BIOL 320 Exam 1

hyperthyroidism

"graves disease"- autoimmune function; high body temperature, weight loss, increased HR and BMR; exophthalmos: eyeballs protrude due to edema in sockets; antibody stimulates TSH receptors and acts like it's TSH so thyroid goes into overdrive; treatment: remove thyroid, supplemental thyroid hormones

heart sounds

"lubb": low-pitched, beginning of ventricular systole, AV valves close "dubb": high-pitched, beginning of ventricular diastole, SL valves close heart murmur: reflux back into valves valve stenosis: stiffening/narrowing; ex: inflammation (endocarditis), increased Ca+ salts, heart has to work hard to pump because back flow; weakens and needs replacement

diabetes mellitus

"overflow of honey"; urine is sweet; too little insulin (receptor or hormone issue) polyuria: increased urine volume polydipsia: increased sensation of thirst polyphagia: increased sensation of hunger

Rh blood factor

+ if you have D antigen on RBCs; in pregnancy: 1. before/during delivery, Rh+ RBCs from fetus enter blood of Rh- woman through tear in placenta 2. mother is sensitized to Rh antigen and produces anti-Rh antibodies; usually happens after delivery so fetus unaffected 3. during 2nd pregnancy with Rh+ fetus, if Rh+ RBCs cross placenta and enter maternal circulation, can stimulate mother to produce antibodies against Rh antigen. rapid production because mother has been sensitized to Rh antigen 4. anti-Rh antibodies from mother cross placenta; causes agglutination and hemolysis of fetal RBCs and erythroblastosis fetalis/hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) develops

basophils

.5-1%; 1. stem cell (hemocytoblast) 2. myeloid stem cell 3. myeloblast 4. progranulocyte 5. basophilic myelocyte 6. basophilic band cell 7. basophil

conducting system

1. APs originate in SA node (pacemaker, ~75 bpm) and travel across atrium to AV node 2. APs pass through AV node (.1 sec delay) along AV bundle 3. AV bundle (bundle of His) divides into R and L bundle branches and APs descend to apex of each ventricle 4. APs carried by purkinje fibers from bundle branches to ventricular walls and papillary muscle (*repolarizes in reverse)

hemoglobin breakdown

1. hemoglobin broken down by macrophages into heme and globin 2. globin broken down to individual amino acids 3. heme releases iron and converted to bilirubin 4. blood transports iron+transferrin to tissues for storage or red bone marrow to produce more hemoglobin 5. blood transports free bilirubin to liver 6. conjugated bilirubin excreted as part of bile into small intestine where bacteria break it down 7. bilirubin derivatives contribute to feces color or reabsorbed from intestine into blood (excreted from kidneys, contribute to urine color)

thrombopoiesis (platelet genesis)

1. stem cell (hemocytoblast) 2. myeloid stem cell 3. megakaryoblast 4. megakaryocyte 5. megakaryocyte breakup 6. platelets

erythropoiesis

1. stem cell (hemocytoblast) 2. myeloid stem cell 3. proerythroblast 4. early erythroblast 5. intermediate erythroblast 6. late erythroblast (nucleus extruded) 7. reticulocyte 8. red blood cell

cAMP 2nd messenger system

1. water soluble hormone (1st messenger) binds receptor outside of cell 2. receptor activates G protein 3. G protein activates adenylate cyclase 4. adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP (2nd messenger) 5. cAMP activates protein kinases which trigger responses of target cells *for all amino acid based hormones except thyroid hormone*

characteristics of WBCs

1:800 ratio of WBC:RBC; nucleated; presence of organelles; lack hemoglobin; each can reveal certain problems

eosinophils

2-4%; defense against parasites; 1. stem cell (hemocytoblast) 2. myeloid stem cell 3. myeloblast 4. progranulocyte 5. eosinophilic myelocyte 6. eosinophilic band cell 7. eosinophil

alpha cells

20%; polypeptide secrete glucagon; increase blood glucose concentration; targets the liver; effects: glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis which release resulting glucose into blood

lymphocytes

20-25%; 1. stem cell (hemocytoblast) 2. lymphoid stem cell 3. lymphoblast 4. lymphocyte

monocytes

3-8%; 1. stem cell (hemocytoblast) 2. monoblast 3. monocyte

clot retraction

30-60 minutes; platelets (actin + myosin) form extensions (fibrinogen + fibrinogen receptors) that contract; as clot retracts, serum squeezed out of clot; pulls edges of damaged blood vessels together

parathyroid glands

4 on posterior part of thyroid; secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH)

hemoglobin

4 subunits (each with 1 polypeptide (globin) bound to 1 heme group (contain 1 iron at center)); if hemoglobin ruptures (hemolysis), iron toxin can be fatal

blood composition

45% is RBCs; <1% is "buffy coat" (platelets and WBCs); 55% is plasma (liquid part of blood)

neutrophils

60-70%; 1. stem cell (hemocytoblast) 2. myeloid stem cell 3. myeloblast 4. progranulocyte 5. neutrophilic myelocyte 6. neutrophilic band cell 7. neutrophil

beta cells

75%; protein; secrete insulin; moves glucose and amino acids to tissues (out of blood; lowers blood glucose concentration); targets liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue; effects: glycogenesis, glucose-->fat, glucose-->utilized for energy

pancreas

99% exocrine, 1% endocrine; insulin spike = rebuild glycogen stores; regulates blood glucose levels

period of isovolumetric contraction

AP passes to AV node, down AV bundle/bundle branches to purkinje fibers and stimulates ventricular systole/atrial diastole; ventricular pressure increases and AV valves close (SL valves closed too); no blood flows from ventricles (volume doesn't change); QRS complex completed; "lubb" heart sound (1st)

imbalance of adrenal cortex hormones

Addison's disease: low cortisol and aldosterone; Na+ and H2O not removed from urine; causes dehydration, hypertension, weight loss, bronze skin Cushing's disease: elevated cortisol; high glucose, muscle and bone wasting (taking too much glucose from muscle); depresses immune function; treatment: remove tumor from adrenal gland, anterior pituitary, ventral hypothalamus

cortisol regulation

CRH from hypothalamus responds to stress or low blood glucose and passes through hypothalamohypophysial portal system to anterior pituitary; anterior pituitary responds by secreting ACTH which travels to adrenal gland and causes secretion of cortisol

hormonal control of erythropoiesis

EPO: speed up maturation of RBCs; 1st steps in 1-2 days testosterone: enhances EPO production = higher RBC count; injections thicken blood which makes the heart work harder

"father of stress"

Hans Selye (1936); General Adaptation Syndrome (controlled mainly by hypothalamus) 1. fight or flight: epinephrine from adrenal medulla; neural control 2. resistance reaction: cortisol; hormonal control 3. exhaustion ("pooped" adrenals): leads to chronic stress

electrocardiography intervals

PQ/PR interval: atria contract and begin to relax; ventricles begin to depolarize QT interval: ventricles contract and begin to relax

hemopoiesis

RBC development in red bone marrow; in kids, happens in most bones; later happens in select bones of axial skeleton

active ventricular filling

SA node generates AP, atria contract, force blood into relaxed ventricles through open AV valves; atrial systole/ventricular diastole; P wave completed, QRS complex begins; ventricles are full=end diastolic volume (EDV)

ectopic focus

abnormal pacemaker forms; non-nodal; variable effects (can grow)

platelet plug formation

accumulation of platelets that can seal small breaks in blood vessels; not a blood clot 1. platelet adhesion: platelets bind to collagen mediated through von willebrand factor (vWF) 2. platelet release reaction: ADP and thromboxanes released and activate other platelets 3. platelet aggregation: fibrinogen forms a bridge between fibrinogen receptors of different platelets, resulting in platelet plug

triiodothyronine (T3)

active form; 2 tyrosine + 3 iodines

leukocyte disorders: leukemias

acute: sudden, advances rapidly; chronic: slow, later stages of development immature, non-functional WBCs; bone marrow full of cancerous leukocytes; death caused by hemorrhage, infection; treatment: radiation, chemo, bone marrow transplant

other hormone producing structures

adipose cells: leptin and resistin (hunger and satiety) skin: cholecalciferol (vitamin D) GI tract: enteroendocrine cells (digestive regulation) kidney: erythropoietin (EPO- regulates maturation of RBCs) heart: atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP: BP regulation) placenta: human chorionic gonadotropin (gonads), human placental lactogen (milk production), human chorionic somatomammotropin (mammary development)

hormone actions on target cells

alter plasma membrane permeability, open/close ion channels, stimulate protein synthesis, activate/deactivate enzymes, induce secretory activity, stimulate mitotic activity

cardiac output

amount of blood pumped by ventricles per minute HR (bpm) x SV (ml/beat) 5.25 L/min = 75 bpm x .07 ml/beat (approximate average blood volume resting; why intravenous drugs work quickly)

stressors

any disturbance of the body; responses vary between individuals

agranulocytes

appear to have no granules; lymphocytes, monocytes

anti-clotting drugs

aspirin: anti-prostaglandic heparin: used in open heart surgery; anticoagulant; acts rapidly warfarin: slower than heparin; prevents clot formation; blood thinner; first used as rat poison (bleed to death); anticoagulant; caution- hemorrhage internally or bleed excessively when cut

beginning of cardiac cycle

atria and ventricles relaxed, AV valves open, SL valves closed

bainbridge reflex

atrial reflex; sympathetic ANS reflex; baroreceptors measure BP and send to CAC (too low? stimulate SA node); fxn of BP: propel blood to tissues

thrombus

attached/stationary clot; ex: coronary thrombus (clot in coronary artery- feeds heart pump)

erythroblastosis fetalis/hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)

baby can be treated with pre-birth transfusions and exchange transfusions after birth; RhoGAM serum containing anti-Rh can prevent the Rh mother from becoming sensitized

transitional epithelium

basal cells cuboidal-shaped; surface cells dome-shaped depending on degree of organ stretch stretches readily and permits distension of bladder lines ureters, bladder, urethra

intrinsic clotting pathway

begins with chemicals inside blood; factor XII in contact with exposed collagen, stimulates factor XI and activates factor IX, joins with factor VIII, platelet phospholipids and Ca+ active factor X, prothrombinase formed->prothrombin->thrombin->fibrinogen->fibrin->fibrin clot

extrinsic clotting pathway

begins with chemicals outside blood; faster; damaged tissue releases tissue factor (TF), when Ca+ present, forms complex with factor VII activating factor X, prothrombinase formed-> prothrombin->thrombin->fibrinogen->fibrin->fibrin clot

calcium homeostasis

blood Ca+ levels too high: parafollicular cells increase calcitonin secretion; parathyroid glands decrease PTH secretion; Ca+ into bones blood Ca+ levels too low: parafollicular cells decrease calcitonin secretion; parathyroid glands increase PTH secretion; Ca+ out of bones

coagulation

blood clotting; network of fibrin that traps blood cells, platelets, fluid; depends on clotting factors (extrinsic and intrinsic)

regulation of blood glucose

blood glucose level too high: secrete insulin; move glucose out of blood to other tissues and store as glycogen or fat blood glucose level too low: decrease insulin release

anastamoses

branching of vessels between arteries

neonatal jaundice

broken down RBCs, buildup of bilirubin; yellowish staining of skin fixed with bililights (phototherapy)

thyroid gland

butterfly-shaped; sits on top of trachea below larynx; incredibly vascular; contains follicles filled with colloid (composed of thyroglobulin- precursor to thyroid hormones)

fibrosis of cardiac muscle

cardiac cells die and are replaced with CT; SV reduced; fibrosis of nodes causes increased incidence of arrhythmias

regulation of HR: sympathetic ANS/ "fight or flight"

cardioacceleratory center (CAC): increases HR innervation point: AV and SA nodes, cardiac muscle neurotransmitter: norepinephrine *most important (pump harder, contract stronger)

regulation of HR: parasympathetic ANS/ "rest and digest"

cardioinhibitory center (CIC) innervation point: nodes cranial nerve: vagus neurotransmitter: acetylcholine *doesn't need to be as rapid

coronary sinus

carries blood from the walls of the heart to the right atrium

mononucleosis ("kissing disease")

caused by epstein-barr virus; increased number and atypical appearance of WBCs; fatigue, swollen spleen, fever

left coronary artery branches

circumflex artery, anterior interventricular artery

seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

clinical depression; very high levels of melatonin; common in northern states with little sunlight; treatment: full spectrum phototherapy

agglutination

clumping of blood cells; happens when antibody binds to wrong antigen

cardiac arrhythmias (seen on ECG)

complete heart block: P waves and QRS complexes not coordinated; different degrees premature ventricular contraction (PVC): P wave superimposed on QRS complex bundle branch block: QRS complex too long atrial fibrillation: no clear P waves, rapid QRS complexes ventricular fibrillation: no waves or contraction; heart quivers; need to zap and reconduct system

adrenal glands

composed of an inner medulla and outer cortex; sit on top of kidneys

papillary muscles

cone-shaped, muscular pillars in ventricles; contract when ventricles contract; prevent valves from opening into atria by pulling on chordae tendineae

semilunar (SL) valves

consist of aortic and pulmonary; 3 pocket-like SL cusps; contraction of ventricles pushes them open; when blood flows backwards, it enters pockets of cusps and closes valve and prevents back flow

heart skeleton

consists of plate of fibrous CT between atria and ventricles; fibrous rings around valves for support; electrical insulation between atria and ventricles; site for cardiac muscle attachment

systole

contraction atrial systole: contraction of atrial myocardium ventricular systole: contraction of ventricular myocardium

atherosclerosis

contributing factors: inactivity, smoking, stress, high cholesterol diet consequences: hypertensive, heart disease, coronary artery occlusion risks: heart attack, stroke

heart development

day 20: 2 endothelial tubes begin to fuse day 22: tubular heart starts pumping day 24: heart continues to elongate and starts to bend day 28: bending continues as ventricle moves caudally and atrium moves cranially day 35: bending is complete; no pulmonary circuit function

aldosterone regulation

decreased Na+ or increased K+ in blood directly stimulates adrenal cortex; aldosterone levels increase OR kidneys secrete renin (initiates cascade that produces angiotensin II which causes zona glomerulosa to secrete aldosterone) OR increased BP causes atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) to inhibit zona glomerulosa to secrete aldosterone

leukopenia

decreased number of WBCs; increased risk of infection

action potentials in cardiac muscle

depolarization: Na+ channels open, K+ channels close, Ca++ channels begin to open early repolarization: Na+ channels close, some K+ channels open plateau phase: Ca++ channels open (slow further repolarization; mandatory rest period before another AP) final depolarization phase: Ca++ channels close, many K+ channels open

baroreceptor reflex

detect changes in BP and lead to changes in HR BP increases: CRC increases parasympathetic NS/decreases sympathetic NS which slows down HR BP decreases: CRC decreases parasympathetic NS/increases sympathetic NS which speeds up HR

thymus

development and maturation of immune system; thymosin (regulates WBC production) and thymopoietin (stimulates maturation of lymphocytes); most active when young because building immunity; shrinks with age

"fun" with ADH

diabetes insipidus: "overflow tasteless"; non-sugar diabetes; too little ADH; can result from head injury; if not balanced can cause dehydration "breaking the seal": alcohol inhibits ADH and creates excess urine output; once you start peeing you can't stop hangover: dehydration; excessive sweating

diastole

dilation atrial diastole: relaxation of atrial myocardium ventricular diastole: relaxation of ventricular myocardium

pericardium

double-layered, closed sac that surrounds the heart; parietal: outer layer; visceral (epicardium): inner layer covering heart's surface; pericardial cavity: space between parietal and visceral layers and filled with pericardial fluid to reduce friction

early fetal development

early sources of blood cells: yolk sac, liver, spleen

gonadocorticoids (testosterone) or androgen

effects on pre-pubertal boys and girls is huge; big role post-menopause; libido; increased sex drive; secreted from zona reticularis

developmental considerations

endocrine tissues come from all 3 germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm derived glands (steroids), ectoderm)

congenital adrenal hyperplasia

enlarged adrenal gland; missing 1 or more enzymes needed for cortisol synthesis (can't make glucocorticoids); decreased cortisol = increased ACTH (no negative feedback) = growth of adrenal cortex = enlarged adrenals; results in accumulation of cortisol precursors which can be converted to testosterone; symptoms: virilization

atrioventricular (AV) valves

ensure blood flows from atria into ventricles; concave on ventricle side, convex on atrial side tricuspid: between R atrium and R ventricle; 3 cusps bicuspid (mitral): between L atrium and L ventricle; 2 cusps prevent back flow with papillary muscles and chordae tendineae

RBCs/erythrocytes

enucleate (no nucleus; non-living), biconcave (increase surface area; more diffusion of O2 in/out), no organelles, function: gas transport, males have higher concentration, high level of hemoglobin (1/3 of cell; how O2 is carried); spectrin: flexible protein in cell membrane (allows movement through small blood vessels); anaerobic (don't steal O2 they're carrying); normal lifespan: ~120 days

hormone inactivation

enzyme's can deteriorate hormones; kidney's: filter bloodstream, pregnancy test; liver: recycle and detoxify blood

regulation of blood nutrient level during short-term exercise

epinephrine secretion from adrenal medulla and glucagon secretion from pancreas inhibits insulin secretion; blood flow towards fight or flight muscles; convert glycogen to glucose in liver and release glucose into blood providing skeletal muscles with energy

endocrine regulation of HR

epinephrine: brief, quick increased HR thyroxin: gradual, longer lasting increased HR; determines long-term stress

artificial corticoids

ex: prednisolone acetate, dexamethasone used medically for: dermatology, rheumatoid arthritis, organ transplant (anti-rejection) problems: iatrogenic ("physician induced") Addison's: CRH from hypothalamus not being made

preload

extent to which ventricular walls are stretched; how big the heart gets before it contracts; diastolic volume Frank Starling law of the heart: relationship between preload and SV; increased preload = increased SV

control by neural stimuli

following action potentials, neurons release a neurotransmitter into a synapse with hormone-producing cells; "fight or flight"

positive feedback

further synthesis and secretion of tropic hormone in addition to stimulating their target cell

aging effects of endocrine system

general function: smooth structural changes: secretion changes ovaries: active until menopause (~50) testosterone: slow decline GH: peaks early then levels out thyroid hormone (T3 and T4): metabolism slows, muscle atrophy PTH: may go up; raises Ca+ levels and hurts bones adrenals (cortex and medulla): cortisol levels decrease, epinephrine stays constant insulin: receptors become less sensitive, slower release

platelets

granules: serotonin, Ca+, enzymes, ADP, PDGF abundance: 250,000-500,000 per cc blood fxn: blood clotting inhibition: normally not sticky via nitrous oxide; only activated (become sticky) when there's vessel damage megakaryocyte (from red bone marrow) breaks off into cell fragments

veins that drain the heart

great, middle, and small cardiac veins

type AB blood

has both type A and B antigens; has no antibodies; can accept type A, B, AB, O blood (universal recipient)

type O blood

has no antigens; has anti-A and anti-B antibodies; can accept type O (universal donor)

type A blood

has type A antigens; has anti-B antibodies; acts against anti-A antibodies; can accept type A and O blood

type B blood

has type B antigens; has anti-A antibodies; acts against anti-B antibodies; can accept type B and O blood

cardiac reserve decline

heart less able to respond to sudden and prolonged stresses that increase CO; sympathetic control is more variable; HR declines

chemoreceptor reflex

help regulate the heart's activity blood pH increases: caused by decrease in CO2; decrease stimulation of heart and adrenal medulla; HR decreases, CO2 levels increase blood pH decreases: caused by increase in CO2; increase simulation of heart and adrenal medulla; HR increases, CO2 levels decrease

anemia

hemorrhagic: blood loss; bleeding ulcer, hemorrhoids hemolytic: rupture of RBCs; malaria, parasites, autoimmune disorders (can be activated by temp.) aplastic: problem with bone marrow; cancer, cancer treatment, toxins iron deficiency: normal RBCs, deficient in hemoglobin; can be secondary to blood loss pernicious: macrocytes; cells don't mature; vitamin B12 problem sickle cell: african americans; problem with amino acids in globin chain; hypoxic-decreased O2, cells aren't flexible; genetic component; treatment- blood transfusion

follicular cells

hormonally regulated by TSH; secrete T3 and T4

erythropoietin (EPO)

hormone produced by kidneys that regulates RBC production; secretion increased when blood O2 levels too low; stimulates red bone marrow to produce more RBCs; high altitude triggers RBC production; release can be triggered by lung disease, chronic bleeding

negative feedback

hormone secretion is inhibited by the hormone itself once blood levels have reached a certain point and there is adequate hormone to activate the target cell

chordae tendineae

how papillary muscles attach to cusps on AV valves; thin, strong CT strings

development of pituitary gland

hypophyseal pouch and neurohypophyseal bud form; hypophyseal pouch loses contact with roof of pharynx(oral cavity); anterior and posterior pituitary have formed

hypothalamic hypophyseal tract

hypothalamic neurons in paraventricular nuclei and supraoptic nuclei synthesize oxytocin and ADH and are transported along the tract to the posterior pituitary then stored in axon terminals until hypothalamic neurons fire and are released; posterior pituitary doesn't secrete oxytocin and ADH itself (only stores them); neural

sympathetic ANS response to blood loss

if greater than 10% of blood lost: increased vasoconstriction, BP, HR, contraction force why?: blood needs to be redistributed to brain and heart how effective?: up to 40% blood loss

vascular spasm

immediate but temporary constriction of blood vessel; platelets release thromboxanes and endothelia which lead to constriction of vessel

function of WBCs

immune system cells; chemotaxis: WBCs attracted to foreign materials/dead cells; diapedesis: WBCs become thin and elongated and slip between/through cells of blood vessel walls

pineal gland

in epithalamus of brain and secretes melatonin; secretions regulated by amount of light or dark; governs circadian rhythm; acts on suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN- biological clock) daytime: initiates AP's in retina of eye, propagated to brain, decrease AP's sent to spinal cord then sympathetic neurons to pineal gland and decreases secretions (not sleepy) nighttime: AP's delivered by sympathetic neurons to pineal gland increase, stimulating increased secretion (sleepy)

thyroxine (T4)

inactive form; most common thyroid hormone secreted; 2 tyrosine + 4 iodines; tissues take up T4 and turn it into T3

misconduct in research or scholarship

includes fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in proposing, performing, reviewing, or reporting research; does not include honest error or honest differences in interpretations or judgments of data

up-regulation

increase in the rate of receptor synthesis in the target cells which increases the total number of receptor molecules in a cell; cells up-regulate receptors in response to reduced hormone concentration in the blood

regulation of blood nutrient level during long-term exercise

increased ACTH and GH released from anterior pituitary; cortisol breaks down reserves and shifts fuel sources; heart prefers fatty acids

short term stress response (epinephrine and norepinephrine); "fight or flight"

increased heart rate, BP, metabolic rate; liver converts glycogen to glucose and releases glucose to blood; dilation of bronchioles; change in blood flow patters (increase alertness, decreased GI activity, reduced urine output)

pericarditis

inflammation of the pericardium; heart can't beat well

growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH)/somatostatin

inhibits GH secretion; secreted by ventral hypothalamus (released into hypophyseal portal system to adenohypophysis; hormonal regulation)

complicity

intentionally or knowingly helping, or attempting to help, another to commit an act of academic dishonesty

cheating

intentionally using or attempting to use unauthorized materials, information, notes, study aids or other devices or materials in any academic exercise. unauthorized materials may include anything/anyone that gives a student assistance and has not been specifically approved in advance by the instructor

cardiac muscle

intercalated disks: located at the ends of cells connecting them end-to-end desmosomes: hold cells together gap junctions: signals conducted via ion movement functional syncytium: acts as a single, coordinated unit

contractility

intrinsic ability of tissue to contract; ex: increased Ca++ influx, digitalis, epinephrine, S-ANS

synthesis of thyroid hormones

iodide is transported from the plasma into the follicular cells via Na+/I transporter; thyroglobulin(Tg) is synthesized and tyrosine's within it are iodinated by thyroid peroxidase; Tg exocytosed into follicle lumen; two iodinated tyrosine's within Tg join to form T3 and T4 in colloid; Tg digested by lysosomes into individual amino acids and T3 and T4; T3 and T4 diffuse out into circulation

arrhythmia

irregular HR caused by nicotine, caffeine

granulocytes

large cytoplasmic granules; neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

parafollicular cells

lie between follicles and among cells that make up the walls of the follicle; secrete calcitonin; no colloid

hypoglycemia

low blood glucose levels; either too much or too little glucagon being released; hyperinsulinism (too much insulin- need to increase glucagon); easiest treatment: eat something; symptoms: hot flashes, shakiness (imbalance causes release of epinephrine), faint

fabrication

making up data or results, and recording or reporting them; submitting fabricated documents

falsification

manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes, or changing or omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record

melatonin

may cause hypertrophy of reproductive structures (leads to infertility); higher levels in kids (need more sleep);

leukocyte profiles

measures percent of each WBC type; "Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas"

electrocardiography

measures: electrical activity of the heart P wave: atrial depolarization initiated by SA node; signals atrial contraction QRS complex: ventricular depolarization begins at apex and contraction; atrial repolarization T wave: repolarization of ventricles at apex

thalassemia

mediterranean descent; hemoglobin deficiency; genetic component; treatment- blood transfusion

long term stress response

mineralocorticoids: retention of Na+ and H20 by kidneys; increased blood volume and BP glucocorticoids: proteins and fats converted to glucose or broken down for energy; increased blood sugar; suppressed immune system

control by humoral stimuli

molecules circulate in the bloodstream and directly stimulate the release of some hormones

late fetal development

month 7: bone marrow making blood cells "blood islands": sources of bone marrow (mesenchyme tissue) HbF: hemoglobin fetal; stronger affinity for O2; fetal blood cells get O2 before mother

aging

more susceptible to disease; leukemia (cancer of red bone marrow), anemia (deficiency of hemoglobin in blood), clotting disorders (DIC, von willebrand disease, hemophilia); heart, vessel, immune conditions; older bone marrow replaced by adipose tissue as you age; less able to generate more RBCs and WBCs

sclerosis and thickening of valve flaps

most common site: mitral valve; results in heart murmur

hypothyroidism

myxedema ("mucous swelling"); low HR, decreased muscle function, dry skin; not making enough T3 and T4 = increased TRH from hypothalamus and more TSH from anterior pituitary; thyroid can't utilize iodine so it doesn't produce T3 and T4 which causes overproduction of thyroglobulin in follicles (swelling- goiter); treatment: supplemental thyroid hormones

blood loss

not enough blood to refill; decreased stroke volume

rapid heartbeat

not enough time to refill; decreased stroke volume

heart rate (HR)

number of times the heart beats (contracts) per minute

gestational diabetes

occurs in some women during pregnancy; metabolic imbalance feeding fetus; double up meals and goes away after giving birth

cyclic/episodic hormone secretion

occurs when hormones are secreted at fairly predictable intervals and concentrations; ex: female reproduction

control by hormonal stimuli

occurs when hormones stimulate the secretion of other hormones; sequential effects; tropic hormones from anterior pituitary

acute hormone secretion

occurs when the hormone's concentration changes suddenly and irregularly and its circulating levels differ with each stimulus; ex: epinephrine

hypophyseal portal system

one of the major portal systems in the body; extends from hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary; vessels carry blood to a secondary capillary network in the anterior pituitary; delivers hormones from ventral hypothalamus (glandular) that control anterior pituitary (glandular); provides a means by which the hypothalamus (using neurohormones as chemical messengers) regulates the secretory activity of the anterior pituitary

female gonads

ovary function depends on secretion of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary; estrogen and progesterone control reproductive cycle, prepare mammary glands for lactation, maintain pregnancy

types of hemoglobin

oxyhemoglobin: O2 loading in the lungs; ruby red deoxyhemoglobin: O2 unloading in tissues; dark red carbaminohemoglobin: CO2 loading in tissues

oxytocin (OT)

paraventricular nucleus to posterior pituitary; target tissue: uterus and mammary glands; stimulates labor in pregnant mammals (stimulates smooth muscle contractions in uterus); milk letdown in breastfeeding moms; "pop the piggies out"; neural release

coarctation of the aorta

part of aorta narrowed and stiffened, increasing workload of L ventricle

clot destruction

plasminogen: forms inactive plasmin plasminogen activator: thrombin, factor XII, t-PA, urokinase, lysosomal enzymes secreted by endothelial cells plasmin: breaks fibrin which dissolves the clot

clot repair

platelet derived growth factor (PDGF): stimulates growth of vessel walls fibroblasts: move into damaged area and new CT forms vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF): stimulates growth of endothelial lining

pituitary gland

posterior pituitary/neurohypophysis: made of neural tissue anterior pituitary/adenohypophysis: made of glandular tissue

type II diabetes mellitus

previously called adult onset; results from the inability of tissues to respond to insulin (receptor issue); dietary, lifestyle, genetics; high ratio of simple carbs (quickly turned to glucose; increase blood sugar); down regulation (not enough receptors to handle insulin being spiked); skinny because getting fuel from fat and muscle; eventual stress response (cortisol; "sugar shock")

hematopoiesis

process of blood cell production; all formed elements of blood start from same hematopoietic stem cell

paracrine chemical messenger

produced by a wide variety of tissues and secreted into extracellular fluid; has a localized effect on other tissues; somatostatin, histamine, eicosanoids

neurotransmitter chemical messenger

produced by neurons; secreted into a synaptic cleft by presynaptic nerve terminals; travels short distances; influences postsynaptic cells; acetylcholine, epinephrine

tetralogy of fallot

pulmonary trunk too narrow, pulmonary valve stenosed, hypertrophied R ventricle, ventricular septal defect, aorta opens from both ventricles; blood can't get to lungs (poorly oxygenized blood, accumulation of CO2)

tachycardia

rapid HR (>100 bpm); may lead to Vfib; caused by increased temperature, stress, drugs, heart disease

fibrillation

rapid, irregular, uncoordinated contractions; no blood movement; defibrillation: resets conduction system; Afib and Vfib

luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

regulate reproduction; act on gonads (ovaries and testes); hormonal control

prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) and prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH)

regulate secretion of prolactin (stimulate mammary/milk development) from anterior pituitary; secreted by ventral hypothalamus (released into hypophyseal portal system to adenohypophysis; hormonal regulation)

chronic hormone secretion

relatively constant blood levels of hormone over long periods of time

type I diabetes mellitus

results from diminished insulin secretion; pancreatic islets destroyed; need shots, pump, etc.

right coronary artery branches

right marginal artery, posterior interventricular artery

autocrine chemical messenger

secreted by cells in a local area; influences the activity of the same cell from which it was secreted; eicosanoids

glucocorticoids (cortisol)

secreted from zona fasciculata; gluconeogenesis (production of sugar from fats and amino acids); mobilizes fat from adipose for use as energy; proteins (muscle) broken down for ATP or new protein formation; resistance to stress; anti-inflammatory; depress immune system

calcitonin

secreted in response to increased Ca+ levels in blood; target tissue: bone; decreases osteoclast activity, lengthens life span of osteoblasts, lowers blood levels of Ca+; humoral regulation; higher levels in children

endocrine chemical messenger

secreted into the blood by specialized cells; travels some distance to target tissues; results in coordinated regulation of cell function; thyroid hormone, GH, insulin, epinephrine, estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, prostaglandins

pseudostratified columnar epithelium

single layer of cells of differing heights, nuclei seen at different levels, may contain goblet cells, cilia secretion of mucus non-ciliated located in male's sperm-carrying ducts and ducts of large glands; ciliated located in trachea

simple cuboidal epithelium

single layer of cube-like cells with large, spherical central nuclei secretion and absorption located in kidney tubules, ducts and secretory portions of small glands, ovary surface

simple squamous epithelium

single layer of flattened cells with disc-shaped central nuclei and sparse cytoplasm allows passage of materials by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important located in kidney glomeruli, air sacs of lungs, lining of heart, blood and lymphatic vessels

simple columnar epithelium

single layer of tall cells with round/oval nuclei; some bear cilia; may contain goblet cells absorption, secretion of mucus, enzymes; ciliated type propels mucus non-ciliated located in digestive tract, gallbladder, excretory ducts of glands; ciliated located in small bronchi, uterine tubes

size, shape, location of heart

size: closed fist location: sits at an angle, deep and left of sternum, left of midline, superior to diaphragm, between ribs

leukocytosis

slight increase of WBCs; may be caused by infection

growth hormone (GH)/somatotropin

stimulates growth in most tissues, protein synthesis, glucose sparing (keep in blood), increase amino acid uptake, plays an important role in determining how tall a person becomes; gigantism: too much before ossification; acromegaly: too much after ossification; highest in children, peaks at night, increased with stress; hormonal control

autorhythmicity of cardiac muscle

stimulates itself to contract at regular intervals (~1% of cardiac cells are autorhythmic) pacemaker potential: small number of Na+ channels open, K+ channels opened in previous depolarization phase closing, Ca++ channels begin to open depolarization: Ca++ channels open, K+ channels closed repolarization: Ca++ channels close, K+ channels open

prolactin (PRL)

stimulates milk production by mammary glands; hormonal control

corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)

stimulates release of ACTH (acts on adrenal cortex) from anterior pituitary; secreted by ventral hypothalamus (released into hypophyseal portal system to adenohypophysis; hormonal regulation)

growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)

stimulates secretion of GH from anterior pituitary; secreted by ventral hypothalamus (released into hypophyseal portal system to adenohypophysis; hormonal regulation)

thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)

stimulates secretion of TSH (acts on thyroid) from anterior pituitary; secreted by ventral hypothalamus (released into hypophyseal portal system to adenohypophysis; hormonal regulation)

gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)

stimulates secretion of both LH and FSH (acts on gonads-ovaries and testes) from anterior pituitary; secreted by ventral hypothalamus (released into hypophyseal portal system to adenohypophysis; hormonal regulation)

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

stimulates secretion of cortisol from adrenal cortex; hormonal control

thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)/thyrotropin

stimulates synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones from thyroid gland; hormonal control

regulation of T3 and T4

stress and hypothermia cause TRH to be released from hypothalamus; passes through hypophyseal portal system to anterior pituitary; TRH causes anterior pituitary to secrete TSH which passes to thyroid; TSH causes release of T3 AND T4 which act on target tissues and produce response; both have inhibitory effect which can stop secretion of TRH and TSH

multiple submissions

submitting substantial portions of the same work (including oral reports) for credit more than once without authorization from the instructor of the class for which the student submits the work

ventricular septal defect

superior part of interventricular septum fails to form; blood mixes between 2 ventricles; more blood shunted from L (stronger) to R

factors limiting cloth growth/formation

swift removal/dilution of clotting factors and inhibition of activated clotting factors ex: anticoagulants and vitamins E quinine (prevent clotting factors from initiating clot formation), antithrombin (inactivates thrombin), prostacyclin and nitric oxide (cause vasodilation and inhibit release of clotting factors), EDTA (prevent clot formation)

hormone interactions

synergistic: work together to produce greater effect permissive: first hormone allows action of second hormone antagonistic: one hormone causes opposite effect of another

mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

target tissue: kidneys; secreted from zona glomerulosa; increases blood level of Na+ by reducing excretion in urine which increases water reabsorption which increases blood volume which increases BP; stimulates K+ excretion into urine which lowers blood levels of K+

parathyroid hormone (PTH)/parathormone

target tissues: bone, kidneys; opposite of calcitonin (increases blood Ca+ levels); stimulates osteoclasts activity in bone; activates bone reabsorption; Ca+ reabsorption in kidneys so less Ca+ leaves body in urine

male gonads

testes function depends on secretion of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary; testosterone regulates sperm production, maintains male reproductive organs and secondary sexual characteristics

plagiarism

the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit

hemostasis

the cessation of bleeding; very important for homeostasis; vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, coagulation

down-regulation

the number of receptors rapidly decreases after exposure to certain hormones; cells down-regulate receptors in response to elevated hormone concentration in the blood

afterload

the pressure the contracting L ventricle must produce to overcome the pressure in the aorta and move blood into the aorta through SL valve

cardiac cycle

the repetitive pumping process that begins with the onset of cardiac muscle contraction and ends with the beginning of the next contraction; blood moves from areas of high pressure to low pressure

specificity

the tendency for each type of hormone to bind to one type of receptor and not to others; depends on hormone levels, number of receptors on target organ, affinity of hormone for receptors

stroke volume (SV)

the volume of blood pumped during each heart beat (cardiac cycle); equal to EDV (full ventricles) minus ESV (empty ventricles)

stratified squamous epithelium

thick membrane composed of several layers; basal cells cuboidal-shaped; surface cells flattened protects underlying tissues in areas subject to abrasion non-keratinized located in esophagus, mouth, vagina; keratinized located in epidermis of skin

myocardium

thick, middle layer of the heart composed of cardiac muscle cells; responsible for hearts ability to contract; heart is impermeable to respiratory gases

hemostasis bleeding disorders

thrombocytopenia: <50,000/mm^3; caused by suppression/destruction of bone marrow; decreased level of platelets; bruise easily liver failure: source of clotting factors; problem clotting hemophilia: genetic component; deficiency of factors VIII, IX, XI; inability to form prothrombin activator; cut=bleed out von willebrand disease: genetic component; matrix stabilization

embolus

thrombus that breaks loose and begins to float through the blood; heart attack: coronary vessels; stroke: cerebral (brain); pulmonary embolism: lungs

polycythemia (doping)

too many blood cells (thick blood); blood doping: illegal; take blood and get rid of plasma and buffy coat, only RBCs remain and return before athletic event; bad for heart

leukopoiesis

triggered by cytokines: interleukins (ILs) or colony stimulating factors (CSFs)

period of ejection

ventricular contraction continues/ventricular pressure increases; SL valves open, blood flows from ventricles into arteries (aorta/pulmonary trunk); T wave results; ventricles are empty= end systolic volume (ESV)

period of isovolumetric relaxation

ventricular diastole begins, ventricles relax, SL valves close; all valves closed=no blood flow into ventricles (volume doesn't change); T wave completed; "dupp" heart sound (2nd)

passive ventricular filling

ventricular relaxation continues, AV valves open; blood flows passively from atria into ventricles; SL valves closed; P wave produced

bradycardia

very low HR (<60 bpm); decreased BT; caused by drugs, overactive PS-ANS, athlete (high stroke volume); used as warning sign of brain edema after head trauma

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)/vasopressin (AVP)

water conservation hormone; supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus to posterior pituitary; target tissue: kidney tubules; promotes reabsorption of water from kidney tubules which reduces urine volume; controlled by decrease in BP; neural release

disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)

widespread clotting blocks intact blood vessels; severe bleeding occurs because residual blood unable to clot; most common in pregnancy, septicemia (blood infection), incompatible blood transfusions; toxic effect; causes widespread clotting; body attempts to flush clotting factors; clotting and internal bleeding

adrenal cortex

zona glomerulosa: immediately beneath capsule; small clusters of cells; yellowish tint (lipids); secretes aldosterone/mineralcorticoids zona fasciculata: middle layer; thickest part of cortex; cells are "corded"; secretes cortisol/glucocorticoids zona reticularis: deepest layer of cortex; secretes androgens; "net-like"