BIOL 1610 Study Guide - Exam 2

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which substances and/or types of molecules are permeable to the cell membrane

fat-soluble molecules, non-polar substances, vitamins A, D, E, and K, and small uncharged molecules like oxygen

stroma

fluid-filled space surrounding the grana inside a chloroplast where the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis take place

activation energy is the energy required

for a reaction to proceed

reduction

gaining electrons

define oncogenes

genes that cause a cell to become cancerous, when mutated

outputs of photosynthesis

glucose and oxygen

energy is stored long-term in the bonds of ______ and used short-term to perform work from a(n) ______ molecule

glucose, ATP

a cell can communicate "within" itself, called ______ communication, and "between" itself and other cells, called _____ communication

intracellular, intercellular

identify how the cell uses ATP to power cellular activities

through phosphorylation (transferring a phosphate group to another molecule)

article 3 new discovery

exercise can help with depression

reactants at a higher energy level than the products

exergonic

ΔG < 0

exergonic and spontaneous

what type of cellular signaling is this an example of

paracrine

understand how neurotransmitters signal to neighboring cells

paracrine signaling

understand the four forms of cellular signaling

paracrine, endocrine, autocrine, direct

which types of membrane transport happen due to the substance's own concentration gradient

passive and facilitated diffusion

what are the types of transport

passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, primary active, secondary active, endocytosis, exocytosis

differences between passive and facilitated diffusion

passive doesn't require anything but facilitated needs a channel or carrier protein

diffusion

passive transport of material according to its concentration gradient (high concentration to low concentration)

3 main categories of membrane transport

passive, active, bulk

catabolic pathways (key term)

pathways in which complex molecules break down into simpler ones

anabolic pathways (key term)

pathways that require an energy input to synthesize complex molecules from simpler ones

mitosis

period of the cell cycle where the duplicated chromsomes are separated into identical nuclei

medical applications for stem cells

personalized medicine (organs, etc)

the fluid mosaic model describes the plasma membrane as a structure with various components, including which of the following

phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, carbohydrates

the transfer of a phosphate group to a molecule is called

phosphorylation

what does the electron transport chain depend on

photosystem II and its high energy electrons

proto-oncogene

positive regulator and normal gene that when mutated, becomes an oncogene

since the difference in cellular ______ was manifested by cell ______, it was clear that the answer must somehow involve ______

potential, nuclei, genes

endocrine match

signaling between cells that are far away using the bloodstream

match endocrine signaling with its definition

signaling between cells that are far away using the bloodstream

autocrine

signaling cells that can also bind to the ligand that is released, such that signal and target cell can be the same or similar to each other (cell death signaling)

endocrine

signals from distant cells, typically produce a slower response with a long-lasting effect (e.g., hormones)

the nucleosome itself is a

single bead

metaphase

sister chromatids line up at the center of the cell, called the metaphase plate

anaphase

sister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of the cell

extracellular

situated or taking place outside a cell

anabolic

small molecules are assembled into large ones and energy is required

why does a cell want to regulate enzymes

so that it only uses an enzyme when it needs it which allows the cell to save energy and resources (because it's not using the enzyme unnecessarily)

E

sodium channels close. Potassium channels open, and potassium ions move out of the cell (picture 4)

know which way the different ions flow across the membrane

sodium ions move into the cell and potassium ions move out of the cell - opposite charges attract

which of the three (3) following molecules require facilitation in order to cross the membrane

sodium ions, glucose, sonic hedehog (Shh) ligand

phosphate groups provide higher energy or make a system

somewhat unstable

gene match

specific segment of DNA that contains genetic information

which of the following features of the chloroplast is most likely associated with maximizing surface area

stacking of thylakoids

article 2 scientific methods

stimulating the transport of lactate in mice brains to see this graident

differentiate

stop cell division and mature into cell type

article 1 discovery meaning for society

stuff with sugar and trigylcerides leads to obesity, diabetes, and other problems

nucleosome match

subunit of chromatin composed of a short length of DNA wrapped around a core of histone proteins

which of the following molecules is likely to have the most potential energy

sucrose (disaccharide)

what would happen if a herbicide blocked the calvin cycle

sugar/glucose would not be produced

active transport requires energy because

they're being forced against their gradient

DNA replication involves the unwinding of two strands of parent DNA, using each as a template to synthesize two new DNA strands. Which of the following accurately describes this process?

this is an anabolic process

______ + ______ + LIGHT = ______ + ______ + HEAT

water, CO2, oxygen, glucose

cell surface protein receptors can bind to which of the following ligands

water-soluble ligands, virus particles, large polar molecules

autocrine match

when a cell signals to itself

match autocrine signaling with its definition

when a cell signals to itself

B

when a neuron is at its resting potential, the inside of the cell has a negative charge relative to the outside (picture 1)

does bulk require energy

yes

does facilitated diffusion require channel or carrier proteins

yes

does primary active require energy

yes

does secondary active require energy

yes

does secondary active require channel or carrier proteins

yes, no ATP

does primary active require channel or carrier proteins

yes, uses ATP

propose an additional frog egg experiment to confirm that the unknown protein was a water channel

you could make the solution hypertonic so you could see if it would do the opposite and go out of the cell. The cell should get smaller and you could also try putting cells in a solution that does not contain water and you should see no change

Homologous Chromosomes

chromosomes of the same morphology with genes in the same location

homologous chromosomes match

chromosomes of the same morphology with genes in the same location

understand how to read and analyze a free energy diagram

exergonic is downhill and endergonic is uphill

cellular respiration is a ______ reaction that converts the energy in _______ to _____

exergonic, glucose, ATP

transmembrane

existing or occurring across a cell membrane

describe the basic steps that occur at the synapse during signaling

1. Action potential arrives at axon terminal 2. Stimulates calcium release 3. Neurotransmitter is released from the synaptic vesicles 4. Neurotransmitter diffuses and binds to the receptor on the receiving cell 5. Binding of neurotransmitters opens ion channels

steps of mitosis in the proper order

1. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle 2. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate 3. Cohesin proteins break down and the sister chromatids separate 4. The nucleus reforms and the cell divides

how fast can you think (overall)

120-240 km/hour

inputs of glycolysis

2 ATP, 2 NAD+, glucose

what are the inputs of glycolysis

2 ATP, 2 NAD+, glucose

what are the outputs of glycolysis

2 pyruvate, 4 ATP, 2 NADH

how can you tell if a reaction is endothermic or exothermic from a free energy diagram

exothermic is downhill and endothermic is uphill

what are the 3 primary domains of membrane receptors

extracellular domain, transmembrane domain, cytoplasmic domain

how many types of transport are there

6, with two in each category

inputs of oxidative phosphorylation

ADP, NADH, FADH2 and O2

understand its basic components and what happens if it is hydrolyzed

ATP + H2O → ADP + Pi + free energy and this is an exergonic, catabolic reaction

what does the calvin cycle depend on

ATP and NADPH from the light reactions

a newly-discovered mutation in the photosynthetic machinery leads to decreased ATP synthesis but a normal H+ gradient in the thylakoid space. Which component is most likely affected by this mutation?

ATP synthase

outputs of oxidative phosphorylation

ATP, NAD+, FAD+ and H2O

inputs of TCA cycle

Acetyl CoA

how is the division of cytoplasmic content during cytokinesis different in plants and animals

Animal cells divide by forming a cleavage furrow that gradually constricts the cell and plant cells divide by forming a new cell wall

outputs of the Calvin Cycle

CH2O (sugar)

inputs of the Calvin Cycle

CO2, ATP, NADPH

isotonic

extracellular solute concentration is the same

understand how chloroplasts produce sugar from the Calvin Cycle

By taking ATP and NADPH from light reactions and CO2 and reacting in the stroma

understand how chloroplasts produce ATP in the light reactions

By taking NADP+ and ADP from the Calvin Cycle and H2O, light, and reacting in the thylakoid

outputs of TCA cycle

Carbon dioxide, NADH, FADH2, and ATP

haploid

Cell, nucleus, or organism containing one set of chromosomes (n)

diploid

Cell, nucleus, or organism containing two sets of chromosomes (2n)

primary duty of G1

Checks for adequate reserves, cell size, and genomic DNA damage before starting DNA synthesis

how is the cytoplasmic content divided during cytokinesis

Cytoplasmic components of the daughter cells are separated either by an actin ring (animal cells) or by cell plate formation (plant cells)

which of the following must ALWAYS precede mitosis

DNA replication

structures of the chloroplasts

Double membrane (outer and inner), specialized compartments (thylakoid lumen and stroma), grana (stacks of thylakoids), high densities of chloroplasts in mesophyll/middle leaf cells of leaves

how do cells "carry" energy and ultimately generate ATP

Energy is transferred to electron carriers (intermediates) that converge on ATP synthesis

Gurdon made it to Oxford entirely on his merits

FALSE

a molecule that binds in the active site of a protein to block enzyme activity is an allosteric inhibitory

FALSE

all of the chemical reactions that transpire inside cells, including those that use and release energy, are the cell's bioenergetics

FALSE

enzyme-linked receptors cannot be enzymes themselves, but they do interact with intracellular enzymes

FALSE

glucose is a form of energy that the cell can use directly to power its activities

FALSE

herbicides that target photosystem II will always cause decreased light absorption in the plant

FALSE

ligands are the proteins on receiving cells that process chemical signals

FALSE

the most important products from the citric acid cycle are ATP molecules

FALSE

True or False: All active transport mechanisms require channel proteins

FALSE (many do but bulk does not)

-True or False: Anabolic reactions break down molecules and require energy?

FALSE (they do require energy but they DON'T break down molecules)

where do the checkpoints occur in the cell cycle

G1 = during cell growth, G2 = during cell growth, and M = during mitotic phase

what are the 3 major checkpoints of the cell cycle

G1, G2, M

identify the 3 stages of cellular respiration

Glycolysis, TCA cycle, oxidative phosphorylation

Josh Gurdon graduated from Eton School after studying which subject(s)

Greek and Latin

which herbicide appears to affect light absorption by the chloroplasts

H-2

what does photosystem II depend on

H2O and absorbed light

if the unknown protein was a water channel, which direction would you predict the water would move in a hypotonic solution? Does the data support your prediction? Why?

I predict the water would move into the cell. The data does support my prediction because it shows that the eggs with the protein are growing in volume, so the water is going in

major events of mitosis in regards to chromosome behavior

chromsomes condense and eventually move to opposite poles. Chromosome segregation is then usually followed by cell division/cytokinesis

appreciate cellular signaling in the context of neurotransmission in the brain

It is an extreme example of membrane transport and signaling and two exposing concentration gradients exist at the neuronal membrane - the release of neurotransmitters is signaled by the arrival of an action potential at the terminus of a neuron and the neurotransmitters then diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the target cell surface

in an endergonic reaction, the reactants have _______ energy levels than the products

LOWER

inputs of light reactions

Light energy, H2O, NADP+, ADP

article 3 scientific methods

MRI exams before and after vigorous exercise to measure neurotransmitters

when O2 is lacking, fermentation regenerates

NAD+; otherwise, glycolysis would halt

what are the electron carriers

NAD+→NADH FAD+→FADH2 NADP+→NADPH

order of chromatin fiber, chromosomes, and nucleosomes

Nucleosome → Chromatin fiber → Chromosome

outputs of light reactions

O2, ATP, NADPH

understand the structure of the chromosome

One long DNA molecule, many proteins, each type of chromosome has two copies, chromosome 1 is the biggest and 22 is the smallest, humans have 23 pairs

article 2 discovery meaning for society

closer to curing/treating brain diseases that are associated with metabolic deficits

understand how the chromosome is compacted

Short stretches of DNA wrap around a core of 8 histone proteins/a string of beads

what are the 2 distinct ways of generating ATP from ADP

Substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation

nucleosome

Subunit of chromatin made of a short length of DNA wrapped around a core of histone proteins

Dr. Fischberg encouraged Gurdon to repeat the nuclear transfer experiments of Briggs and King in a different species because either way would lead to a potential research

TRUE

a cell can signal to itself to undergo cell death

TRUE

a mistake in the duplication of a cell can lead to mutations that are passed on to all of the cell's descendants

TRUE

cyclin proteins can only promote progress through the cell cycle when they are bound to cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)

TRUE

energy from ATP hydrolysis is primarily captured in the cell by coupling it to an endergonic reaction

TRUE

integral membrane proteins span both bilayers of the phospholipid membrane

TRUE

lowering the activation energy does not change the free energy of the reaction

TRUE

the release of neurotransmitters from vesicles in the sending neuron is immediately preceded by calcium entry into the cell

TRUE

the vast majority of cellular ATP is produced as hydrogen ions flow down their concentration gradient through ATP synthase

TRUE

we can get an estimate of the time it takes to complete each stage of mitosis by counting the percentage of cells in that stage at any given time

TRUE

yamanaka's experiments showed that expressing only 4 proteins can reprogram mature cells back into stem cells

TRUE

how are cellular respiration and photosynthesis complementary processes? In your answer make sure to include a comparison of cellular location, inputs and outputs, and chemical pathways. Identify common features of both processes, and highlight key differences

Talk about how their outputs are each others inputs, this is their common features, key differences are location and that photosynthesis needs sunlight, photosynthesis takes place in thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts and cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondria, and n cellular respiration, electrons flow from glucose to oxygen, forming water and releasing energy. In photosynthesis, they go in the opposite direction, starting in water and winding up in glucose—an energy-requiring process powered by light

cellular respiration and photosynthesis are _______ processes

complementary

what are some of the advantages of using African frog embryos versus other biological model systems

They are large and easy to manipulate They develop externally (outside the mother) They produce large numbers of offspring They have a faster life cycle than other frog species

how do control checkpoints ensure proper division

They make sure that everything is correct for the proper division to occur (so that the cell only divides when it is supposed to)

chromosome

Threadlike structures made of protein and a single molecule of DNA that carry genetic information in the form of genes

experiments and system Peter Agre used to discover aquaporins

Took RNA from an unknown protein, injected it into frog eggs (which are impermeable to water) and found that the RNA was translated into protein 3 days later. They placed the transformed frog eggs into a hypotonic solution, and measured the size of an hour. Control eggs with no unknown protein were also placed in the solution

what essential cellular functions of p53 are not completed when it is mutated

When they are mutated they fail to stop the cell cycle and tumors can develop

genome match

complete genetic information packaged as a double stranded DNA molecule

cyclins can't work on their own, they require an extra protein to bind to them called

a cyclin dependant kinase

adenosine is a nucleotide consisting of the nitrogenous base adenine and

a five-carbon sugar, ribose

which of the following analogies best describes the induced-fit model of enzyme-substrate binding?

a lock that adjusts slightly to match the shape of an inserted key

ATP synthase works like

a molecular turbine

a kinase is an enzyme that adds

a phosphate group to a protein

action potential

a rapid sequence of changes in the voltage across a membrane

what "state" are electron carriers in when carrying high-energy electrons

a reduced state

tumor-suppressor

a segment of DNA that codes for regulator proteins that prevent the cell from undergoing uncontrolled cell division

osmosis

a special case of diffusion where water moves across the membrane when a solute cannot

D

a stimulus begins to change the distribution of charge across the membrane (picture 2)

which frog mutants helped Gurdon in his experiments?

a strain that produced only one nucleolus and an albino strain

if you took the DNA out of a cell and laid it straight, it'd be

about 6 feet long (from a human cell)

endothermic reactions (key term)

absorbs heat (uphill)

pyruvate is modified into what molecule so that it can enter the citric acid cycle

acetyl CoA

what does the 'hump' of a free energy diagram represent

activation energy

enzymes decrease the amount of

activation energy, allowing reactions to proceed faster

ATP can be generated by which of the following two processes?

oxidative phosphorylation and substrate phosphorylation

primary active transport meaning

active transport that moves ions or small molecules across a membrane and may create a difference in charge across that membrane

bulk transport is a type of

active transport, but is classified as it's own thing

metabolism

all chemical reactions of a cell or organism, including anabolism and catabolism

somatic cell

all non-reproductive cells in the body - typically have 2 matched sets of chromosomes which makes them diploid (2n)

how can cloning be completed using somatic cell nuclear transfer

all of the DNA in the nucleus is taken from one cell and put into another cell, so the resulting cell is an exact copy, or clone, of the donor cell

which of the following are high-energy electron carriers, or shuttles

all of the above (NAD, FAD+, NADP)

cell division is crucial for which of the following processes in multicellular organisms

all of the above (development from a single-celled zygote, generation and formation organs, repair and regeneration of tissues)

cell surface receptors have which of the following components

all of the above (extracellular ligand-binding domain, hydrophobic transmembrane domain, intracellular domain)

peripheral proteins do not span the entire membrane, but they can function like integral proteins in which way

all of the above (may serve as enzymes, attach to cytoskeleton, be involved in cell recognition)

permeable

allows particular substances to cross the membrane

the three phosphate groups, in order from closest to farthest from the ribose sugar, are

alpha, beta, and gamma

free energy (G)

amount of energy available to do work/usable energy

Rb, along with other negative regulators p53 and p21, act primarily

at the G1 checkpoint

an allosteric inhibitor binds ______ the active site of an enzyme, ______ its affinity for substrate binding

away from, decreasing

an allosteric inhibitor binds ______ the active site of an enzyme, decreasing its affinity for substrate binding

away from, decreasing

the potential energy stored in the chemical bonds of gasoline can

be transformed into kinetic energy that allows a car to race on a racetrack

why haven't we cured cancer yet

because it's a collection of many diseases, is highly adaptable, and it can become resistance to treatments that initially work

why does the red line stop before 3 minutes, but the blue line extends to 5 minutes

because the eggs for the blue line were growing at a faster rate, so they reached their max volume in less time. The eggs for the blue line were not growing as fast

allosteric

binding to an enzyme or modifying the bonding site

extracellular domain match

binds to the ligand outside the cell

a metabolic pathway is a series of

biochemical reactions that converts one or more substances into a final product

where is the energy in ATP stored

bonds between phosphates

which of the following is true about the connection between photosynthesis and cellular respiration

both processes occur in plant cells, the outputs from photosynthesis are the inputs to cellular respiration, the source of carbon for the sugars in fruits and vegetables could have come from the carbon dioxide humans breathe out

catabolic reaction statements

break down molecules, release of energy, exothermic

glycolysis

breaking down glucose into two smaller pyruvate molecules (two three-carbon molecules)

how can oncogenes lead to cancer when mutated

by causing the cell to divide and multiply uncontrollably

how is the membrane selectively permeable

by only admitting certain things and then restricting others (it chooses)

fermentation occurs in the absence of

oxygen

the carbon from glucose ends up in which molecule

carbon dioxide

inputs of photosynthesis

carbon dioxide, water, sunlight

cellular respiration is a ______ reaction because it is ________

catabolic, breaking down glucose

haploid match

cell, nucleus, or organism containing one set of chromsomes (n)

diploid match

cell, nucleus, or organism containing two sets of chromosomes (2n)

stem cells

cells from which all other cells with specialized functions are generated

respiration

cellular respiration is an exergonic reaction that converts the energy in glucose to ATP

impermeable

certain substances are not allowed to cross the membrane

what drives facilitated diffusion

channel or carrier protein

aquaporin

channel protein that allows water through the membrane at a very high rate

transport proteins that work in facilitated diffusion include ______

channels and something else

a ______ is one of several points in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which ______ of a cell to the next stage can be ______ until conditions are ______

checkpoint, progression, halted, favorable

G1 checkpoint

checks for adequate reserves, cell size, and genomic DNA damage

exergonic

chemical reactions that release free energy

endergonic

chemical reactions that require energy input

in _____, free energy from the series of _____ along the electron transport chain is used to pump _____ ions into the _____ to produce a(n) _____ gradient

chemiosmosis, redox reactions, hydrogen, intermembrane space, electrochemical

prophase

chromosomes condense and the nucleus breaks down

in Peter Agre's experiments using frog eggs, the un-injected eggs are the ______, and the size of the cells is the ______

control group, dependent variable

chemical reactions alter the configuration of

covalent bonds between molecules

pyruvate is produced in the _______ and must be transported into the ________ for further processing

cytoplasm, mitochondria

pyruvate is produced in the ________ and must be transported into the _______ for further processing

cytoplasm, mitochondria

article 3 discovery meaning for society

exercise can be used as a therapy for depression and more

which of the following events may activate the cell cycle

death of a nearby cell, signaling by hormones, very few other cells in the environment

M checkpoint

determines whether all sister chromatids are attached to the mitotic spindle

what is passive diffusion

diffusion through a permeable membrane that moves a substance from a high concentration to a low concentration (down its gradient) until there is equilibrium

thylakoid

disc-shaped, membrane-bound structure inside a chloroplast where the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis take place

what would happen if a herbicide blocked the electron transport chain

disruption of proton gradient and no pumping of hydrogen

cytokinesis

division of the cytoplasm following mitosis that forms two daughter cells

A

during an action potential, sodium channels open and sodium ions move into the cell. The inside of the cell becomes positively charged relative to the outside (picture 3)

cloning experiments with frogs and sheep showed that the mature nucleus of a cell can be reprogrammed by what factor?

egg cytoplasm

how are induced pluripotent stem cells different from embryonic stem cells

embryonic are derived from embryos and induced pluripotent are generated by somatic cell reprogramming - also embryonic can generate ANY types of cells and induced pluripotent are able to differentiate into MOST major cell types

reactants are lower than the products

endergonic

ΔG > 0

endergonic and not spontaneous

the process of ______ brings large substances into the cell, whereas ______ releases large substances from the cell; both are _____ processes

endocytosis, exocytosis, active

the process of ______ brings large substances into the cell, whereas ______ releases large substances from the cell; both are ______ processes

endocytosis, exocytosis, active

G2 checkpoint

ensures all of the chromsomes have been replicated

glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. What does this indicate about its evolutionary origin?

glycolysis is an ancient metabolic process that likely evolved before eukaryotes split from prokaryotes, glycolysis evolved before the formation of cellular organelles

describe the energetics of cellular respiration using the following terms: product, reactant, glucose, ATP, CO2, and free energy

glycolysis takes glucose, which is a reactant, and brings it through the cycle. The product is CO2, and the reactants have a higher free energy level than the products. ATP is produced by all of the stages

negative internal regulators of the cell cycle

halt the cycle to ensure the cell is ready for division (example = Rb, p53, p21)

homologous

having similar or corresponding features

how did John Gurdon show that the nucleus can be reprogrammed

he took differentiated interstitial cells, put their nucleus in an egg, and you could get a normal adult at a low frequency (10 normal/700 transfers = 1.4%)

diffusion is the process whereby substance moves from an area of ______ concentration to ______ concentration until there are ______ concentrations across the space

high, low, equal

diffusion is the process whereby substances move from an area of ______ concentration to ______ concentration until there are ______ concentrations across the space

high, low, equal

hypertonic

higher extracellular solute concentration

what experimental variable could you measure in the calvin cycle

how much glucose or G3P is produced

transmembrane domain

hydrophobic domain that crosses the membrane

which type of molecule is most likely to bind to an internal receptor

hydrophobic ligands

where is the energy contained in ATP

in the bonds between phosphates

active transport requires some way to move the molecules

in the opposite direction they want to go

identify the different types of membrane receptors

inclusion ion-channel linked, G-protein-linked, and enzyme-linked receptors

article 1 scientific methods

injecting groups of rats with either water, water and fructose, or fructose and DHA

cytoplasmic domain match

interacts with cellular components

during an action potential, sodium channels open and sodium ions move

into the cell and the inside of the cell becomes positively charged relative to the outside

molecules transported during primary active

ions against their concentration gradient

molecules transported during secondary active

ions against their concentration gradient

molecules transported in facilitated diffusion

ions along their concentration gradient

how does Rb inhibit or block the cell cycle

it blocks the cell cycle until it is phosphorylated

advantage of allosteric regulation

it doesn't have to bind to the active site (binds somewhere else)

the potential energy in bonds in gas doesn't get released until

it is combusted - breaking the bonds releases energy and is used to make the car go

why was it important to use un-injected frog eggs as a control in this experiment? What does the small increase in the blue line represent?

it is important to use un-injected frog legs so you can compare results and have a baseline level for the normal amount of diffusion/how much they grow in water. The small increase in the blue line shows the small amount that enters frog eggs naturally

examples of potential energy in cells

it is stored in concentration gradients across a membrane

effect of mutation that causes some sodium channels to have a slow leak on the Na+ concentration gradient at the axonal membrane

it will be less concentrated, diminished, and can't hold the gradient because it's leaking

a mutation that produces a slow leak in the potassium channel of a neuron will do what to the overall membrane potential at rest?

it will become more negative

effect of mutation that causes some sodium channels to have a slow leak on the resting potential membrane

it would disrupt the membrane because it disrupts the charges - the resting potential will go up because you're adding a positive charge

what would you predict would happen to the control and injected eggs if mercury was added to the hypotonic solution at 2 minutes?

it would just stop growing at two minutes because the mercury stops it

effect of mutation that causes some sodium channels to have a slow leak on the action potential firing and frequency

it would make it slower and less drastic and you can't really do an action potential anymore because it doesn't have the gradient

if the energy is on the left side of the arrow then

it's anabolic

if the energy is on the right side of the arrow then

it's catabolic

how does the structure of ATP synthase determine its function

it's channel for hydrogen allows the hydrogen ions into the cell, the spinning shaft smashes ADP and phosphate to make ATP

a cell has to be careful to not divide when

it's not supposed to

the potential energy stored in the chemical bonds of glucose can be transformed into

kinetic energy that allows humans to run marathons

two types of fermentation

lactic acid fermentation and alcohol fermentation

which molecules require facilitation to pass through the membrane

large and polar

catabolic

large molecules are broken down into small ones and energy is released

which substances and/or types of molecules are impermeable to the cell membrane

large proteins, polar molecules, ions such as sodium, simple sugars and amino acids

fibrous proteins further

pack each chromosome

which parts of photosynthesis occur in which compartments of chloroplasts

light reactions occur in thylakoids, the calvin cycle occurs in the stroma

oxidation

losing electrons

in a solution with a semi-permeable membrane, water will move from _____ osmolarity to ______ osmolarity

low, high

in a solution with a semi-permeable membrane, water will move from ______ osmolarity to ______ osmolarity

low, high

hypotonic

lower extracellular solute concentration

what are the 3 primary functions of cells

maintain a barrier, metabolize molecules, multiply by dividing

how could mutations in specific proteins affect neurotransmission

make it not work properly/as well, and it may take longer

cancer

many different diseases characterized by uncontrolled cell growth

molecules transported during bulk

many large molecules or food substances

checkpoint

mechanism that monitors the preparedness of a cell to advance through the cell-cycle stages

what is personalized medicine

medical care that is customized for individuals, and induced pluripotent stem cells have the potential to do this

where do the distinct ways of generating ATP from ADP occur in the cell (primarily)

mitochondria

prometaphse

mitotic spindle attaches to sister chromatids at the kinetochore

allosteric inhibitors

modify the active site of the enzyme so that substrate binding is reduced or prevented

allosteric activators

modify the active site of the enzyme so that the affinity for the substrate increases

substrate

molecule on which the enzyme acts

anabolic reactions build

molecules and require energy

examples of kinetic energy in cells

molecules moving down their gradient

compare enzyme regulation strategies - inhibition vs activation

molecules that increase the activity of an enzyme are called activators, while molecules that decrease the activity of an enzyme are called inhibitors

paracrine

move by diffusion through extracellular matrix, examples include synaptic signals and neurotransmitters

what is the type of signaling that occurs between two neighboring neurons that are NOT physically connected in the brain

paracrine

describe the membrane events that generate an action potential

movement of ions through ion channels and the 'switch' in electrical potential

secondary active transport meaning

movement of material that results from primary active transport to the electrochemical gradient

primary active simple

moving molecules through a pump against their concentration gradient

does bulk require channel or carrier proteins

no

does bulk transport have a concentration gradient

no

does passive diffusion require channel or carrier proteins

no

does passive diffusion require energy

no

what would happen if a herbicide blocked photosystem II

no electrons to ETC; no O2 generated; less light absorbed

does passive diffusion require energy

no energy is required

is decreased oxygen production caused by light absorption

no, because with H-3 there is less oxygen but no change in light absorption, so they are not correlated

does facilitated diffusion require energy

no, it does not require energy

on an energy diagram, an exothermic reaction would show which of the following

none of the above

which molecules can pass through the membrane on their own

nonpolar and small ones, like oxygen and carbon dioxide

molecules transported in passive diffusion

nonpolar, small molecules

what early pieces of evidence indicated that development was a one-way process

nuclear transfer from an early embryo produced mature frogs, whereas nuclear transfer from somatic cells could not cells from early stages of embryonic development could form an entire organism when separated, whereas cells from later stages could not

telophase & cytokinesis

nuclei reform; cytoplasm and organelles begin to separate

The histone-DNA complex (the bead) is called a ______ and the connecting DNA (string) is called _______

nucleosome, linker DNA

direct

occurs across physical connections called gap junctions to rapidly signal

match direct signaling with its definition

occurs across physical connections called gap junctions to rapidly signal

allosteric regulation

occurs when a molecule binds an enzyme at a place other than the active site

article 1 new discovery

omega-3 fatty acids reverse harmful changes of fructose

where is the electron transport chain located

on the mitochondrial inner membrane

there are two major classes of genes that can cause cancer when they are mutated: ______ are positive regulators that become mutated to push the cell cycle forward inappropriately, and ______, which are negative regulators that lose their ability to stop the cycle

oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes

ATP can be generated by which of the following two processes

oxidative phosphorylation and substrate phosphorylation

the sodium-potassium pump is an example of ______ transport because it requires energy and directly uses ATP

primary active

exocytosis

process of passing bulk material out of a cell

fermentation

process of regenerating NAD+ with either an inorganic or organic compound serving as the final electron acceptor; occurs in the absence of oxygen

anaerobic

process that does use oxygen

what experimental variable could you measure in photosystem II

production of O2 or light absorption

positive internal regulators induce cyclins, which promote the cell to

progress through the cell cycle

cyclin proteins are internal regulators that

promote cell division

positive internal regulators of the cell cycle

promote the cell to progress through the cell cycle (example = cyclins)

regulator molecules either ______ progres of the cell to the next phase (positive regulation), or ______ the cycle (negative regulation)

promote, halt

discuss the major events that occur during mitosis (in order)

prophase, prometaphse, metaphase, anaphase, telophase & cytokinesis

kinetochore

protein structure associated with the centromere of each sister chromatid that attracts and binds spindle microtubules during prometaphase

chromosomes consist of which of the following components

proteins and DNA molecules

what are histone proteins

proteins in which DNA wraps its self around and provides structural support for a chromosome

identify external regulators of the cell

proteins that respond to events outside the cell

the energy released by the hydrolysis of ATP is _______

providing energy to coupled reactions

anaerobic respiration occurs when the product of glycolysis, ______, is converted into ______ or lactate in order to regenerate ______

pyruvate, ethyl alcohol, NAD+

energy production in the cell depends on oxidation and reduction, called ______ reactions, which occur at the ______ time; oxidation reactions ______ electrons from an atom, whereas reduction reactions ______ electrons to an atom; the shift in electrons transfers potential energy from the ______ compound to the ______ compound

redox, the same, take away, add, first, second

the hydrolysis of ATP...

releases energy

exothermic reactions (downhill)

releases heat (downhill)

secondary active simple

relying on energy but it's a secondary process/one step away from directly using ATP

what is somatic cell nuclear transfer

reprogramming an adult somatic cell nucleus to behave like an embryonic cell nucleus by placing it in an enucleated egg

anabolic reaction statements

require an input of energy, endothermic, build or synthesize molecules

anabolic reactions ________ energy and catabolic reactions ________ energy

require, release

the plasma membrane is ______ permeable, meaning that it allows some ______ to freely enter or leave the cell, while other materials ______ move freely, but require a(n) ______, and occasionally, even a(n) ______ for crossing

selectively, materials, cannot, specialized structure, energy investment

significance of Peter Agre's discovery of aquaporins

showing that they can function as a water channel

match paracrine signaling with its definition

signaling between cells that are close together

paracrine match

signaling between cells that are close together

energy

the ability to do work

what experimental variable could you measure in the electron transport chain

the acidity of the thylakoid lumen

a bunch of nucleosomes together makes

the beaded necklace structure

which of the following statements about the cell cycle is correct

the cell cycle involves both cell growth and cell division, the cell cycle must be precisely regulated to avoid errors in cell division, interphase and mitosis may take place without cytokinesis

which of the following statements about the cell cycle is NOT true

the cell cycle is exclusively controlled by internal factors, called checkpoints

active transport

the cell needs to provide energy to get something to cross the membrane - movement against the concentration gradient requires cellular energy

ATP is an energy-rich molecule that

the cell uses to do lots of work

predict the effect of the cycle if a negative regulator, like p53, is mutated and cannot function

the cell will proceed through the cell cycle when it normally should not

potential energy is stored in

the chemical bonds between molecules

at which stage of cellular respiration has all of the carbon from glucose become oxidized

the citric acid cycle

what drives passive diffusion

the concentration gradient

cytoplasm

the gelatinous liquid made of cytosol that fills the inside of a cell

facilitated diffusion allows polar substances to cross

the membrane through channels or carrier proteins

what is facilitated diffusion?

the molecules cannot cross the membrane on their own so they need a channel or carrier protein to help them through

C

the original charge difference is re-established across the membrane, and the cell returns to its resting potential (picture 5)

how do cyclins work to promote the cell cycle

they promote cell division and require an extra protein to bind to them called a cyclin-dependant kinase

what would you predict that the graphs for the other herbicides looked like

they'd look like the graph for H-3 because they seem unchanged and without defects like H-3 does

link the structure of the membrane to its function in selective permeability

the phospholipids are arranged in a bilayer with the hydrophobic tails facing inward. The tails are packed tightly together, thus preventing any large molecules from diffusing through without being allowed to

fluid mosaic

the plasma membrane's structure is a mosaic of components including phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, glycoproteins, and glycolipids (sugar chains attached to proteins or lipids, respectively), resulting in fluidity

the primary difference between animal and plant cell mitosis is ______

the process of cytokinesis

define cloning

the process of making genetically identical DNA fragments, cells, or even entire organisms

the bonds that link the phosphate group are high-energy bonds: when the bonds are broken,

the products have lower free energy than reactants

what cellular feature makes it impossible for plant cells to divide by a cleavage furrow

the rigid cell wall surrounding the plasma membrane

which outputs would be affected if there was a defect in a particular step

the step right and all the steps downstream

phosphorylation

the transfer of a phosphate group to a molecule

interaction between cellular respiration and photosynthesis

their outputs are each other's inputs so they rely on each other

article 2 new discovery

there is a concentration gradient of lactate between astrocytes and neurons

how do G-protein linked receptors function to convey information

they activate a set of internal cellular communicators and when a signal binds to it, it causes the G-protein to separate

are exothermic/endothermic the same as exergonic/endergonic

they are used interchangeably in this class

which of the following are true of enzymes

they are usually made of amino acids (i.e. proteins), they lower the activation energy of chemical reactions, each one is specific to the particular substrate(s) to which it binds

how can reprogramming adult cells create an available source of stem cells

they can be reprogrammed to act similarly to embryonic cells which are like stem cells because they can become any type of cell

how do enzyme-linked receptors function to convey information

they can facilitate chemical reactions - binding of a single ligand triggers activation of the enzyme and leads to binding of other intracellular components

tumor-suppressors are negative regulators, like Rb, p53, and p21 and when they are mutated

they fail to stop the cell cycle and tumors can develop

how can tumor suppressor genes lead to cancer when mutated

they fail to stop the cell cycle and tumors can develop, because the cycle continues even when there is a problem

how do ion channel-linked receptors function to convey information

they open and close depending on binding of a signal and gated ion channels form a pore through the plasma membrane that opens when the signaling molecule binds - the open pore then allows ions to flow into or out of the cell

how do control checkpoints stop the cell cycle

they pause if errors or damage are detected, to allow for repairs to fix the problem

photosynthesis occurs in two major steps; the light reactions, which occur in _____ and produce _____; and the _____ which occurs in the _____ and produces _____ from carbon dioxide

thylakoids, ATP, calvin cycle, stroma, sugar

DNA must be _____ to fit in the _____, but also readily _____ for genes to be expressed; thus, long _____ of DNA are _____ into chromosomes

tightly packed, nucleus, accessible, strands, compacted

why does the cell spend so much time and energy packaging and separating chromosomes during cell division

to keep track of the information during the separation process so that nothing gets lost or damaged during transport

genome

total genetic information of a cell or organism

bulk transport meaning

transport that requires energy and is used to transport something big or large amounts of something

sister chromatids

two identical copies of the same chromosome formed by DNA replication, attached to each other by the centromere

endocytosis

type of active transport that moves substances, including fluids and particles, into a cell

even though there are many types of cancer, they all have this common feature

uncontrolled cell growth

according to the textbook's 'Key Terms' free energy is ________

usable energy and energy that is available to do work

How was Gurdon able to make sure that none of the chromosomes from the host egg remained after de-nucleation?

used a UV light to destroy the chromosomes

chemiosmosis

using kinetic energy from protons falling down their concentration gradient to make ADP + P into ATP

osmosis is a special case of diffusion that involves

water


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