has led to genetic erosion and genetic pollution. 2. These in turn have caused a narrowing of the genetic base and a general weakening of plant resistance to disease and climate change. This is likely to have a major adverse impact on future global food security.

What is conservation? In situ, ex situ

1. In situ conservation involves a huge variety of protected areas serving a multitude of purposes. Protecting within the natural habitat. 2. An alternative for endangered species is to establish a captive population away from its natural habitat (ex situ conservation). This includes captive breeding with release schemes and biodiversity banks such as genetic and seed banks in zoos and botanic gardens. 3. Several species have been saved in this way, including the giant Panda and the Nene/Hawaiian goose. 4. Ex-situ and in situ conservation are not rivals but work together to increase endangered populations and re-establish near extinct ones. Zoos can link directly with protected areas providing stock to release and funds for conservation from ticket sales. Captive stock such as the Panda can be used to educated people on hotspots, endemism and endangered species. Captive breeding buys time but releasing endangered species back into the environment is problematic. 5. World Heritage site e.g. the Great Barrier reef, Wetlands refuge (RAMSAR), National Park

What does total protection involve?

1. In the 1960s total protection was the order of the day, with areas completely fenced off from the local people, but in the 1980s concepts such as biosphere reserves surrounded by buffer zones for use by local people were developed. 2. In the twenty-first century, conservation means much more than guarding rare species inside fenced scientific reserves. 3. Economic development is integrated with biodiversity conservation, using a huge variety of sustainable strategies such as tolerant forest management, extractive reserves and ecotourism, all adapted to suit the particular habitat and involve local people. 4. This recognises that successful conservation is influenced by social, cultural, economic and political factors.

How are individuals important players in biodiversity?

1. Individuals are the most diverse group of all, in their demands as consumers of food, fuel, water, shelter etc. In the developed world ethical consumerism has led people choosing to buy environmentally friendly products e.g. (dolphin friendly tuna). Local food campaigns can challenge the 'food mile' aspects of supermarket operations and consumers can influence supermarket behaviour. 2. Individuals also see ecosystems as places for spiritual renewal and recreation, and their behaviour has an enormous positive or negative impact. As fragile places such as the Galapagos or Antartica begin to experience mass tourism, ecosystem management issues arise. 3. Individuals such as divers, birdwatchers, fishermen or mountaineers may unite to form special interest groups. Their collective actions can cause degradation and damage in high quality eco-regions and hotspots. 4. Scientists and researchers work for a variety of international, national and non-governmental organisations. They play a vital role in monitoring the state of biodiversity and enhancing its quality. Some however are paid to find new products for pharmaceutical companies, which can lead to conflict with indigenous peoples.

What local players are important in Biodiversity?

1. Local communities have diverse values. Indigenous peoples are often dependent on biodiversity for basic survival. For many, local biodiversity has spiritual significance as well as practical value, and they have great knowledge about local plants and their uses, for example in traditional medicine. 2. Local communities of farmers or fishermen frequently have strong views about conservation as it conflicts with their subsistence. With good management, however, local communities of farmers or fishermen frequently have strong views about conservation, as it conflicts with their subsistence. 3. With good management, however, local communities can form a vital force as conservation crusaders. There are a number of successful schemes you can research where people manage their own local resources for ecotourism. 4. In the UK, country wildlife trusts (examples of small-scale NGOs) have developed their own biodiversity plans to involve local people in conservation.

What is the Value of coral reefs? Medicine The aquarium trade decorative objectives building materials education and research tourist magnets coral reefs of St Lucia and Tobago

1. Medicine, Algae and sponges yield bioactive compounds used by the pharmaceutical industry. Reef species support new treatments for bacterial infections, as well as some cancers and corals are used for bone grafts. 2. The aquarium trade, reefs contain resident animals, such as soft corals , sea anemones, sea horses and small tropical fish. 3. Decorative objects, although international law regulates the use of black coral, the ornamental and jewellery trade still supports many indigenous craft industries. 4. Building materials, coral reefs are mined for lime and stone in countries that lack alternative basic construction materials. 5. Education and research, they provide ideal habitats because of their shallow water and easy accessibility from the shore. 6. Tourist magnets, more than 100 of the 109 countries with reefs in their territorial waters have established tourist industries. Some Caribbean countries derive around half of their GNP from tourism.

What is nutrient loading and why is it a problem? What is the result of nutrient loading?

1. Nutrient loading has a significant impact on ecosystem processes. Excess nutrients in the soil, usually in the form of nitrates and phosphates, are washed into lakes and rivers. This is a natural process but it has been increased by human activity, particularly the use of chemical fertilisers and detergents, the release of farmyard slurry and the removal of hedgerows, which causes increased soil erosion. Many lakes are now overloaded with nutrients. 2. The result of nutrient loading is eutrophication. Initially the extra nutrients reaching ponds and lakes lead to increased growth of water plants Microscopic plants proliferate, causing algal blooms. 3. These block out light in the lower depths, reducing the number of large plants. Zooplankton (microscopic animals) are primary consumers and feed on the algae, but as the large plants die, fish take to eating more and more of the zooplankton. Algae consumption declines. 4. Dead algae pile up and are gradually broken down by bacteria, but this uses up the oxygen in the water. Falling oxygen levels lead to the death of both plants and animals, causing the food chain to collapse and the pond or lake to become almost lifeless. This process is well documented in the Norfolk broads, but is happening in over three-quarters of the world's lakes. 5. Eutrophication can have a number of knock-on effects. It can lead to contaminated drinking water. Some algal blooms are harmful and can contaminate fish and shellfish and lead to gastrointestinal illness for humans. Eutrophication in east African lakes is threatening colonies of flamingos and other wetland birds.

Global players in biodiversity

1. On a global scale, countries get together to develop wildlife conservation treaties. There are now some 150 such treaties. They normally require an agreed number of country signatures before they become international law. 2. International treaties are usually about funding conservation work, designating protected areas and regulating trade in endangered species. 3. The 5 most influential international treaties in effect today but agreed before the Convention on Biological Diversity was established in 1992 are as follows. -The Ramsar Convention to conserve wetlands was signed in Ramsar (Iran) in 1971. It is now adopted by 147 countries. -The World Heritage Convention to designate and protect outstanding cultural and natural sites was signed in 1972 and its adopted by over 180 countries. -The convention on International trade in Endangered Species (CITES) was signed in 1973 and is adopted by 166 countries. It has controlled trade in a range of species and their products. -The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory species of Wild animals was signed in 1979 and by 2005 had been adopted by 90 countries to prevent shooting of birds in passage. -The UN convention on the law of the Sea (UNCLOS) has been ratified by 148 countries.

What has occurred over time?

1. Over geological time, species have become extinct as a result of climate change , random catastrophic events, predation, disease and competition with other species. 2. Geologists have identified 5 mass extinction events over the last 600 million years. 3. Ecologists are concerned that there is the potential for another mass extinction event to occur, but this time the human population will play the key role. 3. Audits of the Earth's ecosystems report an increasing rate of habitat destruction and species extinctions and therefore widespread biodiversity loss.

Pollution

1. Pollution takes many forms, but the most significant in terms of reducing biodiversity are: the acidification of oceans and acid precipitation on land, nitrate and phosphate pollution in lakes and coastal waters, airborne pollution for example from the use of DDT and ozone depletion from CFCs.

What regional factors influence biodiversity?

1. Productivity, this is probably the most significant factor. High temperatures and humidity levels, rich supplies of nutrients and light for photosynthesis and a lack of annual seasons all encourage high primary productivity and therefore abundant energy, as for example in rainforests and coral reefs. Conversely, factors limiting growth (cold and aridity) reduce the range and numbers of species. 2. Habitat architecture, high primary productivity encourages the development of a complex trophic pyramid with many ecological niches. This system is capable of supporting high levels of biodiversity. 3, Habitat heterogeneity, a varied physical environment will harbour greater biodiversity because it provides a wider range of habitats for a larger variety of species.

What are services?

1. Regulating services are those which are vital to the functioning of the Earth's systems. For example, forests act as the "green lungs" of the world and as important carbon sinks. Trees remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and release oxygen. They also protect against flooding and against soil erosion on slopes. 2. Cultural services provided by ecosystems include the aesthetic and spiritual enjoyment that people draw from them and opportunities for recreation. 3. Supporting services, these include processes such as nutrient cycling, soil formation and primary production that are vital to the wellbeing of the ecosystem itself, they also include the provision of wildlife habitats. These are not services that support people.

Other examples of invasive species

1. Some alien species arrive by ship. For exmple, the zebra mussel arrived in North America from the Caspian sea in ships' ballast water or possibly clinging to the sides of ships. With the completion of the St Lawrence Seaway, ocean going ships brought these mussels to the Great Lakes. In the absence of predators they multiplied in Lake Erie to a staggering 70,000 individuals per m^2 and reduced phytoplankton by 80%. This allowed greater light penetration and led to algal blooms which lower the quality of the lake water. As these mussels grow on each other and other shells such as clams they block water intakes and outlets causing power stations to shut down for cleaning. 2. The North American ruddy ducK was brought to Slimbridge (Gloucestershire) as part of an international wildfowl collection. Some birds escaped and colonised ponds and lakes, not just in Britain but also on mainland europe. This was not worrying until it was discovered that the ruddy duck was beginning to interbreed with one of Europe's endangered species, the white-headed duck. Since then, there has been a programme to eliminate this highly successful 'foreigner' which has caused outrage.

What aspects does species diversity have?

1. Species richness (how many species) 2. Disparity (different species/species abundance) 3. Endemism, the rarity of some of the constituent species.

What local factors influence biodiversity?

1. Succession, biodiversity increases as species establish themselves, interact and subtly alter the environment. This is well illustrated by the successions that occur in sand dunes or a pond. In general, biodiversity increases over time with the immigration, establishment and development of species, leading to the creation of a succession or sequence. 2. Interaction between species . This can lead to competition which in turn may drive certain species to extinction, particularly when exotic species are introduced. 3. Distrubance, major environmental disasters such as fires, flooding and storms can destroy biodiversity. 4. Dispersal and colonisation, individual species' dispersal and colonisation rates have an impact on biodiversity. High rates of efficiency enhance biodiversity.

Which countries protect 25% of their land area?

1. Tanzania, New Zealand, Ecuador and Poland, now have 25% of their land area protected. 2. At the same time there has been a change in the type of conservation strategies used and therefore in the type of protected area.

Where has the SMMA received funding from and what are its achievements?

1. The SMMA has received funding from a number of agencies including the Caribbean Conservation Association, the ENCORE project and the French government. It is currently self-financing, although external funding occasionally finances additional projects. 2. Achievements are as followed: -reduction of conflicts among users -increase in fish biomass within marine reserves -increase in fish biodiversity (increased number of fish species observed per count in annual censuses_ -A self-financing management area -A management team involving the continued participation of all stakeholders. 3. Soufriére offers a good example of how an integrated approach to bottom-up management of natural resources has worked. It shows that is everyone feels they have been consulted and their interests protected, the chances of a successful outcome are considerable.

Who are the international institutions that are significant players on a global scale?

1. The UN agencies, the World Bank, the World Trade Organisation and bodies such as ITTO (The International Tropical Timber Organisation), a cartel of tropical timber producers and consumer countries which has developed mechanisms for forest conservation. Some of their activities can be controversial, as many are top-down in nature, and they initially favoured large, short term projects, rather than ones that met long term local needs in developing countries. 2. Non-governmental organisations also play a vital role in biodiversity conservation. Some like WWF and Greenpeace International, operate on a global scale: WWF for example operates in more than 100 countries. Its mission is to stop degradation of the planet's natural environment and build a future in which people live in harmony with nature. Others are smaller, one-issue organisations such as FAN (a Bolivian conservation NGO), whose mission is to conserve biodiversity by protecting sustainable and equitable use of natural resources in eastern Bolivia. 3. NGOs vary in their methods of action and do not always agree. Greenpeace captures public attention by taking direct action on conservation issues such as illegal whaling. It achieves wide media coverage and lobbies governments. Not all conservationists favour the direct action of Greenpeace ships, which intercept Japanese whalers.

What is the difference between destruction of an area and degradation?

1. The destruction of an area of an ecosystem is (total clearance) whereas degradation is loss of quality. They are often linked but some large eco-regions have not decreased in extent but have become very degraded. 2. This is the case in many savanna areas of Africa and also in its rainforests, where secondary forest mosaic has replaced pristine forest.

What does restoration entail?

1. The restoration of highly degraded ecosystems is the ultimate conservation challenge. Restoration can include recreating wetlands (river restoration) or linking up small fragmented reserves to produce a larger, more climate-proof reserve, for example the Great Fen project in East Anglia. 2. These reconnection schemes require costly land purchases so they have to emphasise local benefits such as recreation. 3. Restoration of derelict sites such as spoil heaps, mines and quarries is even more expensive because the ecosystem and habitat have to be reconstructed virtually from scratch. A lot depends on how readily plants will reseed and how polluted the land is.

Sustainable yield management case study in the southern ocean fisheries, how dod you calculate fishing yield

1. The southern ocean encircles Antartica and accounts for 10% of the world's ocean. Thanks to the Antarctic Treaty System (1961), the fisheries are now sustainably managed. Before this, the fishing grounds were overharvested by fleets of soviet trawlers. This led to the extinction of several species of fin fish. 2. The model used to calculate fishing yield is one of the most sophisticated because of its three-pronged approach: -the single species approach sets limits for harvesting individual species that are indefinitely sustainable. -the ecosystem approach involves considering harvested species both on their own and in relation to dependent species and the whole environment. -the precautionary principle aims to model the consequences of any planned expansion of catches before it is permitted.

How does climate change threaten biodiversity?

1. The stern review on the economics of climate change (2005) argues that climate change is likely to occur too rapidly for many species to adapt. 2. The global warming experienced during the last quarter of the 20th century has already given a hint of ecosystem impacts. 3. Species have been moving polewards by an average of 6km per decade. Phenological studies show that seasonal events such as flowering, egg laying and fruiting have been advancing by several days each decade. 4. Coral bleaching resulting from warming oceans has increased since the 1980s. This combined with ocean acidification caused by rising levels of carbon dioxide in the oceans, poses a threat to the wellbeing of many coral reefs. 5. Of course the degree to which biodiversity is threatened by climate change will depend on the scale and rate of the increase in global temperatures.

Global warming impact on biodiversity in the Arctic

1. There will be a localised shifting of ecosystems in a poleward direction. Coniferous forests will expand into the tundra zone, which in turn will spread into fragmented areas of polar desert. 2. The tundra, with its rare arctic plants, will shrink as rising sea levels drown coastal areas. 3. Increased forest fires and insect infestations are expected to ravage coniferous forests and reduce both biomass and biodiversity. 4. Marine life will respond to warmer sea temperatures and reduced ice cover. Improved food supplies will mean bigger fish stocks and the appearance of new species. 5. Fragile food webs could be easily damaged, leading to the loss of tundra mosses and lichens that provide the main food for animals such as reindeer(caribou). Declining deer numbers will affect species that hunt them, such as wolves or scavenge on them such as arctic foxes. changes in arctic ecosystems will have global consequences because of the links between the Arctic and ecosystems much further south. Many migrant bird species depend on summer feeding and breeding grounnds in the Arctic. In the future migrant birds will have to fly further north and spend more time searching for suitable breeding and feeding areas.

What are terrestrial eco-regions?

1. These are large areas of land containing geographically distinct assemblies of species, natural communities and habitats. 2. Most significant is the distribution of the most threatened eco-regions-those classified as 'critical or endangered' many hotspots fall into this category. 3. In 1990 the most converted and therefore most threatened biomes were in the temperate zone (mediterranean forests, woodland and scrub ; temperate forest , steppe and woodland; temperate broadleaf and mixed forests). 4. This reflects the fact that these parts of the globe have a long history of human settlement and are the most economically developed. 5. The projected losses by 2050 indicate that the threat is shifting to the topics. 6. This may be because of high rates of population growth and rising levels of resource exploitation (often for the benefit of other parts of the worth). The very high latitude biomes (boreal forests and tundra) appear relatively unthreatened-but for how much longer.

What provisioning services do ecosystems provide?

1. These can also be referred to as goods, are products derived directly from the ecosystem, such as timber for fuel and building or fruits, meat and fish for food. 2. Some goods such as fruits and nuts, are sustainable but the exploitation of other goods, such as hardwood timber, can exhaust the supply. 3. It is sometimes possible to place an economic value on goods but difficult to do this for services.

What do the Udzungwa, Masai Mara and SMMA case studies illustrate ?

1. They illustrate the inherent tension between pursuing economic development and protecting the biodiversity of environments. 2. On the one hand, it is recognised that poor local people have a right to expect improvements in their standards of living and wellbeing. Equally the wider world increasingly expects these people to sacrifice their needs in the cause of conserving biodiversity. 3. Adopting a bottom-up approach that involves local people and promises them some practical rewards from playing their part in conservation programmes could help relax this tension.

How do transnational corporations operate?

1. They operate on a global scale. They can determine which goods and services are produced and how (whether by environmentally friendly or detrimental methods). 2. Increasingly, TNCs are favouring green strategies for reasons such as public image and long term benefit. They are providing direct investment for a range of climate "proofing" and renewable energy project as well as for traditional exploitation. 3. They also drive innovation and technology change by the process of technology transfer, sometimes with positive effects but more usually to the detriment of ecosystems.

What is the carrying capacity?

1. This is the maximum human population that can exist in equilibrium with the available resources (food, nutrients etc). The major problem is that carrying capacity varies seasonally and over time may be reduced by climate change.

Soufriére Marine Management area SMMA: protected bottom up

1. This management area is focused around the coastal town of the Soufriére on the Caribbean island of St Lucia. Offshore there are magnificent coral reefs and much marine biodiversity. The people of Soufriére work in agriculture, fishing or tourism. The tension between the last two activities led to the creation of the SMMA in 1995. This was because a range of environmental problems began to get out of hand. -degradation of coastal water quality with direct impacts on human health and the wellbeing of the reef ecosystem. -depletion of near-shore fish resources -loss of economic, scientific and recreational potential of coral reefs, particularly for diving tourism. -degradation of beach landscapes and environmental quality by hotel developments -pollution from rubbish disposal in ravines or into the sea -yacht anchor damage to reefs. -sedimentation of the reefs caused by runoff from rivers and storm damage. There were 5 main stakeholder conflicts: 1. Between the commercial dive operators and fishermen over the use of the coral reefs. 2. Between yachts and fishermen because of anchoring in fishing areas. 3. Between the local community and hoteliers over access to beaches. 4. Between fishermen and local and national authorities over the location of a jetty in a fishing priority area. 5. between fishermen and hoteliers over the use of the beaches for commercial fishing or recreational, tourism oriented activities. After a number of consultations with all the stakeholders, including government organisations, non-governmental organisations and users of the areas, the SMMA was divided into 5 zones: marine reserves, fishing priority areas, yacht mooring areas, recreational areas and multiple use areas.

What is species diversity?

1. This refers to the variety of plant and animal species present in an ecosystem. 2. Species diversity bolsters an ecosystem's resilience to withstand climate change.

What is ecosystem diversity?

1. This relates to the number of different ecosystems within a given area. 2. This is partly controlled by physical conditions, particularly climate, geology, relief and soils. 3. The ability of people to modify and eliminate ecosystems is a threat to ecosystem diversity.

The Masau Mara game reserve case study- a degraded area top-down

1. This reserve belongs to the Masai people who experienced a breakdown in management which led to a decline in the general state of its grassland ecosystems. 2. The park fees paid by tourists were meant to go towards protecting the reserve and providing social services and support for local tribesmen living on adjacent land. 3. Unfortunately, little of the money reached its intended destination. The Park rangers were not properly paid and lacked basic equipment such as CB radio and four-wheel drive vehicles. They could do little to stop widespread and illegal hunting of the game-such as giraffes, zebras and antelopes-that tourists wanted to see. 4. In june 2008 the local councils that ran the park were replaced by a private organisation called Mara Conservation. A gift of 300,000 dollars from two foreign donors purchased four new four-wheel drive vehicles, repaired many of the roads and paid the rangers. The organisation will run on a non-profit basis but use 50% of the revenue to build roads and finance anti-poaching patrols and ensure that the remaining 50% of revenue filters through to the local masai tribes. 5. The support of the Masai people is crucial to the future of this reserve as it requires them to give up some of the best cattle-grazing land in east Africa for the benefit of wildlife. 6. It is difficult for them to see a future in tourism rather than cattle-rearing. One possible step might be to follow the experience of South Africa and Botswana and Zimbabwe and opt for 'game utilisation'. This allowed for a small, tightly controlled amount of lucrative big-game hunting. Provided it can be undertaken at a sustainable level, it might help to stop the further degradation of the park''s ecosystems.

What are biosphere reserves?

1. Today much more attention is given to the design and distribution of reserves. For example, in an era of climate change, current thinking favours the creation of large reserves connected by open corridors running in a north-south direction. Such a layout allows the maximum migration of species driven polewards by global warming. 2. There are also discussions about conservation priorities. Many argue that conservation should target the hotspots, because these contain maximum diversity or endemism and are under the greatest threat. 3. In contrast, WWF favours a broader approach in which representative areas of land and sea known as ecoregions are targeted to save a maximum variety of habitats and species. Still others argue that conservation should be focused on developing countries because the costs are lower and there is a greater chance of getting value for money. High profile species such as whales, tigers and pandas tend to attract more interest and therefore funding, but this is questioned by some groups.

What are the 4 key ways to manage biodiversity?

1. Total protection 2. Biosphere reserves 3. Restoration 4. Conservation

Why have total protection strategies been criticised?

1. Total protection strategies have been criticised for a number of reasons although they are still used: -In the poorest countries in the world, there is conflict between conservation and cutting people off from biodiversity. -Totally protected reserves are often narrowly focused for scientific purposes and there may be a failure to see that conservation is also influenced by social, economic, cultural and political factors -Many protection schemes were based on political and administrative boundaries, whereas ecosystems are defined by natural borders. -Protection strategies often rely on coordination by outside agencies which are not always alert to the needs of the local people. 3. There is a general feeling that conservation has moved on from the days of total protection, today's fashion of integrating conservation with economic development is often criticised, mainly because conserving biodiversity is often the second rather than the first priority.

The range of players with an interest in ecosystem management

1. Transnational and private enterprise 2. Scientists and researchers 3. International organisations 4. National governments operation globally and internationally. 5. Local and regional governments. 6. Artists and poets 7. NGOs-International and local 8. Local communities including indigenous peoples, farmers, stakeholders. 9. Individuals 10. Consumer and special interest groups, individuals as consumers.

What is the relationship between economic development and ecosystem degradation? Udzungwa Mountains National Park: a Pristine area case study

1. Udzungwa Mountains national park in the east african mountains has remained pristince and has not experienced severe degradation. 2. It has remarkable biodiversity (276 tree species. 50 endemic and 55 recorded species of mammal including leopards, lions, baboons and elephants). It is also rich in birds and has a huge floral variety. 3. It provides local villages with watershed protection, medicines and food. 4. Villagers in the park are allowed limited and highly controlled access for worship, collecting fuelwood and hunting has been prohibited. 5. Pressures on the park include rapid population growth fuelled by immigrations , with many people poor and short of land and employment. 6. The Tanzanian National Park authorities recognised at an early stage that they had to get the local people involved in sustainable bottom up strategies. Crucial projects involved setting up tree nurseries and developing fuel-efficient stoves and rice husk technology to solve the fuelwood crisis. Agricultural diversification projects such as bee-keeping, poultry and vegetable farming and cultivation of medicinal plants have provided much-needed employment. Non farm projects have included establishing micro-business, promoting ecotourism and improving health and education services. 7. The Udzungwa experience shows that given the difficulty of policing vast areas with a skeletal ranger service, the way to succeed in conservation is to foster sustainable development projects for the local people so that they can see the potential long term benefits

What human factors influence biodiversity?

1. Undisturbed ecosystems provide a greater range of ecological niches and therefore higher levels of biodiversity. It is customary to think of human factors as all negative but they can be positive such as effective conservation strategies. It is also possible for people to improve degraded and damaged ecosystems and so restore their biodiversity. 2. Changes to local land use and cover/deforestation 3. Over-exploitation 4. Species introduction/removal e.g. the cane toad 5. Climate change

What factors threaten biodiversity that the WRI has identified?

1. Unsustainably high rate of population growth and natural . resource consumption. 2. Inequality in the ownership, management and flow of benefits which threatens the livelihoods of the world's poorest people. 3. The concentration of agriculture, forestry and fishing on a narrowing spectrum of products. 4. Economic systems developed by governments and businesses that fail to value the environment and its resources. 5. Legal and institutional systems that promote unsustainable exploitation at the expense of more sustainable strategies. 6. Lack of knowledge and understanding in the management and conservation of biodiversity.

Campfire case study- shows how the concept of sustainable yield can be developed to provide sustainable livelihood for the local people

Campfire, Zimbabwe 1. Under British colonial rule large sections of the indigenous population in Zimbabwe were forced to live in communal areas known as tribal trust lands. 2. The Communal areas management programme for indigenous resources (CAMPFIRE) project was a pioneering scheme developed in the late 1980s , aimed at the long term development, management and sustainable use of natural resources in each communal area. 3. This was achieved by placing responsibility with local people and allowing communities to benefit directly from exploitation of the available resources such as wildlife. Because they were bottom-up, CAMPFIRE schemes varied locally with administrative back up and advice provided by the Zimbabwe Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management. 4. Wildlife species involved and how they are used very the uses include big game hunting, meat, safari and fishing. 5. Many schemes made money from big-game hunting at sustainable yield levels and this money was fed back into the community for the common good. This was controversial as environmentalists did not believe that hunting endangered species was a good way to protect them. 6. The economic collapse of Zimbabwe undermined the scheme. This led to loss of staff, lack of funding, poachng, local hunger and land takeovers by "war veterans" all contributed to its collapse.

What is the spectrum of conservation strategies available?

From complete protection through various types of sustainable development to commercially exploited areas where limited parts are protected for publicity purposes (token protection). The spectrum of conservation strategies are as follows: -Scientific reserve (no access). -Wildlife reserves and parks - community wildlife management (sustainable development) -Extraction reserves -Economic development integrated into conservation -Tolerant forest management -Exploitation with token protection -Total exploitation

Invasive species in the Galapagos case study

The Galapagos islands off the coast of Ecuador qualify as a hotspot on the basis of their endemism and the severe threat facing their unique ecosystems. A huge range of alien species were introduced from the Ecuadorian mainland by people seeking to make a living from fishing and tourism. 1. Up to 60% of the 180 species of endemic plant in Galapagos are now considered 'threatened'. 2. There are 490 recorded introduced insect species and 43 species of other invertebrates, Of these, 55 are 'high risk' with the potential to cause severe damage to native biodiversity. 3. 18 introduced vertebrate species have been detected, 13 of which are considered harmful. 4. New vertebrate species arrive every year and aggressive invasive species such as mainland snake predators, could soon establish themselves in Galapagos. 5. Actions have been taken to preserve the unique biodiversity of the Galapagos. These include eradicating introduced rodents and feral cats, rounding up stray dogs and removing the quinine tree, one of the most serious alien plant invaders. But there are other pressures on these islands, not least the thousands of tourists who visit every year to marvel at what so impressed Charles Darwin when he first visited in 1835.

What are the ways of auditing threatened ecosystems?

There are various ways of auditing threatened ecosystems. None give a complete picture and they all produce differing results because they are measuring different things the methods include: 1. The economic scorecard, produced for the World Resources Institute(WRI). This shows the ability of ecosystems to produce goods and services. 2. The Living planet Index, developed by WWF. This monitors changes over time in the populations of representative animal species in forests, freshwater and marine ecosystems. 3. The ecological footprint, a measure of the human impact on the planet. 4. The Red List of endangered species, compiled by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). This has identified over 16,000 plant and animal species in danger of extinction. 5. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), a multi-scale assessment commissioned by the UN.

What did the millennium ecosystems assessments (MEAs) explore?

There have been several attempts to explore plausible futures for ecosystems and human wellbeing in 2050. -Two development pathways-one in which the world becomes increasingly 'globalised' and the other in which it becomes increasingly 'regionalised'. -Two different approaches to ecosystem management-one in which actions are reactive and most problems are addressed only after they become obvious and the other in which ecosystem management is proactive and policies seek to manage ecosystem services for the future.

What global and continental factors influence biodiversity?

These are so-called primary ecological factors and determine the broad framework within which other ecological factors operate. 1. Size of area, overall biodiversity increases with area, because large continuous biomes support a wider range of species and extensive boundaries encourage migration. (important to note that comparisons can only be made with similar ecosystems for example a large area of a polar habitat contains far fewer species than a small area of rainforest. 2. History and age, in general, biodiversity is greatest in the oldest and the least disturbed ecosystems, especially in the tropics, where there are few physical constraints on productivity. 3. Isolation, geographical isolation, particularly on remote islands, reduces the number species but encourages endemism, as the remaining species develop in a distinctive way e.g. in the Galapagos islands or Madagascar. 4. Altitudinal range, a large altitudinal range means a cross-section of different climates. The more climatic zones involved, the more diverse the habitats. The same principle applies to ocean depths.

What are the problems with the world's current protected areas ?

These problems must be addressed in order to ensure that the Earth's diverse habitats are well managed and that their species are conserved: -only 12% of the Earth's land surface is designated as meriting some form of protection. Less than 1% of marine areas are currently protected. -Protected areas are unevenly distributed and are fragmented. -There is a shortage of funding for protection and conservation, especially in developing countries. -The fact that an area is declared 'protected' does not guarantee successful conservation. Effective conservation needs an efficient, trained ranger service, scientific monitoring of habitat health and an understanding of the 'mechanisms' of habitats and their ecosystems. -Protecting vast, remote areas from illegal human activity, be it poaching, felling trees or 'harvesting' particular species of plant or animal is a challenge. -Outside protected areas, biodiversity continues to be threatened by pollution, climate change, invasive alien species and unsustainable development.

What measures are used to assess this yield?

Two measures are used: 1. Maximum sustainable yield (MSY), is the greatest harvest that can be taken indefinitely while leaving the ecosystem intact. Harvesting wild plants, animals or fish is part of the subsistence lifestyle of indigenous people and is usually sustainable. Overharvesting or overexploitation tend to be the result of commercial rather than subsistence activity. When activities such as shooting elephants for ivory, harvesting, shellfish and logging in natural forests exceed maximum sustainable yields, the target species and their habitats become threatened. 2. Optimum sustainable yield, is the best compromise achievable in the light of all the economic and social considerations. This level of yield unlike the MSY will not destroy the aesthetic or recreational value of the ecosystem and will therefore allow multiple use for the maximum benefit to the community.