BIOL 1610 Study Guide - Exam 2
which substances and/or types of molecules are permeable to the cell membrane
fat-soluble molecules, non-polar substances, vitamins A, D, E, and K, and small uncharged molecules like oxygen
stroma
fluid-filled space surrounding the grana inside a chloroplast where the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis take place
activation energy is the energy required
for a reaction to proceed
reduction
gaining electrons
define oncogenes
genes that cause a cell to become cancerous, when mutated
outputs of photosynthesis
glucose and oxygen
energy is stored long-term in the bonds of ______ and used short-term to perform work from a(n) ______ molecule
glucose, ATP
a cell can communicate "within" itself, called ______ communication, and "between" itself and other cells, called _____ communication
intracellular, intercellular
identify how the cell uses ATP to power cellular activities
through phosphorylation (transferring a phosphate group to another molecule)
article 3 new discovery
exercise can help with depression
reactants at a higher energy level than the products
exergonic
ΔG < 0
exergonic and spontaneous
what type of cellular signaling is this an example of
paracrine
understand how neurotransmitters signal to neighboring cells
paracrine signaling
understand the four forms of cellular signaling
paracrine, endocrine, autocrine, direct
which types of membrane transport happen due to the substance's own concentration gradient
passive and facilitated diffusion
what are the types of transport
passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, primary active, secondary active, endocytosis, exocytosis
differences between passive and facilitated diffusion
passive doesn't require anything but facilitated needs a channel or carrier protein
diffusion
passive transport of material according to its concentration gradient (high concentration to low concentration)
3 main categories of membrane transport
passive, active, bulk
catabolic pathways (key term)
pathways in which complex molecules break down into simpler ones
anabolic pathways (key term)
pathways that require an energy input to synthesize complex molecules from simpler ones
mitosis
period of the cell cycle where the duplicated chromsomes are separated into identical nuclei
medical applications for stem cells
personalized medicine (organs, etc)
the fluid mosaic model describes the plasma membrane as a structure with various components, including which of the following
phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, carbohydrates
the transfer of a phosphate group to a molecule is called
phosphorylation
what does the electron transport chain depend on
photosystem II and its high energy electrons
proto-oncogene
positive regulator and normal gene that when mutated, becomes an oncogene
since the difference in cellular ______ was manifested by cell ______, it was clear that the answer must somehow involve ______
potential, nuclei, genes
endocrine match
signaling between cells that are far away using the bloodstream
match endocrine signaling with its definition
signaling between cells that are far away using the bloodstream
autocrine
signaling cells that can also bind to the ligand that is released, such that signal and target cell can be the same or similar to each other (cell death signaling)
endocrine
signals from distant cells, typically produce a slower response with a long-lasting effect (e.g., hormones)
the nucleosome itself is a
single bead
metaphase
sister chromatids line up at the center of the cell, called the metaphase plate
anaphase
sister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of the cell
extracellular
situated or taking place outside a cell
anabolic
small molecules are assembled into large ones and energy is required
why does a cell want to regulate enzymes
so that it only uses an enzyme when it needs it which allows the cell to save energy and resources (because it's not using the enzyme unnecessarily)
E
sodium channels close. Potassium channels open, and potassium ions move out of the cell (picture 4)
know which way the different ions flow across the membrane
sodium ions move into the cell and potassium ions move out of the cell - opposite charges attract
which of the three (3) following molecules require facilitation in order to cross the membrane
sodium ions, glucose, sonic hedehog (Shh) ligand
phosphate groups provide higher energy or make a system
somewhat unstable
gene match
specific segment of DNA that contains genetic information
which of the following features of the chloroplast is most likely associated with maximizing surface area
stacking of thylakoids
article 2 scientific methods
stimulating the transport of lactate in mice brains to see this graident
differentiate
stop cell division and mature into cell type
article 1 discovery meaning for society
stuff with sugar and trigylcerides leads to obesity, diabetes, and other problems
nucleosome match
subunit of chromatin composed of a short length of DNA wrapped around a core of histone proteins
which of the following molecules is likely to have the most potential energy
sucrose (disaccharide)
what would happen if a herbicide blocked the calvin cycle
sugar/glucose would not be produced
active transport requires energy because
they're being forced against their gradient
DNA replication involves the unwinding of two strands of parent DNA, using each as a template to synthesize two new DNA strands. Which of the following accurately describes this process?
this is an anabolic process
______ + ______ + LIGHT = ______ + ______ + HEAT
water, CO2, oxygen, glucose
cell surface protein receptors can bind to which of the following ligands
water-soluble ligands, virus particles, large polar molecules
autocrine match
when a cell signals to itself
match autocrine signaling with its definition
when a cell signals to itself
B
when a neuron is at its resting potential, the inside of the cell has a negative charge relative to the outside (picture 1)
does bulk require energy
yes
does facilitated diffusion require channel or carrier proteins
yes
does primary active require energy
yes
does secondary active require energy
yes
does secondary active require channel or carrier proteins
yes, no ATP
does primary active require channel or carrier proteins
yes, uses ATP
propose an additional frog egg experiment to confirm that the unknown protein was a water channel
you could make the solution hypertonic so you could see if it would do the opposite and go out of the cell. The cell should get smaller and you could also try putting cells in a solution that does not contain water and you should see no change
Homologous Chromosomes
chromosomes of the same morphology with genes in the same location
homologous chromosomes match
chromosomes of the same morphology with genes in the same location
understand how to read and analyze a free energy diagram
exergonic is downhill and endergonic is uphill
cellular respiration is a ______ reaction that converts the energy in _______ to _____
exergonic, glucose, ATP
transmembrane
existing or occurring across a cell membrane
describe the basic steps that occur at the synapse during signaling
1. Action potential arrives at axon terminal 2. Stimulates calcium release 3. Neurotransmitter is released from the synaptic vesicles 4. Neurotransmitter diffuses and binds to the receptor on the receiving cell 5. Binding of neurotransmitters opens ion channels
steps of mitosis in the proper order
1. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle 2. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate 3. Cohesin proteins break down and the sister chromatids separate 4. The nucleus reforms and the cell divides
how fast can you think (overall)
120-240 km/hour
inputs of glycolysis
2 ATP, 2 NAD+, glucose
what are the inputs of glycolysis
2 ATP, 2 NAD+, glucose
what are the outputs of glycolysis
2 pyruvate, 4 ATP, 2 NADH
how can you tell if a reaction is endothermic or exothermic from a free energy diagram
exothermic is downhill and endothermic is uphill
what are the 3 primary domains of membrane receptors
extracellular domain, transmembrane domain, cytoplasmic domain
how many types of transport are there
6, with two in each category
inputs of oxidative phosphorylation
ADP, NADH, FADH2 and O2
understand its basic components and what happens if it is hydrolyzed
ATP + H2O → ADP + Pi + free energy and this is an exergonic, catabolic reaction
what does the calvin cycle depend on
ATP and NADPH from the light reactions
a newly-discovered mutation in the photosynthetic machinery leads to decreased ATP synthesis but a normal H+ gradient in the thylakoid space. Which component is most likely affected by this mutation?
ATP synthase
outputs of oxidative phosphorylation
ATP, NAD+, FAD+ and H2O
inputs of TCA cycle
Acetyl CoA
how is the division of cytoplasmic content during cytokinesis different in plants and animals
Animal cells divide by forming a cleavage furrow that gradually constricts the cell and plant cells divide by forming a new cell wall
outputs of the Calvin Cycle
CH2O (sugar)
inputs of the Calvin Cycle
CO2, ATP, NADPH
isotonic
extracellular solute concentration is the same
understand how chloroplasts produce sugar from the Calvin Cycle
By taking ATP and NADPH from light reactions and CO2 and reacting in the stroma
understand how chloroplasts produce ATP in the light reactions
By taking NADP+ and ADP from the Calvin Cycle and H2O, light, and reacting in the thylakoid
outputs of TCA cycle
Carbon dioxide, NADH, FADH2, and ATP
haploid
Cell, nucleus, or organism containing one set of chromosomes (n)
diploid
Cell, nucleus, or organism containing two sets of chromosomes (2n)
primary duty of G1
Checks for adequate reserves, cell size, and genomic DNA damage before starting DNA synthesis
how is the cytoplasmic content divided during cytokinesis
Cytoplasmic components of the daughter cells are separated either by an actin ring (animal cells) or by cell plate formation (plant cells)
which of the following must ALWAYS precede mitosis
DNA replication
structures of the chloroplasts
Double membrane (outer and inner), specialized compartments (thylakoid lumen and stroma), grana (stacks of thylakoids), high densities of chloroplasts in mesophyll/middle leaf cells of leaves
how do cells "carry" energy and ultimately generate ATP
Energy is transferred to electron carriers (intermediates) that converge on ATP synthesis
Gurdon made it to Oxford entirely on his merits
FALSE
a molecule that binds in the active site of a protein to block enzyme activity is an allosteric inhibitory
FALSE
all of the chemical reactions that transpire inside cells, including those that use and release energy, are the cell's bioenergetics
FALSE
enzyme-linked receptors cannot be enzymes themselves, but they do interact with intracellular enzymes
FALSE
glucose is a form of energy that the cell can use directly to power its activities
FALSE
herbicides that target photosystem II will always cause decreased light absorption in the plant
FALSE
ligands are the proteins on receiving cells that process chemical signals
FALSE
the most important products from the citric acid cycle are ATP molecules
FALSE
True or False: All active transport mechanisms require channel proteins
FALSE (many do but bulk does not)
-True or False: Anabolic reactions break down molecules and require energy?
FALSE (they do require energy but they DON'T break down molecules)
where do the checkpoints occur in the cell cycle
G1 = during cell growth, G2 = during cell growth, and M = during mitotic phase
what are the 3 major checkpoints of the cell cycle
G1, G2, M
identify the 3 stages of cellular respiration
Glycolysis, TCA cycle, oxidative phosphorylation
Josh Gurdon graduated from Eton School after studying which subject(s)
Greek and Latin
which herbicide appears to affect light absorption by the chloroplasts
H-2
what does photosystem II depend on
H2O and absorbed light
if the unknown protein was a water channel, which direction would you predict the water would move in a hypotonic solution? Does the data support your prediction? Why?
I predict the water would move into the cell. The data does support my prediction because it shows that the eggs with the protein are growing in volume, so the water is going in
major events of mitosis in regards to chromosome behavior
chromsomes condense and eventually move to opposite poles. Chromosome segregation is then usually followed by cell division/cytokinesis
appreciate cellular signaling in the context of neurotransmission in the brain
It is an extreme example of membrane transport and signaling and two exposing concentration gradients exist at the neuronal membrane - the release of neurotransmitters is signaled by the arrival of an action potential at the terminus of a neuron and the neurotransmitters then diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the target cell surface
in an endergonic reaction, the reactants have _______ energy levels than the products
LOWER
inputs of light reactions
Light energy, H2O, NADP+, ADP
article 3 scientific methods
MRI exams before and after vigorous exercise to measure neurotransmitters
when O2 is lacking, fermentation regenerates
NAD+; otherwise, glycolysis would halt
what are the electron carriers
NAD+→NADH FAD+→FADH2 NADP+→NADPH
order of chromatin fiber, chromosomes, and nucleosomes
Nucleosome → Chromatin fiber → Chromosome
outputs of light reactions
O2, ATP, NADPH
understand the structure of the chromosome
One long DNA molecule, many proteins, each type of chromosome has two copies, chromosome 1 is the biggest and 22 is the smallest, humans have 23 pairs
article 2 discovery meaning for society
closer to curing/treating brain diseases that are associated with metabolic deficits
understand how the chromosome is compacted
Short stretches of DNA wrap around a core of 8 histone proteins/a string of beads
what are the 2 distinct ways of generating ATP from ADP
Substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation
nucleosome
Subunit of chromatin made of a short length of DNA wrapped around a core of histone proteins
Dr. Fischberg encouraged Gurdon to repeat the nuclear transfer experiments of Briggs and King in a different species because either way would lead to a potential research
TRUE
a cell can signal to itself to undergo cell death
TRUE
a mistake in the duplication of a cell can lead to mutations that are passed on to all of the cell's descendants
TRUE
cyclin proteins can only promote progress through the cell cycle when they are bound to cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)
TRUE
energy from ATP hydrolysis is primarily captured in the cell by coupling it to an endergonic reaction
TRUE
integral membrane proteins span both bilayers of the phospholipid membrane
TRUE
lowering the activation energy does not change the free energy of the reaction
TRUE
the release of neurotransmitters from vesicles in the sending neuron is immediately preceded by calcium entry into the cell
TRUE
the vast majority of cellular ATP is produced as hydrogen ions flow down their concentration gradient through ATP synthase
TRUE
we can get an estimate of the time it takes to complete each stage of mitosis by counting the percentage of cells in that stage at any given time
TRUE
yamanaka's experiments showed that expressing only 4 proteins can reprogram mature cells back into stem cells
TRUE
how are cellular respiration and photosynthesis complementary processes? In your answer make sure to include a comparison of cellular location, inputs and outputs, and chemical pathways. Identify common features of both processes, and highlight key differences
Talk about how their outputs are each others inputs, this is their common features, key differences are location and that photosynthesis needs sunlight, photosynthesis takes place in thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts and cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondria, and n cellular respiration, electrons flow from glucose to oxygen, forming water and releasing energy. In photosynthesis, they go in the opposite direction, starting in water and winding up in glucose—an energy-requiring process powered by light
cellular respiration and photosynthesis are _______ processes
complementary
what are some of the advantages of using African frog embryos versus other biological model systems
They are large and easy to manipulate They develop externally (outside the mother) They produce large numbers of offspring They have a faster life cycle than other frog species
how do control checkpoints ensure proper division
They make sure that everything is correct for the proper division to occur (so that the cell only divides when it is supposed to)
chromosome
Threadlike structures made of protein and a single molecule of DNA that carry genetic information in the form of genes
experiments and system Peter Agre used to discover aquaporins
Took RNA from an unknown protein, injected it into frog eggs (which are impermeable to water) and found that the RNA was translated into protein 3 days later. They placed the transformed frog eggs into a hypotonic solution, and measured the size of an hour. Control eggs with no unknown protein were also placed in the solution
what essential cellular functions of p53 are not completed when it is mutated
When they are mutated they fail to stop the cell cycle and tumors can develop
genome match
complete genetic information packaged as a double stranded DNA molecule
cyclins can't work on their own, they require an extra protein to bind to them called
a cyclin dependant kinase
adenosine is a nucleotide consisting of the nitrogenous base adenine and
a five-carbon sugar, ribose
which of the following analogies best describes the induced-fit model of enzyme-substrate binding?
a lock that adjusts slightly to match the shape of an inserted key
ATP synthase works like
a molecular turbine
a kinase is an enzyme that adds
a phosphate group to a protein
action potential
a rapid sequence of changes in the voltage across a membrane
what "state" are electron carriers in when carrying high-energy electrons
a reduced state
tumor-suppressor
a segment of DNA that codes for regulator proteins that prevent the cell from undergoing uncontrolled cell division
osmosis
a special case of diffusion where water moves across the membrane when a solute cannot
D
a stimulus begins to change the distribution of charge across the membrane (picture 2)
which frog mutants helped Gurdon in his experiments?
a strain that produced only one nucleolus and an albino strain
if you took the DNA out of a cell and laid it straight, it'd be
about 6 feet long (from a human cell)
endothermic reactions (key term)
absorbs heat (uphill)
pyruvate is modified into what molecule so that it can enter the citric acid cycle
acetyl CoA
what does the 'hump' of a free energy diagram represent
activation energy
enzymes decrease the amount of
activation energy, allowing reactions to proceed faster
ATP can be generated by which of the following two processes?
oxidative phosphorylation and substrate phosphorylation
primary active transport meaning
active transport that moves ions or small molecules across a membrane and may create a difference in charge across that membrane
bulk transport is a type of
active transport, but is classified as it's own thing
metabolism
all chemical reactions of a cell or organism, including anabolism and catabolism
somatic cell
all non-reproductive cells in the body - typically have 2 matched sets of chromosomes which makes them diploid (2n)
how can cloning be completed using somatic cell nuclear transfer
all of the DNA in the nucleus is taken from one cell and put into another cell, so the resulting cell is an exact copy, or clone, of the donor cell
which of the following are high-energy electron carriers, or shuttles
all of the above (NAD, FAD+, NADP)
cell division is crucial for which of the following processes in multicellular organisms
all of the above (development from a single-celled zygote, generation and formation organs, repair and regeneration of tissues)
cell surface receptors have which of the following components
all of the above (extracellular ligand-binding domain, hydrophobic transmembrane domain, intracellular domain)
peripheral proteins do not span the entire membrane, but they can function like integral proteins in which way
all of the above (may serve as enzymes, attach to cytoskeleton, be involved in cell recognition)
permeable
allows particular substances to cross the membrane
the three phosphate groups, in order from closest to farthest from the ribose sugar, are
alpha, beta, and gamma
free energy (G)
amount of energy available to do work/usable energy
Rb, along with other negative regulators p53 and p21, act primarily
at the G1 checkpoint
an allosteric inhibitor binds ______ the active site of an enzyme, ______ its affinity for substrate binding
away from, decreasing
an allosteric inhibitor binds ______ the active site of an enzyme, decreasing its affinity for substrate binding
away from, decreasing
the potential energy stored in the chemical bonds of gasoline can
be transformed into kinetic energy that allows a car to race on a racetrack
why haven't we cured cancer yet
because it's a collection of many diseases, is highly adaptable, and it can become resistance to treatments that initially work
why does the red line stop before 3 minutes, but the blue line extends to 5 minutes
because the eggs for the blue line were growing at a faster rate, so they reached their max volume in less time. The eggs for the blue line were not growing as fast
allosteric
binding to an enzyme or modifying the bonding site
extracellular domain match
binds to the ligand outside the cell
a metabolic pathway is a series of
biochemical reactions that converts one or more substances into a final product
where is the energy in ATP stored
bonds between phosphates
which of the following is true about the connection between photosynthesis and cellular respiration
both processes occur in plant cells, the outputs from photosynthesis are the inputs to cellular respiration, the source of carbon for the sugars in fruits and vegetables could have come from the carbon dioxide humans breathe out
catabolic reaction statements
break down molecules, release of energy, exothermic
glycolysis
breaking down glucose into two smaller pyruvate molecules (two three-carbon molecules)
how can oncogenes lead to cancer when mutated
by causing the cell to divide and multiply uncontrollably
how is the membrane selectively permeable
by only admitting certain things and then restricting others (it chooses)
fermentation occurs in the absence of
oxygen
the carbon from glucose ends up in which molecule
carbon dioxide
inputs of photosynthesis
carbon dioxide, water, sunlight
cellular respiration is a ______ reaction because it is ________
catabolic, breaking down glucose
haploid match
cell, nucleus, or organism containing one set of chromsomes (n)
diploid match
cell, nucleus, or organism containing two sets of chromosomes (2n)
stem cells
cells from which all other cells with specialized functions are generated
respiration
cellular respiration is an exergonic reaction that converts the energy in glucose to ATP
impermeable
certain substances are not allowed to cross the membrane
what drives facilitated diffusion
channel or carrier protein
aquaporin
channel protein that allows water through the membrane at a very high rate
transport proteins that work in facilitated diffusion include ______
channels and something else
a ______ is one of several points in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which ______ of a cell to the next stage can be ______ until conditions are ______
checkpoint, progression, halted, favorable
G1 checkpoint
checks for adequate reserves, cell size, and genomic DNA damage
exergonic
chemical reactions that release free energy
endergonic
chemical reactions that require energy input
in _____, free energy from the series of _____ along the electron transport chain is used to pump _____ ions into the _____ to produce a(n) _____ gradient
chemiosmosis, redox reactions, hydrogen, intermembrane space, electrochemical
prophase
chromosomes condense and the nucleus breaks down
in Peter Agre's experiments using frog eggs, the un-injected eggs are the ______, and the size of the cells is the ______
control group, dependent variable
chemical reactions alter the configuration of
covalent bonds between molecules
pyruvate is produced in the _______ and must be transported into the ________ for further processing
cytoplasm, mitochondria
pyruvate is produced in the ________ and must be transported into the _______ for further processing
cytoplasm, mitochondria
article 3 discovery meaning for society
exercise can be used as a therapy for depression and more
which of the following events may activate the cell cycle
death of a nearby cell, signaling by hormones, very few other cells in the environment
M checkpoint
determines whether all sister chromatids are attached to the mitotic spindle
what is passive diffusion
diffusion through a permeable membrane that moves a substance from a high concentration to a low concentration (down its gradient) until there is equilibrium
thylakoid
disc-shaped, membrane-bound structure inside a chloroplast where the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis take place
what would happen if a herbicide blocked the electron transport chain
disruption of proton gradient and no pumping of hydrogen
cytokinesis
division of the cytoplasm following mitosis that forms two daughter cells
A
during an action potential, sodium channels open and sodium ions move into the cell. The inside of the cell becomes positively charged relative to the outside (picture 3)
cloning experiments with frogs and sheep showed that the mature nucleus of a cell can be reprogrammed by what factor?
egg cytoplasm
how are induced pluripotent stem cells different from embryonic stem cells
embryonic are derived from embryos and induced pluripotent are generated by somatic cell reprogramming - also embryonic can generate ANY types of cells and induced pluripotent are able to differentiate into MOST major cell types
reactants are lower than the products
endergonic
ΔG > 0
endergonic and not spontaneous
the process of ______ brings large substances into the cell, whereas ______ releases large substances from the cell; both are _____ processes
endocytosis, exocytosis, active
the process of ______ brings large substances into the cell, whereas ______ releases large substances from the cell; both are ______ processes
endocytosis, exocytosis, active
G2 checkpoint
ensures all of the chromsomes have been replicated
glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. What does this indicate about its evolutionary origin?
glycolysis is an ancient metabolic process that likely evolved before eukaryotes split from prokaryotes, glycolysis evolved before the formation of cellular organelles
describe the energetics of cellular respiration using the following terms: product, reactant, glucose, ATP, CO2, and free energy
glycolysis takes glucose, which is a reactant, and brings it through the cycle. The product is CO2, and the reactants have a higher free energy level than the products. ATP is produced by all of the stages
negative internal regulators of the cell cycle
halt the cycle to ensure the cell is ready for division (example = Rb, p53, p21)
homologous
having similar or corresponding features
how did John Gurdon show that the nucleus can be reprogrammed
he took differentiated interstitial cells, put their nucleus in an egg, and you could get a normal adult at a low frequency (10 normal/700 transfers = 1.4%)
diffusion is the process whereby substance moves from an area of ______ concentration to ______ concentration until there are ______ concentrations across the space
high, low, equal
diffusion is the process whereby substances move from an area of ______ concentration to ______ concentration until there are ______ concentrations across the space
high, low, equal
hypertonic
higher extracellular solute concentration
what experimental variable could you measure in the calvin cycle
how much glucose or G3P is produced
transmembrane domain
hydrophobic domain that crosses the membrane
which type of molecule is most likely to bind to an internal receptor
hydrophobic ligands
where is the energy contained in ATP
in the bonds between phosphates
active transport requires some way to move the molecules
in the opposite direction they want to go
identify the different types of membrane receptors
inclusion ion-channel linked, G-protein-linked, and enzyme-linked receptors
article 1 scientific methods
injecting groups of rats with either water, water and fructose, or fructose and DHA
cytoplasmic domain match
interacts with cellular components
during an action potential, sodium channels open and sodium ions move
into the cell and the inside of the cell becomes positively charged relative to the outside
molecules transported during primary active
ions against their concentration gradient
molecules transported during secondary active
ions against their concentration gradient
molecules transported in facilitated diffusion
ions along their concentration gradient
how does Rb inhibit or block the cell cycle
it blocks the cell cycle until it is phosphorylated
advantage of allosteric regulation
it doesn't have to bind to the active site (binds somewhere else)
the potential energy in bonds in gas doesn't get released until
it is combusted - breaking the bonds releases energy and is used to make the car go
why was it important to use un-injected frog eggs as a control in this experiment? What does the small increase in the blue line represent?
it is important to use un-injected frog legs so you can compare results and have a baseline level for the normal amount of diffusion/how much they grow in water. The small increase in the blue line shows the small amount that enters frog eggs naturally
examples of potential energy in cells
it is stored in concentration gradients across a membrane
effect of mutation that causes some sodium channels to have a slow leak on the Na+ concentration gradient at the axonal membrane
it will be less concentrated, diminished, and can't hold the gradient because it's leaking
a mutation that produces a slow leak in the potassium channel of a neuron will do what to the overall membrane potential at rest?
it will become more negative
effect of mutation that causes some sodium channels to have a slow leak on the resting potential membrane
it would disrupt the membrane because it disrupts the charges - the resting potential will go up because you're adding a positive charge
what would you predict would happen to the control and injected eggs if mercury was added to the hypotonic solution at 2 minutes?
it would just stop growing at two minutes because the mercury stops it
effect of mutation that causes some sodium channels to have a slow leak on the action potential firing and frequency
it would make it slower and less drastic and you can't really do an action potential anymore because it doesn't have the gradient
if the energy is on the left side of the arrow then
it's anabolic
if the energy is on the right side of the arrow then
it's catabolic
how does the structure of ATP synthase determine its function
it's channel for hydrogen allows the hydrogen ions into the cell, the spinning shaft smashes ADP and phosphate to make ATP
a cell has to be careful to not divide when
it's not supposed to
the potential energy stored in the chemical bonds of glucose can be transformed into
kinetic energy that allows humans to run marathons
two types of fermentation
lactic acid fermentation and alcohol fermentation
which molecules require facilitation to pass through the membrane
large and polar
catabolic
large molecules are broken down into small ones and energy is released
which substances and/or types of molecules are impermeable to the cell membrane
large proteins, polar molecules, ions such as sodium, simple sugars and amino acids
fibrous proteins further
pack each chromosome
which parts of photosynthesis occur in which compartments of chloroplasts
light reactions occur in thylakoids, the calvin cycle occurs in the stroma
oxidation
losing electrons
in a solution with a semi-permeable membrane, water will move from _____ osmolarity to ______ osmolarity
low, high
in a solution with a semi-permeable membrane, water will move from ______ osmolarity to ______ osmolarity
low, high
hypotonic
lower extracellular solute concentration
what are the 3 primary functions of cells
maintain a barrier, metabolize molecules, multiply by dividing
how could mutations in specific proteins affect neurotransmission
make it not work properly/as well, and it may take longer
cancer
many different diseases characterized by uncontrolled cell growth
molecules transported during bulk
many large molecules or food substances
checkpoint
mechanism that monitors the preparedness of a cell to advance through the cell-cycle stages
what is personalized medicine
medical care that is customized for individuals, and induced pluripotent stem cells have the potential to do this
where do the distinct ways of generating ATP from ADP occur in the cell (primarily)
mitochondria
prometaphse
mitotic spindle attaches to sister chromatids at the kinetochore
allosteric inhibitors
modify the active site of the enzyme so that substrate binding is reduced or prevented
allosteric activators
modify the active site of the enzyme so that the affinity for the substrate increases
substrate
molecule on which the enzyme acts
anabolic reactions build
molecules and require energy
examples of kinetic energy in cells
molecules moving down their gradient
compare enzyme regulation strategies - inhibition vs activation
molecules that increase the activity of an enzyme are called activators, while molecules that decrease the activity of an enzyme are called inhibitors
paracrine
move by diffusion through extracellular matrix, examples include synaptic signals and neurotransmitters
what is the type of signaling that occurs between two neighboring neurons that are NOT physically connected in the brain
paracrine
describe the membrane events that generate an action potential
movement of ions through ion channels and the 'switch' in electrical potential
secondary active transport meaning
movement of material that results from primary active transport to the electrochemical gradient
primary active simple
moving molecules through a pump against their concentration gradient
does bulk require channel or carrier proteins
no
does bulk transport have a concentration gradient
no
does passive diffusion require channel or carrier proteins
no
does passive diffusion require energy
no
what would happen if a herbicide blocked photosystem II
no electrons to ETC; no O2 generated; less light absorbed
does passive diffusion require energy
no energy is required
is decreased oxygen production caused by light absorption
no, because with H-3 there is less oxygen but no change in light absorption, so they are not correlated
does facilitated diffusion require energy
no, it does not require energy
on an energy diagram, an exothermic reaction would show which of the following
none of the above
which molecules can pass through the membrane on their own
nonpolar and small ones, like oxygen and carbon dioxide
molecules transported in passive diffusion
nonpolar, small molecules
what early pieces of evidence indicated that development was a one-way process
nuclear transfer from an early embryo produced mature frogs, whereas nuclear transfer from somatic cells could not cells from early stages of embryonic development could form an entire organism when separated, whereas cells from later stages could not
telophase & cytokinesis
nuclei reform; cytoplasm and organelles begin to separate
The histone-DNA complex (the bead) is called a ______ and the connecting DNA (string) is called _______
nucleosome, linker DNA
direct
occurs across physical connections called gap junctions to rapidly signal
match direct signaling with its definition
occurs across physical connections called gap junctions to rapidly signal
allosteric regulation
occurs when a molecule binds an enzyme at a place other than the active site
article 1 new discovery
omega-3 fatty acids reverse harmful changes of fructose
where is the electron transport chain located
on the mitochondrial inner membrane
there are two major classes of genes that can cause cancer when they are mutated: ______ are positive regulators that become mutated to push the cell cycle forward inappropriately, and ______, which are negative regulators that lose their ability to stop the cycle
oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes
ATP can be generated by which of the following two processes
oxidative phosphorylation and substrate phosphorylation
the sodium-potassium pump is an example of ______ transport because it requires energy and directly uses ATP
primary active
exocytosis
process of passing bulk material out of a cell
fermentation
process of regenerating NAD+ with either an inorganic or organic compound serving as the final electron acceptor; occurs in the absence of oxygen
anaerobic
process that does use oxygen
what experimental variable could you measure in photosystem II
production of O2 or light absorption
positive internal regulators induce cyclins, which promote the cell to
progress through the cell cycle
cyclin proteins are internal regulators that
promote cell division
positive internal regulators of the cell cycle
promote the cell to progress through the cell cycle (example = cyclins)
regulator molecules either ______ progres of the cell to the next phase (positive regulation), or ______ the cycle (negative regulation)
promote, halt
discuss the major events that occur during mitosis (in order)
prophase, prometaphse, metaphase, anaphase, telophase & cytokinesis
kinetochore
protein structure associated with the centromere of each sister chromatid that attracts and binds spindle microtubules during prometaphase
chromosomes consist of which of the following components
proteins and DNA molecules
what are histone proteins
proteins in which DNA wraps its self around and provides structural support for a chromosome
identify external regulators of the cell
proteins that respond to events outside the cell
the energy released by the hydrolysis of ATP is _______
providing energy to coupled reactions
anaerobic respiration occurs when the product of glycolysis, ______, is converted into ______ or lactate in order to regenerate ______
pyruvate, ethyl alcohol, NAD+
energy production in the cell depends on oxidation and reduction, called ______ reactions, which occur at the ______ time; oxidation reactions ______ electrons from an atom, whereas reduction reactions ______ electrons to an atom; the shift in electrons transfers potential energy from the ______ compound to the ______ compound
redox, the same, take away, add, first, second
the hydrolysis of ATP...
releases energy
exothermic reactions (downhill)
releases heat (downhill)
secondary active simple
relying on energy but it's a secondary process/one step away from directly using ATP
what is somatic cell nuclear transfer
reprogramming an adult somatic cell nucleus to behave like an embryonic cell nucleus by placing it in an enucleated egg
anabolic reaction statements
require an input of energy, endothermic, build or synthesize molecules
anabolic reactions ________ energy and catabolic reactions ________ energy
require, release
the plasma membrane is ______ permeable, meaning that it allows some ______ to freely enter or leave the cell, while other materials ______ move freely, but require a(n) ______, and occasionally, even a(n) ______ for crossing
selectively, materials, cannot, specialized structure, energy investment
significance of Peter Agre's discovery of aquaporins
showing that they can function as a water channel
match paracrine signaling with its definition
signaling between cells that are close together
paracrine match
signaling between cells that are close together
energy
the ability to do work
what experimental variable could you measure in the electron transport chain
the acidity of the thylakoid lumen
a bunch of nucleosomes together makes
the beaded necklace structure
which of the following statements about the cell cycle is correct
the cell cycle involves both cell growth and cell division, the cell cycle must be precisely regulated to avoid errors in cell division, interphase and mitosis may take place without cytokinesis
which of the following statements about the cell cycle is NOT true
the cell cycle is exclusively controlled by internal factors, called checkpoints
active transport
the cell needs to provide energy to get something to cross the membrane - movement against the concentration gradient requires cellular energy
ATP is an energy-rich molecule that
the cell uses to do lots of work
predict the effect of the cycle if a negative regulator, like p53, is mutated and cannot function
the cell will proceed through the cell cycle when it normally should not
potential energy is stored in
the chemical bonds between molecules
at which stage of cellular respiration has all of the carbon from glucose become oxidized
the citric acid cycle
what drives passive diffusion
the concentration gradient
cytoplasm
the gelatinous liquid made of cytosol that fills the inside of a cell
facilitated diffusion allows polar substances to cross
the membrane through channels or carrier proteins
what is facilitated diffusion?
the molecules cannot cross the membrane on their own so they need a channel or carrier protein to help them through
C
the original charge difference is re-established across the membrane, and the cell returns to its resting potential (picture 5)
how do cyclins work to promote the cell cycle
they promote cell division and require an extra protein to bind to them called a cyclin-dependant kinase
what would you predict that the graphs for the other herbicides looked like
they'd look like the graph for H-3 because they seem unchanged and without defects like H-3 does
link the structure of the membrane to its function in selective permeability
the phospholipids are arranged in a bilayer with the hydrophobic tails facing inward. The tails are packed tightly together, thus preventing any large molecules from diffusing through without being allowed to
fluid mosaic
the plasma membrane's structure is a mosaic of components including phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, glycoproteins, and glycolipids (sugar chains attached to proteins or lipids, respectively), resulting in fluidity
the primary difference between animal and plant cell mitosis is ______
the process of cytokinesis
define cloning
the process of making genetically identical DNA fragments, cells, or even entire organisms
the bonds that link the phosphate group are high-energy bonds: when the bonds are broken,
the products have lower free energy than reactants
what cellular feature makes it impossible for plant cells to divide by a cleavage furrow
the rigid cell wall surrounding the plasma membrane
which outputs would be affected if there was a defect in a particular step
the step right and all the steps downstream
phosphorylation
the transfer of a phosphate group to a molecule
interaction between cellular respiration and photosynthesis
their outputs are each other's inputs so they rely on each other
article 2 new discovery
there is a concentration gradient of lactate between astrocytes and neurons
how do G-protein linked receptors function to convey information
they activate a set of internal cellular communicators and when a signal binds to it, it causes the G-protein to separate
are exothermic/endothermic the same as exergonic/endergonic
they are used interchangeably in this class
which of the following are true of enzymes
they are usually made of amino acids (i.e. proteins), they lower the activation energy of chemical reactions, each one is specific to the particular substrate(s) to which it binds
how can reprogramming adult cells create an available source of stem cells
they can be reprogrammed to act similarly to embryonic cells which are like stem cells because they can become any type of cell
how do enzyme-linked receptors function to convey information
they can facilitate chemical reactions - binding of a single ligand triggers activation of the enzyme and leads to binding of other intracellular components
tumor-suppressors are negative regulators, like Rb, p53, and p21 and when they are mutated
they fail to stop the cell cycle and tumors can develop
how can tumor suppressor genes lead to cancer when mutated
they fail to stop the cell cycle and tumors can develop, because the cycle continues even when there is a problem
how do ion channel-linked receptors function to convey information
they open and close depending on binding of a signal and gated ion channels form a pore through the plasma membrane that opens when the signaling molecule binds - the open pore then allows ions to flow into or out of the cell
how do control checkpoints stop the cell cycle
they pause if errors or damage are detected, to allow for repairs to fix the problem
photosynthesis occurs in two major steps; the light reactions, which occur in _____ and produce _____; and the _____ which occurs in the _____ and produces _____ from carbon dioxide
thylakoids, ATP, calvin cycle, stroma, sugar
DNA must be _____ to fit in the _____, but also readily _____ for genes to be expressed; thus, long _____ of DNA are _____ into chromosomes
tightly packed, nucleus, accessible, strands, compacted
why does the cell spend so much time and energy packaging and separating chromosomes during cell division
to keep track of the information during the separation process so that nothing gets lost or damaged during transport
genome
total genetic information of a cell or organism
bulk transport meaning
transport that requires energy and is used to transport something big or large amounts of something
sister chromatids
two identical copies of the same chromosome formed by DNA replication, attached to each other by the centromere
endocytosis
type of active transport that moves substances, including fluids and particles, into a cell
even though there are many types of cancer, they all have this common feature
uncontrolled cell growth
according to the textbook's 'Key Terms' free energy is ________
usable energy and energy that is available to do work
How was Gurdon able to make sure that none of the chromosomes from the host egg remained after de-nucleation?
used a UV light to destroy the chromosomes
chemiosmosis
using kinetic energy from protons falling down their concentration gradient to make ADP + P into ATP
osmosis is a special case of diffusion that involves
water
