Biology 1620 Final - Spring 2018 - USU - Gilbertson/Messina
What does the epithelium of the intestine secret?
Number of digestive enzymes (some, bound)
We respond to those things we need in our diet to survive
Nutrient recognition
Negative feedback takes you back to a _____________.
Set point
What is homology
Shared characters from similar ancestors
Homoplasy
Shared characters not because of common ancestor, but independent evolution.
Primate Characteristics
Stereoscopic, color vision. Bony orbits protect eyes. Large brain:body Tree dwelling (arboreal) tropical
Is the base of the basilar membrane stiff or flexible?
Stiff
What causes presbyopia?
Stiffening of the lens
What is the process of sensory transduction?
Stimulus -> Convert Stimulus into electrical signal -> Convert into secondary messenger (Ca2+) -> Afferent neurons into CNS
What is the progression from stimulus to change in activity of a cell?
Stimulus -> Open/Close Ion Channel -> Changes in Ion Permeability -> Change in Vm -> Change in activity
Mutations don't arise deterministically, they arise . . .
Stochastically
Primate classifications
Strepsirhines Haplorhines -Tarsiiformes -Anthropoidea -Platyrhines -Catarrhines
What are the classifications of primates?
Strepsirhines (wet nosed), haplorhines (dry nosed), tarsiiformes, anthropoidea
Tip link proteins are what in excitation?
Stretched
What are the earliest fossils?
Stromatolites
What is recruitment?
Stronger input activates more motor neurons
What are some important roles of glial cells?
Structural Support Maintenance of ionic compositions Remove extra chemicals following their release from neurons Insulate neurons electrically Formation of blood brain barrier secretion of compounds for neuronal maintenance
prezygotic isolating mechanism
barriers to the interbreeding of populations that prevent the fertilization of eggs by sperm
What happens if the population overshoots K?dn/dt will be negative.
if population overshoots K what happens?
contraction of a whole muscle is?
graded event - determined by the number of muscle fibers contracting and the rate of contraction
In birds, sexual dimorphism is
greater in polygynous species than in monogamous species
the effect of insulating the axon
greatly increased conduction velocity
inflammatory response
increase of temperature, attraction of white blood cells & swelling (increased blood flow) associated with tissue injury or pathogenic infection
the role of the nervous system
integrate information ==> decide on appropriate response
What are some characteristics of common chimps and bonobo?
intensely social, males group hunt, feed and sleep in trees, often on ground, knuckle walkers, extensive tool use, extended child care, prolonged adolescence
properties of the receptor potential
intensity of stimulation is coded for in terms of: -frequency of action potentials generated -number of receptors activated (population coding) -duration of stimulus -EXCEPTION: not all sensory receptors fire action potentials - photoreceptors
While gene flow usually ______________ with natural selection, in rarer cases it _________________ natural selection.
interferes; speeds up
Eusthenopteron and Sauripterus showed the development of what characteristic
intermediate elements (zeugopod)
polygynandry
multiple males and females
A single muscle cell is referred to as a _____. - myofibril - muscle fiber - muscle neurons - sarcolemma - sarcomere
muscle fiber
Sex that invests more in offspring
must be choosier in their mates. The cost of reproduction is higher, so they must choose a good mate.
ultimate source of all genetic variation?
mutation
memory cells
long-lived cells that can respond rapidly upon a second exposure to the antigen
What are examples of strepsirhines
lorises, galgaos, lemurs
What is habitutation?
loss of responsiveness to a stimulus that is neither beneficial or harmful
When there is a low prey population, what happens to the predator population?
lowers
migration
movement from one place to another
Gene flow
movement of individuals or gametes between subpopulations this averages out subpopulations, keeping them from differentiating
dispersal-mediated speciation
movement of species causes a population to be cut off - one time rare dispersal event
role of the muscles
movemnt of the skeleton
antihistamines
prevent mast cell degranulation or block histamine receptor
Genetic similarity/differences between humans and chimpanzees
95-98% sequence similarity but 9 inversion differences Human: 2N=46 Chimpanzee: 2N=48
What percent of all species that have existed on earth are extinct?
99%
How similar are AMH and Neanderthals to their most recent common ancestor? (Percent)
99.5%
we share how much DNA with neanderthals?
99.5%
peramorphosis
Development of adult characteristics faster than in ancestral history (Brain:Body ratio in primates)
What affected skin pigmentation evolution, other than UV light?
Diet
How are transitional seciesidentified?
Retrospectivley, because we know how the lineage later evolved.
What do rods contain?
Rhodopsin
Good for night vision
Rods
High apmlification; capable of single photon detection
Rods
High sensitivity to light; night vision; more numerous
Rods
More sensitive to scattered light
Rods
Rhodopsin is found in...?
Rods
Why are colors at night muted?
Rods only show grey
Round or oval for close objects?
Round
Where is the tympanic canal attached?
Round window
____________ ___________- provide a direct connection between cells, allowing electrical signals to pass between them.
Electrical synapses
What type of cell are pacemaker cells?
Electrical synapses - coupled with connexons
The ECG
Electrocardiogram, useful as a diagnostic tool of heart function
Respond to light or electro magnetic fields
Electromagnetic receptors
What is an example of specific hungers?
Elephants using tusks to scrape salt filled rocks and chewing the rock pieces to suck the salt from them
As the head moves, _________ moves, pushing on the cupula and bending the hair cells.
Endolymph
Hard, supporting structures encased in the soft tissues of an animal
Endoskeleton
Gastrovascular cavities
Ensure diffusional distances are short, diffusion over only 1-2 cell layers, from simple to elaborate in design
Logistic growth model
Environments set a limit on growth. carrying capacity(K) gets factored in growth equation. dN/dT = rN ((K-N)/K) = rN (1-(N/K))
When the electrical and concentration gradients balance out what do you have?
Equilibrium
When the electrical gradient and the concentration gradient balance out.
Equilibrium potential
What is systematics?
Establishing relations by constructing phylogenetic trees
Protists are
Eukaryotic lineages that don't evolve multicellularity
______________ organisms can tolerate large fluctuations in external osmolarity.
Euryhaline
Parts of the middle ear
Eustachian tube, tympanic membrane, ossicles, oval window
Intermediate elements (zeugopod)
Eusthenopteron and Sauripterus
Heterochrony
Evolutionary change in timing or rate of development Paedomormorphosis Peramorphosis
The vibrations entering the oval window cause what?
Fluid movements within the chambers of cochlea
What is the lense?
Focuses the light onto back of the eye
Typhlosole
Fold in intestine to increase surface area
Function follows _____________.
Form
Sphecomyrma freyi
Fossil bridging gap between ants and wasps
What tells us the sequence of evolution events that led to the structural elements of the tetrapod limb
Fossil record and gene action
Stromatolites
Fossils that appeared around 3.5 BYA (cyanobacteria)
What is the effect of the insulation on the axon?
It causes the action potential to jump from node to node, greatly increasing conduction velocity
Do 27 different genotype possibilities mean there are 27 different phenotype possibilities?
No. This depends on dominance and epistasis, but there will still be more phenotypes than if there is only 1 genotype possibility.
Respond to noxious stimuli
Nociceptors
Ions channels that contribute to the generation of action potentials are clustered where?
Node of Ranvier
Examples of genetic drift
Northern elephant seals Greater prairie chickens
Effector
"target" whose activity is altered in order to compensate to bring parameter back into its normal range
What four basic activities is physiology concerned with?
1. Reproduction 2. Growth 3. Metabolism 4.Excitation and contraction
About how long does food stay in the large intestines?
12-24 hrs
About how long down food stay in the stomach?
2-6 hrs
Carbohydrates has how many kcal/gm?
4
Protein has how many kcal/gm?
4
About how long does food stay in the small intestines?
4-6 hrs
How much of the body's energy goes into maintaining homeostasis?
90%
Most organisms (like us) are considered ____________________.
Bulk feeders
What are examples of macro-minerals?
Calcium, chloride, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, sulfur. Everything else is a trace mineral
Absorption
Cells take up amino acids, sugars, fatty acids
Minerals
Chemical (inorganic) elements required by living organisms
What is an example of positive feedback system?
Childbirth
The essential fatty acids are represented by members of the ____________________________ family.
Cis-polyunsaturated fatty acid
Mucin
Coat/protect oral cavity
Why do we need essential nutrients?
Compounds we need to survive that we cannot make from any food
What happens in the jejunum?
Contributes to nutrient and water absorption
What are the three parts to the small intestine?
Duodenum, jejunum, ileum
Opportunistic feeders
Eat foods outside the norm if their preferred diet is unavailable
Diet must supply what three nutritional needs?
Fuel, essential nutrients, biosynthetic materials
What is an appetite stimulator?
Ghrelin
About how often are the contents in the stomach remixed by the contraction of smooth muscles?
Half-minute
The first studies in animal physiology was by who?
Herophilus
What amino acid is required more in children?
Histidine
Most medical treatments and therapies are designed to return on to a condition of ________________.
Homeostasis
What did Claude Bernard formalize?
Homeostasis
What is the central theme is physiology?
Homeostasis
What are the 4 stages to processing of nutrients?
Ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination
Explain a positive feedback system.
It is when a signal is enhanced by itself and also can be ended by it's own doing, negative feedback loops go back to a set point and are continuous until they are in the normal working range as before
What is an example of protein deficiency?
Kwashiorkor
Malnourished
Lacking one or more essential nutrients
What are some appetite suppressors?
Leptin, PYY, and insulin
What fatty acids are required in the diet?
Linoleic acid, linolenic acid, docosahexaneoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid
Sensor
Measure some physiological parameter, constantly and when significant changes occur
What happens in the duodenum?
Most of enzymatic hydrolysis and nutrient absorption
What traits constitute metabolism?
Movement, responsiveness, growth, reproduction, respiration, digestion, absorption, excretion, circulation, assimilation
Protein deficiency is....
Multiple amino acid deficiency
Specific hungers
Nutrient deficiency causes a specific rise in responsiveness and subsequent intake of food containing the deficient substance
Extracellular digestion
Occurs in specialized compartments that are contiguous with the outside of the body
Herbivores, carnivores and omnivores can be called _____________ feeders.
Opportunistic
Incomplete essential amino acids are...
Plant products
Why aren't positive feedback loops commonly found?
Positive feedback systems lead to further instability
What happens in the ileum?
Primarily absorbs vitamin B12, bile salts, and anything the jejunum missed
What is an example of negative feedback system?
Regulation of body temperature
Leptin
Released from adipose (fat) tissue; an indicator of body fat levels
Insulin
Released from pancreas after a meal-induced rise in glucose
PYY
Released from small intestine after meals
Ghrelin
Released from the stomach; triggers hunger pangs
What does the gall bladder secrete?
Releases bile that was received from the liver
What are the three components of a negative feedback system?
Sensor, integrator, effector
Digestion
Sequential process of breaking food down into smaller and smaller parts; at the end of digestion, left with small absorbable molecules
Both the entry to and the exit from the stomach are closed off by _________________.
Sphincters
Homeostasis
Stability of all functions required for living
Where does protein digestion start?
Stomach
Crop
Storage site for food-fluid is added
Anatomy deals with ______________. Physiology deals with __________.
Structure; Function
Integrator
Sums information from sensors, "control center"
What type of feeders are there?
Suspension feeders, substrate feeders, fluid feeders, bulk feeders
What are the essential nutrients?
The are nutrients required for normal body functioning that either cannot by synthesized by the body at all, or cannot be synthesized in amounts adequate for good health and thus must be obtained from a dietary source
Physiology
The study of the physical and chemical processes that take place in living organisms during the performance of life functions
Water-soluble vitamins
These are cleared and excreted in urine; body is better at handling moderate excess intake
Fat-soluble vitamins
These are stored in body fat; overconsumption more likely to lead to toxicity
Why do we need fuel?
To run all the cellular processes of the body
Elimination
Undigested material passes out of the digestive system
What are examples of fat-soluble vitamins?
Vitamin A, D, E, K. Water-soluble is everything else
To be able to maintain the metabolic characteristics what factors are required?
Water, food, oxygen, heat, pressure
What are the two sub-groups to vitamins?
Water-soluble and fat-soluble
Peristalsis
Waves of coordinated muscular contractions, move the food bolus to the stomach in an involuntary fashion
Positive energy balance will result in.....
Weight gain
Negative energy balance will result in....
Weight loss
A. africanus
- 2.5 mya "Taung child" (3-4 y/o) - endocranial skull volume 490cc - forward foramen magnum
What is the order of the retina?
Optic Nerve Fibers -> Ganglion Cell -> Amacrine cell -> Bipolar Cell -> Horizontal cell -> Rods/Cones -> Pigmented Epithelium
Where does carbohydrate digestion start?
Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus
What is the paleozoic era composed of?
Ordovician, silurian, devonian, and carboniferous
Vitamins
Organic compounds required in tiny amounts for essential metabolic reactions in a living organism
What 6 levels are ecological studies conducted at
Organismal, population, community, ecosystem, landscape and global, biodiversity
basilar membrane
Part of the ear which detects frequency of sound vibrations. Not uniform - narrow at base, wide at end.
What is the most important role of glial cells (highlighted in red in the notes)?
Participate in information flow in the nervous system
Intracellular digestion
Particles take in by phagocytosis or pinocytosis
Spatial subdivision of a species is due to
Patchy food, nesting sites, or other habitat features
Systole
Period of active contraction
How old are virtually all multi-cellular organism fossils?
Phanerozoic; 550 mya
Olfactory receptors and photoreceptors
Phasic receptors
Transmit signal to CNS when stimulus intensity changes
Phasic receptors
Osmotic pressure
Pressure produced by a solution in a space divided by a semipermeable membrane due to a difference in the concentrations of solute
What are some examples of tonic receptors?
Pressure sensitive baroreceptors Nociceptors Some tactile and proprioceptors
Osmoregulation
The maintenance of salt (solute) and water balance in an organism
True or False: Reptilian is an artificial group
True
Regurgitation
When a valve fails to close tightly, heart must work much harder, blood leaks back the wrong way
Stemosis
When a valve fails to open fully, less blood is able to pass through the valve
How are gastric ulcers formed?
When bacteria destroy the protective mucus layer allowing the gastric juice to attack the stomach wall
When is NMDA active?
When glutamate is bound and the cell is depolarized
Although we can predict the overall rate of mutations, we can't predict . . .
Which copy will undergo mutation (random process) (mutations arise stochastically)
pleiotropy
a single gene affects multiple traits
sensory neurons
detect important internal & external stimuli
Humans growing a tail when developing is an example of
developmental biology
quinine
first line of defense against malaria
Balenopteron
first pentadactyly in early amphibians
viability selection
fitness differences that arise because of differences in rates of survival and mortality
Early development pathways are often _________
fixed
Type 1 survivorship curve
few offspring, live long life (humans)
shocked quartz, microtektites
impact debris
If a chemical defense is constitutive it is ____________
always present
What were the ant fossils found in and what did it help further study?
amber bridges gap between modern its and wasps
What interaction causes -,0?
amenalism
What does it mean to integrate information?
Decide on an appropriate response
How do hearing and balance receptors produce receptor potentials?
In response to membrane distortion (particles; fluids)
Osmosis occurs when water is __________ ____________ across the membrane than the solute
More permeable
Do hair cells have a more or less positive resting membrane potential than the average cell?
More positive
What is glutamate?
Most common excitetory neurotransmitter
Polygyny
Most common in mammals, successful males mate will many females and females mate with only one male.
The mollusk lens does what?
Moves like a camera
Models of H. Sapiens emergence
Multiregional Replacement Leaky replacement
What would happen to people exposed to a chemical warfare agent that blocked acetylcholine from binding to muscle receptors? ------------------------------------------------ Action potentials would be continuously generated, causing convulsive muscle contractions. Action potentials would be continuously generated, causing convulsive muscle contractions; muscle contractions would then be prevented, causing paralysis. Muscle contractions would be prevented, causing paralysis. Muscle contractions could still occur, but relaxation of the muscle would be impaired.
Muscle contractions would be prevented, causing paralysis.
A condition where a muscle or set of muscles are kept partially contracted for extended periods
Muscle tone
What is the stimulus for ANP?
Increased blood pressure-heart-releases ANP
Small diameter, longer pipes have what issue?
Increased resistance
What is the consequence of a high intracellular [Cl-]?
Increases Ecl
Thrifty gene hypothesis
Natural selection favored the survival of those individuals who could store as many calories as possible, then burn them as slowly as possible
Once generated does the magnitude of an action potential change?
No
Are ion distributions equal?
No - the K+/Na+ pump
What is a muscle fiber?
One cell that functions as one unit
Each muscle fiber receive input from how many motor nuerons?
One motor neuron
Acromatic
One type of pigment; Rods
How does a female philanthus digger wasp identify and return to the precise location of her particular nest?
spatial learning
What is kin selection?
special form of natural selection
The hydrostatic skeleton of the earthworm allows it to move around in its environment by _____. ------------------------------------------------ swimming with its setae using peristaltic contractions of its circular and longitudinal muscles alternating contractions and relaxations of its flagella walking on its limbs
using peristaltic contractions of its circular and longitudinal muscles
single-gene mutation rate is...
very low
What does the liver secrete?
Bile salts that emulsify fat (aid digestion/absorption)
Osmoconformers have no tendency to _____________ or ____________ water.
Gain; lose
Freshwater animals ________ water by osmosis and ______ salts by diffusion
Gain;lose
What does the pancreas secrete?
Hydrolytic enzymes (proteases); bicarbonate buffer
Focal point falls behind retina
Hyperopia
Sharks tissues are____________ to sea water.
Hyperosmolar
Generally correlated with decreased activity
Hyperpolarization
Sensory organ that contains ciliated receptor cells that respond to mechanical deformation
Statocyst
Dispersion (Definition and Types)
Spacing between organisms; - Clumped - Uniform - Random
Osmosis
Special case of diffusion in which the molecules dissolved in water are not diffusing, but rather the water molecules diffuse across the cell membrane
What were the highlighted conscious senses?
Special senses Somatic Senses Proprioception
Obligate Mutualism
Species need each other, and are always found together in environments.
What is an example of a eryhaline organism?
Tilapia
What holds the hairs on the hair cells together?
Tip Link Protiens
What is ecological community?
assemblage of species in a given area
Ecological community
assemblage of species in a given area.
What is operant conditioning?
associate one of its own behaviors with a reward or punishment
The _____ changes shape to focus light on the retina. ------------------------------------------------ vitreous humor blind spot cornea lens optic nerve
lens
sympathetic ophthalmia
lens of eye damaged, lens protein gets into circulation Ab's are raised against it ==> damages eye
What do classifications not always reflect?
phylogenies
classifications do not always reflect...
phylogenies
What is an example of keystone species
pisaster sea star
hippocampus
plays a central role in the formation and retrieval of long-term memories
Delete
population is decreasing
the net replacement rate
the sum of Lx times Mx for each age class X
Study 6 step process of Chemical Synaptic connections...
...
View phototransduction diagram.
.....
Homo neanderthalensis
.04-.4 Mousterian tools
Homo Sapiens
.15-present 1200-1400 cc Aurignacian tools
Homo erectus
.4-1.2 900-1200 cc Acheluan tools Java Man (.7 mya) Beijing Man (.7 mya)
Some, though not as common, have Ecl at what?
0 mV
H. neanderthalensis
0.03 - 0.4 mya -occipital bun -distinct jaw lines
H. Sapiens
0.15 mya to present. brain size 1200-1400cc
First prokaryotes
3.5 bya
A. afarensis
= 3 mya "Lucy" - all toes parallel to axis of foot - femur and spine indicate some bipedality - made tools - climbed with curved phalanges - smaller ape-like jaw
Driving force
= |Vm - Ex|
According to the slides, when does damage to the ear occur?
> 80 dB
What must the coefficient of relatedness, r, to occur in a stable kin group?
>0
Thick myosin filaments overlapping with actin
A bands
Muscle tone
A condition where a muscle or set of muscles are kept partially contracted for extended periods
Taste stimulus causes what?
A depolarization and a rise in intracellular Ca2+
What do electrical synapses provide?
A direct connection between cells, allowing electrical signals to pass between them
What was the dimetrodon?
A synpasid
Ca2+ influx through NMDA receptors activates what?
A number of pathways in the postsynaptic cell: a. Increases responsiveness of AMPA receptors to phosphorylation b. Increases # of AMPA receptors available c. Leads to retrograde release of nitric oxide, a gaseous neurotransmitter that enhances presynaptic release of glutamate
What is batesian mimicry?
A playable or harmless prey mimics a distasteful or dangerous one
All neuron cells have what?
A potential difference across their plasma membrane
Recombination
A short-term source of genetic variation in a sexual population -Two processes at meiosis which increase the divergence between parent and offspring gametes -Shuffles genes into new combinations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection
Point mutations:
A single base substitution in a single codon can change it to code for a variety of different amino acids or even itself (redundancy of the genetic code)
endemism
A state in which species are restricted to a single region
Neanderthal DNA (how recent?)
AMH from 37,000 to 42,000 had 6-9% N. DNA. Only 6 generations removed.
What is the sour taste?
Acidic things with a pH between 2 and 4
Whale evolution: Semi aquatic, 12 ft crocodile
Ambulocetus
Complete essential amino acids are....
Animal products
What is the vitreous humor?
Another liquid layer
What are ommatidia?
Each are capable of detecting light in a particular visual space
Hyperopia
Farsightedness (can only see far) Focal point falls behind the retina
Large axons conduct signals much _________ than small ones.
Faster
Bending of stereocilia does what?
Increased action potentials in proportion to the rotational acceleration
Elastic fibers
Around alveoli, provide the elastic recoil of the lungs
Phototransduction
Begins when light strikes the photopigment in photoreceptors
When do tonic receptors transmit signals to the CNS?
As long as the stimulus is present
What are the two sub-groups to minerals?
Macro-minerals and trace minerals
Muscles are attached to bones in _____________ ____________.
Antagonistic pairs
ADH
Antidiuretic hormone
Taste receptor cells have what increase absorptive area?
Apical microvilli to help increase absorptive area
What is the second layer?
Aqueous Humor
Denisovans
Archaic hominin Finger bones and tooth DNA indicate 4-6% of DNA in modern melanesians
The players
Ardipithecus ramidus 4.4-5 Australopithicus anamesis 3.9-4.2 A. Afarensis (Lucy) 3-3.9 A. Africanus and A. Garhi 2.4-2.8 A. Sediba 1.8-2 Paranthropus robustus/boisei/aethiopicus 1-2.7 Homo habilis 2-2.3 Homo ergaster 2-1.5 Homo erectus .4-1.2 H. Neanderthalensis .03-.4 H. Sapiens present -.2
Osmoconformers
Are isoosmotic with surroundings
Low pH kills what?
Bacteria
Undernourished
Caloric deficiency
Respond to chemicals
Chemoreceptors
At equilibrium what happens?
Diffusion/movement but no net diffusion/movement
How do animals apply their digestive processes to food without digesting their own cells and tissues?
Digestion occurs in specialized compartments
Arboreal and Social adaptations
Digits with independent mobility and opposable thumbs. Flat nails, no claws, sensitive fingers Complex facial musculature
Where are the photopigments?
Disks
Juxtamedullary nephron
Dives deep into the medulla; enables mammals to produce urine that is hyperosmotic to body fluids
Polyandry
During breeding season females mate and reproduce with many males and males typically have one female to mate with. Honey bee queens.
What is the modified Nernst Equation?
E = 62 mV * log (Xout/Xin)
In most cases sensory response is what?
EPSP - rarely IPSP
Metanephridia are a type of _________.
Earthworm
Annelids are what?
Earthworms
Ventilation
Exchange of air between atmosphere and lungs
EPSP
Excitatory postsynaptic potential
Hard covering of the body surface including shells or cuticles that attach to underlying muscles
Exoskeleton
Pinna
External ear
Almost all species on earth are...?
Extinct
How have birds adapted to have good visual acuity?
Extreme number of cones
What layers/types of cells does the retina contain?
Ganglion cell Layer Interneuron Layer Photoreceptors
Hyperpolarization
Generally correlated with decreased activity - deactivation/inhibition
Gene flow counteracts
Genetic drift
Astigmatism
Imperfectly shaped cornea (thicker in some areas) -> generates 2 focal points
Why are essential fatty acids important?
Important in membrane structure/function; vision, brain function; gene expression; cell signaling
In each Otolith organ, how do the hair cells sit?
In all possible orientations
Gastric ceca
In insects, birds; storage area that is used to help break down plant materials. Mammals have a rudimentary cecum
Membrane potential is at -40 mV and transmitter is being released when?
In the dark
Na+ and K+ channels are open when?
In the dark
Rhodopsin is in inactive form when?
In the dark
cGMP levels are high when?
In the dark
Activated opsin activates G protein when?
In the light
Activated transducin activates phosphodiesterase when?
In the light
Net decrease in cGMP closes Na+ channels when?
In the light
Retina absorbs light and unbinds from opsin when?
In the light
What determines the diameter of the pupil?
Iris
How many ways did the history of life happen?
Just one.
Focuses the light onto back of the eye
Lens
What is the retina?
Made up of the cells involved in phototransduction. It is the photoreceptor layer
Monomorphism
Males and females look similar
Sexual size dimorphism
Males are usually bigger than females: Gorilla: Males are 2x the size of females Humans and chimpanzees: Males are 5-10% bigger than females
What are the ossicles?
Malleus Incus Stapes
Ossicles
Malleus, Incus, Staples
What animals use negative pressure breathing?
Mammals
What is the real world application of tetanus?
Maximum tension
RAAs
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System;Responds to changes in blood volume and pressure, not necessarily osmolarity
Iteroparity
Repeated reproductions Humans Oak trees
T wave
Repolarization of ventricles
Semelparity
Reproduce once in a lifetime. (Salmon, century plant)
Cortical nephron
Resides entirely in the cortex; reduced Loop of Henle
Are rods or cones more numerous in humans?
Rods
Replacement model
Single group evolved into modern form in africa, and then only relatively recently dispersed from africa and replaced all archaic forms.
very low
Single-gene mutation rate is
The ___________ of an axon influences how fast the action potentials can spread.
Size
What influences how fast the action potentials can spread?
Size of an axon
Muscle contraction is due to what theory?
Sliding filament theory
What is the disadvantage of tonic receptors?
Slow to adapt
Where does fat digestion start?
Small intestine
Where does nucleic acid digestion start?
Small intestine
Dissolved in mucus
Smell
Arterioles are surrounded by _______________ that can contract or relax as needed
Smooth muscle
Which muscle type is involved in the function of the digestive tract and blood vessels? ------------------------------------------------ Smooth. Skeletal. Voluntary. Cardiac.
Smooth.
Two potassium in and three sodium out of the cell is what?
Sodium potassium pump
Why are action potentials usually conducted in one direction? --------------------------------------- The axon hillock has a higher membrane potential than the terminals of the axon. The brief refractory period prevents reopening of voltage-gated Na+ channels. Voltage-gated channels for both Na+ and K+ open in only one direction. The nodes of Ranvier conduct potentials in one direction.
The brief refractory period prevents reopening of voltage-gated Na+ channels.
Na+, Ca2+ and cation-selective channel move what?
The cell closer to threshold
K+ and Cl- move what?
The cell further from threshold
Which statement is false regarding human evolutions? o BIpedality evolved before high brain-to-body size ratio o Neanderthals lacked a cranial vault and facial retraction o The diversity of mitochondrial DNA sequences from living humans coalesces to about 20,000 years ago o Cave art was produced >35,000 years ago o 160,000-year-old fossils are nicely intermediate between late H.erectus and H. sapiens
The diversity of mitochondrial DNA sequences form living humans coalesces to about 20,000 years ago
What are the two opposite attractions in a cell?
The electrical attraction of positive ions draws K+ to the negative interior The concentration gradient favors the outward movement of K+
Olfactory neurons are super strange when it comes to Cl-. Why?
The neurons have high intracellular [Cl-]. This makes Ecl more positive than Vm. This means that opening of Cl- will depolarize the cell
What is the graded event determined by? (hint: 2 things)
The number of muscle fibers contracting The rate of contraction
What neural cells live?
The ones that are more active - competition!
As the sound waves travel through the cochlea membranes what happens?
The organ of corti vibrates at the same frequency as the incoming sound
Abomasum
The part of the ruminant stomach where chewed cud, loaded with microorganisms, moves for final digestion by the cow's enzymes. The additional of so much microbial material makes the meal more nutritious than grass alone
How could an asteroid that was only 10 miles wide cause something so large?
The speed of the asteroid
What are some general rod characteristics?
They only show grey colors They have a high sensitivity to light High amplification
What are the semilunar canals?
They provide mammalian balance.
What do salivary glands release?
Things to help dissolve and aid in primary digestion (certain lipases)
How can gene flow speed up natural selection?
This is a rarer process which occurs when gene flow spreads a favorable allele to somewhere it doesn't exist yet Example: If all nearby fields receive a certain pesticide and individuals in one field develop a resistant allele, gene flow can spread this allele to individuals in other fields
Explain negative pressure breathing
Thoracic cavity expands, pressure in alveioli drops and air rushes, thoracic cavity contracts, pressure in alveoli increases and air rushes out
Metarteriole
Thoroughfare channel
Hyperosmotic
When one solution has a greater osmolarity than another
Hypoosmotic
When one solution has more dilute solution than another
Equilibrium Potential
When the electrical and concentration gradients of a cell balance out.
Ulcers
When the protection breaks down
When do phasic receptors transmit a signal to the CNS?
When the stimulus intensity changes
Isoosmotic
When two solutions have the same osmolarity
Respiratory pump
When we inhale, pressure changes in thoracic cavity favor blood flow to heart
Rumen
Where the initial bolus of food is stored and initial breakdown begins
What is biodiversity ecology?
Why some species go extinct, is it preventable, etc.
graded potential
a membrane potential - Vm that varies in magnitude in proportion to the intensity of the stimulus
vicariant speciation
a barrier prevents movement
paraphyletic
a common ancestor isn't in group. at least one species is left out of group on tree.
transitional species
a species w/ traits that are intermediate between those of older and younger species.
much of evolutionary change involves...
a speeding up or slowing down of development -relative to the ancestral condition
density dependent factors
a variable affected by the number of organisms present in a given area
DNA sequences to establish genealogical relationships between organisms. How is this done?
aligning them allows us to see where there are deletions, insertions, etc
What are some characteristics of hominoids?
brachiation arms and shoulders more flexible, larger pelvis, loss of tail, spine stiffer, scapulae more dorsal
Monophyetic
branch is how its grouped, common ancestors is most important in branching. ideally all taxonomic groups should be this way.
Sphecomyrma freyi
bridges gap between ants and wasps
Sexual Dimorphism
brightly colored male
sexual selection
broad pattern explained by a special kind of natural selection
histamine
chemical released from mast cells and basophils that increase the number of white blood cells to the injury site, open pores in capillaries, and dilates blood vessels to increase blood flow to the region
What were the first signs of life?
chemical signatures
What is an example of organisms retaining genes?
chick tissue
all traits of organisms are...
compromises that reflect historical constraints and imperfect solutions
systematics is where we...
construct phylogenies
cyanobacteria stromatolites
early fossils found 3.5 billion years ago
Morganucodon
early mammaliaform -about 205 mya
cytotoxic T cells
effectors of cell-mediated immunity
B cells
effectors of humoral immunity
What is an example of commensalism
egrets and large ungulates
A skeletal muscle deprived of adequate ATP supplies will _____. - immediately relax - fire many more action potentials than usual and enter a state of "rigor" - enter a state where actin and myosin are unable to separate - sequester all free calcium ions into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
enter a state where actin and myosin are unable to separate
high endemism increases...
extinction risk
type 2 survivorship curve
fairly constant death rate at all ages (small mammals and large birds)
lens
focuses the light onto back of the eye
polyploidy
increase in the number of chromosomes
temporal summation
increased input from one other cell
immunization (vaccination)
injection of non-pathogenic components of a pathogen in order to mount a secondary response later should the pathogen be encountered
two types of defense against pathogens
innate immunity & adaptive immunity
In the example of the voles, the meadow vole does not form pair bonds, but when inserted with the vasopressin receptor gene from the prairie voles, what happens?
it elicits pair-bonding behavior
all photoreceptors contain similar types of pigments that absorb light in terms of...
its INTENSITY and DIRECTION - the photoreceptors change this energy into an electrical signal
What is a good example of a predator not returning to eat something with a certain coloration?
jay
self-tolerance
lack of response to lymphocytes to cells of the body
What are traits that affect a population's schedule of births and deaths called?
life history traits
Type II
life table curve is linear. and shows equal survival rate throughout life. probability of dying is independent of age.
proximal distal elaboration.
limbs evolved in this sequence.
MHC
major histocompatibility complex
What are some characteristics of gorillas?
male-male competition -- polygyny
MAC
membrane attack complex - a series of 5 complement proteins form a pore in the membrane causing a loss of ion distributions, Ca2+ regulation and Vm ==> cell lysis
taste stimuli can cause a...
membrane depolarization and a rise in intracellular Ca2+
cytokines
molecules released from one cell that effect the growth or activity of another cell -attract other immune cells to site -increase capillary permeability (diapedesis) -induce fever
What type of posture do hominoids have?
more erect than in monkeys
The sum total of an organism's interaction with the biotic and abiotic resources in its environment would represent its: none of these answers is correct niche density-dependent factor population growth rate habitat
niche
natural selection, unlike artificial selection, has...
no predetermined path or goal
Which statement correctly describes human evolution? Homo sapiens showed some temporal overlap with Australopithecus afarensis none of these statements is correct there are no transitional forms showing the gradual emergence of Homo sapiens anatomically modern humans first appear in the fossil record about 40,000 years ago humans evolved from modern chimpanzees
none of these statements is correct
allergens
nonpathogenic antigen
genome-wide rate of mutation is...
not so low
Density
number of individual per unit area.
How does the monarch butterfly protect itself?
obtains cardenolides from milkweed
What does the intensity of competition depend on?
overlap of ecological niches
after speciation...
populations that once could interbreed can no longer do so -the evolution of reproductive isolation in an ancestral species -results in two or more descendant species
zeugopod
radius-ulna/tibia-fibula
Delete
rapid growth
genetic changes needed for isolating mechanisms can be...
rather minor
analyses of the entire mtDNA genome point to...
recent (0.25 mya) African orgin of anatomically modern humans (same for autosomes, Y-chromosome genes)
Homo naledi
recently described early Homo species, but the age of the remains is not yet known
Fitness is a measure of
relative reproductive success
What is iteroparity?
repeated reproduction
shared characters do not always...
represent common ancestry(homology) but may represent homoplasy
What is semelparity?
reproduce once and die
tropomyosin
rod-shaped, closely associated with actin AND troponin
macula
rough elliptical patch of hair cells -Utricle: 30,000 hair cells - horizontal movements -Saccule: 16,000 hair cells - vertical movements
What is an example of semelparity?
salmon, century plant
otolith organs
sense linear acceleration & head movement -each consists of an avoid sac of gelatinous membrane -each has a roughly elliptical patch of hair cells, called a MACULA -Utricle: 30,000 hair cells - horizontal movements -Saccule: 16,000 hair cells - vertical movements - hair cells lie in all possible orientations in each organ -on and in the otolithic membane are millions of calcium carbonate crystals, called OTOCONIA that are subject to gravity -OTOCONIA move with changes in head position
chemoreception
sensing of chemicals -one of the oldest senses evolutionarily
How did primate traits evolve?
sequentially
synapses
sites of cell-to-cell communication
barrier defenses
skin; mucous membranes; secretions
once threshold is reached, additional increases in intensity, rate, duration of motor neuron impulses give only...
slight increase in contraction strength of THAT FIBER
What is community ecology?
species interactions
the fossil record indicates...
specific paths of evolution in particular lineages
Gene flow can both ____________ and _______________ adaptive change in populations
speed up; slow down
What is peramorphosis?
speeding up of development through continue of turning on the genes when ancestrally they were turned off
Evolutionary change involves:
speeding up or slowing down of development
2° lymphoid tissues
spleen & lymph nodes (encapsulated) and unencapsulated ==> capture damaged, dead, or infected cells
sacromere
the basic unit of contraction
speciation
the orgin/formation of a new species
Vm - membrane potential
the potential difference all neurons (cells) have across their plasma membrane
macrophages
the primary scavengers of the tissues (ingest 100+ bacteria in lifespan) -remove larger particles -an antigen-presenting cell
H zone
thick myosin filaments only
A bands
thick myosin filaments overlapping with actin
Myosin heads bind to _____, which they then pull and cause to slide toward the center of the sarcomere. thin filaments Z lines sarcomeres myofibrils thick filaments
thin filaments
I-bands
thin filaments of ACTIN
What is a physical defense for a plant
thorns, spines, leaf toughness, hairs, resins, latex canals
Physical herbivore defense
thorns, spines, toughness, hairs, canals.
Paleozoic (oldest), Mesozoic(2nd oldest, jurrasic), Cenozoic (most recent).
three era's in the phanerazoic eon?
semicircular canals
three fluid-filled canals in the inner ear responsible for our sense of balance
Asynchronous Recruitment
to maintain tetanic contractions in a muscle, some motor units are contracting while others relax, in order to prevent muscle fatigue and failure
What is isoflavonoid?
toxic
The realized niche is always the same size or smaller than the fundamental niche. True False
true
organ of corti
vibrations cause the BASILAR MEMBRANE to vibrate and this pushes the HAIR CELLS against the TECTORIAL MEMBRANE causing them to bend - this activates MECHANOSENSITIVE CHANNELS in the hair cells, depolarizing them - this info is carried out of the ear by the AUDITORY NERVE to the brain
photopigment in cones
3 different photopigments - similar to rhodospin
What do cones contain?
3 different photopigments similar to rhodopsin
When were the australopithecus afarensis present?
3 million years ago
The following steps refer to various stages in transmission at a chemical synapse. 1. Neurotransmitter binds with receptors associated with the postsynaptic membrane. 2. Calcium ions rush into neuron's cytoplasm. 3. An action potential depolarizes the membrane of the presynaptic axon terminal. 4. The ligand-gated ion channels open. 5. The synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. Which sequence of events is correct?
3 → 2 → 5 → 1 → 4
The fossil record extends back to approximately how many years ago? all the way back to when Dr. Messina was in high school 35,000,000,000,000 3,500,000 6000 3,500,000,000
3,500,000,000
troponin
3-protein complex that associates with tropomyosin to form a barrier to formation of cross-bridges between actin and myosin (at rest)
Ratios of c13 to c12 isotopes in carbonaceous rocks suggest life is how old?
3.7 billion years
first life as suggested by ratios of C13 and C12 isotopes in carbonaceous rocks
3.7 bya
Archean Eon
3.8 - 2.5 bya
How long do olfactory cells live?
30 days
Neanderthals overlapped with AMHs for ________ ?
3000-5000 years - ample time for both genetic and cultural exchanges
What is the ratio of K+? Inside:Outside
30:1
Utricle
30K hair cells designed for horizontal movement in the Otolith organ
How many terrestial vertebrate species have become extinct due to human activity?
322 out of 21,000
What is an example of human activity in biodiversity?
322 species of terrestrial vertebrates have gone extinct
How long is the Basilar membrane? Is it uniform along the whole length?
33 mm, No
Basilosaurus
35-40 mya -whale evolution -zeuglodon (hind legs) -teeth
Reptiles have a ___________ chambered heart.
3ish
Mammals and birds have a _________ chambered heart.
4
How old is the earth
4.5 billion years
When were the ardipithecus ramidus present?
4.5 million years ago
Ardipithecus ramidus
4.5 mya -facultatively bipedal -good tree-climber -grasping big toe -woodland omnivore -reduced canines -brain only 300-350 cm^3 -more ape-like than later Australopithecus
Hadean Eon
4.6 - 3.8 bya
How fast did the asteroid hit earth?
40 times as fast the speed of sound
Neanderthals went extinct when?
40,000 years ago
complete genome sequences have been obtained from multiple neanderthal specimens from...
40,000 years ago
Neanderthals found in Europe and western Asia
400,000 to about 40,000 years ago -prominent browridge, bulbous nose, sloping forehead, stocky build
What is the rod range
400-650
What is our color range?
400-700 nm
Ambulocetus
41-48 mya -semi-aquatic whale ancestor like a 12 foot crocodile
Human: 2N=
46
The biggest mass extinction in the fossil record killed off approximately what percentage of marine invertebrate families? 50 30 100 90
50
A fungiform taste bud is composed of how many taste bud cells?
50 - 100 taste bud cells
What did the biggest mass extinction cause?
50% of marine invertebrate families to go extinct
Data suggests hybridization (Neand and AMH) occurred how long ago?
50,000 - 60,000 years ago, soon after AMH left Africa
When did the colonization of land by fungi, plants, and animals occur?
500 mya
Cambrian explosion
535-525 mya; Expansion of animal diversity
Paleozoic Era
550 - 250 mya "ancient life"
Virtually all fossils of multicellular organisms are from the last
550 million years
What years is the paleozoic era
550-250mya
How loud is a normal conversation? (according to the slides)
60 dB
In modern Japan what percent of individuals die by age 90?
60%
What percent of individuals died by age 16 in london 1662?
60%
Cenozoic Era
65 mya - present "recent life"
chicxulub crater
65.08 mya, at least 180km wide in yucatan peninsula.
habilis brain to body size ratio
650 - 800 cc
What years is the Cenozoic era
65mya-present
What is normal intracellular pH?
7.2
Birds have #-# air sacs that keep air moving throughout the lungs.
8-9
How old are Ochre engravings, beads, and stone tools found in S. Africa?
80,000 y.o.
Where and when were the oldest artifacts found?
80,000 years ago from Africa
What was found in Blombos Cave, South Africa?
80,000 years old. Engravings, beads, awls, stone tools, heat treated stones
Fat has how many kcal/gm?
9
Gizzard
Contains hard material to help breakdown food mechanically
What are disks?
Contains phototransduction machinery
What is a hydrostatic skeleton?
Fluid held under pressure in a closed environment
Excretion
Getting rid of the bad and keeping the good
The _________ changes the diameter of the pupil to let in more or less light
Iris
Made up of the cells involved in phototranscution
Retina
Bleaching
Retinal absorbs light and unbinds from opsin
Are there more than one myosin head per filament?
Yes
tetanus
if contraction becomes sustained without any relaxations
Hypertension
"High blood pressure," cause is mostly unknown, prolonged hypertension promotes atherosclerosis
Turkana Boy
10-12 age 1.6 Mya in Kenya Early H. Erectus or h. Ergaster Cranial capacity 900cc Not AMH, not ape
Turkana Boy
10-12 years old at death, 1.6 mya, fully bipedal, cranial capacity of 900cc. not modern human or ape. early african H. Eragster.
Which number is closest to the percentage of once-living species on Earth that are now extinct? 25 50 100 10 80
100
What frequencies are our ears most sensitive to? (according to the slides)
1000 - 3000
What do Arthropods have as visual systems?
1000's of Ommatidia
The stomach can hold about how much food?
2L
Amphibians have a __________ chambered heart.
3
What is the ratio of K+ to Na+ pumped across the membrane?
3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ in
historical restraints
"Advantages" of bipedalism in lineage that led to "disadvantages" in AMH - chronic lower back pain, slipped discs (about 80% of americans experience back pain) - inguinal hernia, varicose veins (vertical posture, blood has to go against gravity) - hip/knee joint stress, wear, fallen arches - maxillary sinus openings, etc. (many sinuses, with cilia, the maxillary pair is at the top that has to go against gravity, so all that crap gets stuck in there)
Atherosclerosis
"Hardening of the arteries"
mass extinctions
"reset" the history of life, account for much of what we see today
Carrying Capacity (K)
# of individuals that can be supported based off available resources in environment.
How do a few insects hear?
'Ears' with tympanic membranes covering an air filled chamber. As sound waves strike the tmpanic membrane it vibrates causing the activation of receptor cells underneath which signals the brain
each person has ___(A)___ different B cell types; ___(B)___ T cells with each a particular antigen specificity
(A) 10^6 (B) 10^7
small diameter, longer pipes have ______(A)______ RESISTANCE than short, large diameter pipes which have _____(B)_____ RESISTANCE
(A) greater (B) less
B cells recognize ___(A)___ and T cells recognize ___(B)___
(A) intact antigens (B) small fragments of antigens bound to MHC molecules
___(A)___ & ___(B)___ are the primary phagocytic cells
(A) macrophages (B) neutrophils
natural killer cells release ___(A)___ and ___(B)___ that trigger ___(C)___ in the target cell
(A) perforins: pore-forming proteins (B): granzymes: proteases (C): cell death
Absorption of light changes the conformation of ______ which then alters the shape of the ________.
(A) retinal (B) opsin
Homo Georgicus
(H. Erectus) prehuman on the move. 1.7 Mya found in Georgia Similar to turkana boy
Hominoids
(Includes apes and humans) Brachiation, more errent posture Arms and shoulders more flexible Spine stiffer. Arms extend laterally Larger pelvis, loss of a tail Orangutan, gorilla (polygyny) chimps extensive tool use
Intersexual selection
(mate choice): differences in attractiveness to the opposite sex, usually non-random choice by females
otoconia
(millions of) calcium carbonate crystals on and in the otolithic membrane that are subject to gravity -move with changes in head position
H. georgicus
(or H. erectus) -1.7 mya in Republic of Georgia -not anatomically modern
Mutualism
+,+ Pollination
Consumer-victim Relationship
+,- - Example: Predation
Eca
+180
Ena
+62
Atavism
- "Throwbacks" to ancestral form - Occurs as mutations or non-genetic, developmental anomalies - Indicates evolutionary history - Organisms retain genes for making structures no longer found in their lineage - pseudogenes
AMH
- 160,000 y.o. fossils. Morphologically intermediate to archaic African fossils and AMHs present by 100,000 y.o. - Modern-like homo skulls from 190,000 years ago - Single migration wave from Siberia less than 23,000 years ago settled in American contient then branched into 2 genetic groups
Mutation
- A random error in DNA replication or other alteration of the genome - Despite DNA repair, mutations always occur at low rates at a given gene (1 per 10^5 to 10^9 cell divisions) -Mutations continuously supply new alleles at a given gene - Ultimate cause of genetic variation
biggest mass extinction
- Boundary of Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras -250 mya -"Permotriassic" -killed of >50% of marine invertebrate families (80-90% of species) -most likely due to massive vulcanism (volcanoes)
Autopod
- carpals and metacarpals - tarsals and metatarsals - phalanges
Extinction at the boundary of the paleo & meso (250 mya)
-Biggest -Killed off more than 50% of marine invertebrate families and 80-90% species -Caused by vulcanism.
Central Nervous System.
-Brain and Spinal Column -integrate info in its current context and with recent history and produces the most appropriate output -the vast majority of cells in the nervous system are interneurons
Catarrhines
-Cercopithecoids (old world monkeys) -Hominids (apes, including humans) -No prehensile tail -narrow nasal septum -trichromatic color vision -2.1.2.3 dental
Competition between two species results in what type of interaction?
-,- Two species negatively impact each other. Often because they are both dependent on the same limited resource.
Amensalism
-,0 interaction. Many 'competitive' relationships are actually amensalistic.
A. garhi
-2.5 mya; eastern Africa -post-cranial skeleton indicates a candidate ancestor to Homo
Cro-Magnon
-35-40,000 years ago -Tall, with rounded skulls -Tools, fires, clothing, cave paintings, religious beliefs, elaborate burials -Lived in groups -Disconnceted from neanderthals.
The Ek of K+ is what?
-92 mV
Founder effect
-A form of genetic drift (over space, not time) -Can make a new, small population very different genetically from its large, ancestral population--"founders" carry unusual allele frequencies by sampling error alone -May be very important for some cases of speciation (e.g. on oceanic islands) Caused by: -different allele frequencies of founders -New natural selection
Why is evolution the single unifying concept for biology?
-All life is the product of >3 billion years of continuous evolution -An evolutionary perspective is needed for a complete understanding of any biological phenomenon
erectus brain to body size ratio
900 - 1200 cc
Changes associated with evolution
-Changes in allele and genotype frequencies between generations (changes in the genetic composition of populations) -Cumulative changes in the traits of organisms, which sometimes can lead to new species (diversification)
Tonic receptors
-Constant response -transmit signal to CNS as long as stimulus is present -slow to adapt.
Chimpanzees
-Hominoid -Omnivores -Prolonged adolescence, puberty 8-10 years -Often on ground -Shared common ancestor 7 mya with humans.
genus Homo (classifications)
-Homo habilis: 2.0 - 2.3 mya (not fully bipedal) -Homo ergaster (erectus): 1.5 - 2.0 mya -H. erectus: 0.4 - 1.2 mya -H. neanderthalensis (sapiens): 0.04 - .4 mya -H. sapiens: present - 0.15 mya
as the sacromere (z-line to z line) shortens...
-I band shortens -H zone is reduced -A band is unchanged *increased overlap of actin & myosin*
Processes of genetic recombination
-Independent segregation of non-homologous chromosomes -Crossing-over between homologous chromosomes -Union of gametes to form diploid zygotes
Extinction at the boundary of meso & ceno (65 mya)
-Killed off remaining dinosaurs -Asteroid was 8 to 10 miles wide and traveled 40 times as fast as speed of sound.
Characteristics of a non-evolving population (in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium):
-No net mutations occur -Population is infinitely large=no genetic drift -Population is isolated from others=no gene flow -Mating is random=no inbreeding or assortative mating -No natural selection
Fossil Record Tetrapod Limb (120MYA)
-Paired latéral fins sans bones (Osteichthyes) -Stylopod (Sacropterygians) -Zeugopod (Eusthenopteron and Sauripterus) -Autopod and polyadactyl (Acanthostega and Icthystega) -Pentadactyly (Balenopteron) -Carpals in later amphibians
the Phanerozoic Eon is composed of
-Paleozoic Era -Mesozoic Era -Cenozoic Era
Genetic drift
-Random changes in allele frequencies due to sampling error, which can be propagated between generations -presence of a bottlenecking event -Depends on population size (smaller populations have greater genetic drift) -Eventually causes a loss of genetic variation in a population (one/the other allele can be lost by chance) -Non-adaptive change due solely to sampling error
classification of primates
-Stepsirhines: lorises, galagos, lemurs -Haplorhines: Tarsiiformes, Anthropoidea -Tarsiiformes: tarsiers -Anthropoidea: Platyrrhines, Catarrhines -Platyrhines: new-world monkeys -Catarrhines: Cercopithecoids, Hominoids -Cercopithecoids: old-world monkeys -Hominoids: apes and humans
recovery (phototransduction)
-active retinal is reduced to inactive form in pigment epithelium -inactive retianl returns to rod and combines with opsin
vital statistics (demography)
-age structure -birth rates -death rates -generation time
cone system
-color -high acuity: concentrated in fovea -chromatic: 3 types of cones, each with distinct pigment sensitive to a different part of visible spectrum -lower sensitivity; day vision -less photopigment -lower amplification -high temporal integration: fast response, short integration time -more sensitive to direct axial rays
tonic receptors
-constant response -transmit signal to CNS as long as stimulus is present -slow to adapt -includes: pressure sensitive baroreceptors, nociceptors, some tactile and proprioceptors
B lymphocytes (B cells)
-formed in the bone marrow -these cells produce primary & secondary antibody responses (humoral immunity) -primary purpose is to secrete antibodies -mature B cells have anitbodies on their surface for specific antigen (epitope)
prezygotic barrier examples
-habitat -temporal -behavioral: mate recognition systems -mechanical -gametic
myosin
-long coiled tail + globular head -globular head has ATPase activity -250 myosin molecules ==> 1 thick filament
anaphalactic shock
-massive constriction in bronchioles -dilation of peripheral vessels -drop in blood pressure -can lead to death
two broad categories of cells in the nervous system
-neurons -glial cells
phasic receptors
-response adapts rapidly after initial burst of activity = SENSORY ADAPTATION -transmit signal to CNS when stimulus intensity changes -allows us to filter out background noise (signals) -includes: olfactory receptors & photoreceptors...
phototransduction in the light
-retinal absorbs light and unbinds from opsin (bleaching) -activated opsin activates G protein (transducin) -activated transducin activates phosphodiesterase - cGMP ==> 5' GMP -net decrease in [cGMP] closes Na+ channels -cell hyperpolarizes (~-70 mV) -transmitter release decreases
phototransduction in the dark
-rhodopsin is in inactive form -cGMP levels are high -Na+ and K+ channels are open ("dark current") -membrane potential is at -40 mV & transmitter is being released
subconscious sensory system
-somatic stimuli -muscle length-tension -visceral stimuli -blood pressure -pH & O2 content of blood -pH of cerebrospinal fluid -lung inflation -osmolarity of body fluids -temperature -blood glucose -distension of GI tract
conscious sensory system
-special senses -vision -hearing -taste -smell -equilibrium -somatic senses -touch-pressure -temperature -pain -proprioception
characteristics of primates
-stereoscopic color vision, bony orbits protect eyes -large brain relative to body size -largely tree-dwelling and tropical
H. Neanderthal
0.04-0.4 mya in europe and western asia. fleshed out face, used tools called mousterian and had sloping forehead.
H. erectus
0.4 - 1.2 mya
"Java man"
0.75 mya
Fishes have a ________ chambered heart
1
Unmyelinated vertebrate axons travel about what speed?
1 m/s
How sensitive are rods?
1 photon can set them off
Fungiform Papillae are found in what numbers of taste buds?
1, 2, or 4. Never 3
When and Where did dark skin pigmentation evolve?
1-2 mya in the savannas of Africa.
Three modes of selection
1-Directional 2-Stabilizing 3-Disruptive Example: mice in Florida -directional selection toward white coats toward the shore (sand) and toward dark coats away from the shore (dirt)--Disruptive selection?
excitation-contraction coupling
1. ACh binds to postsynaptic receptors on muscle opening ligand-gated cation channels, which depolarize the cell 2. this depolarization (an end-plate potential, EPP) generates action potentials in the muscle cell which are conducted down the t-tubules 3. action potentials trigger Ca2+ release channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and causing a rise in intracellular Ca2+ 4. Ca2+ binds to troponin C, removing tropomyosin block and allowing myosin-actin interaction and filament sliding
Steps for systole and diastole
1. Atrial and ventricular diastole 2. Atrial systole; ventricular diastole 3. Ventricular systole; atrial diastole
How do materials cross the capillary?
1. Diffusion-fat (lipid) soluble substances diffues across freely 2. Coupled endocytosis/excytosis 3. Diffusion through intercellular junctions 4. Specific transport proteins
Describe the ventilation by birds.
1. First inhalation: air fill the posterior air sacs 2. First exhalation: posterior air sacs contract, pushing air into lungs 3. Second inhalation: air passes through lungs and fills anterior air sacs 4. Second exhalation: As anterior air sacs contract, air that entered body at first inhalation is pushed out of body
Ventricular relaxation
1. Isovolumic ventricular relaxation 2. Semilunar valves close 3. Elastic recoil of arteries sends blood forward
What is the steps of the cardiac cycle for the pacemakers
1. Pacemaker generates wave of signals to contract 2. Signals are delayed at AV node 3. Signals pass to heart apex 4. Signals spread throughout ventricles
Natural selection requires these 3 (and only these 3) conditions:
1. Phenotypic (observable and measurable) variation 2. Fitness differences associated with variation (variation matters for survival or reproduction) 3. Some of the variation has a genetic basis: some genotypes leave more offspring (and gene copies) than others
The four-chambered stomach
1. Rumen 2. Reticulum 3. Omasum 4. Abomasum
How does blood get back to the heart?
1. Skeletal muscle pump 2. Respiratory pump
Steps for adaptations for absorption of fat
1. Triglycerides are broken down by lipases (enzymes) 2. Fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides diffuse or are transported inside of cells 3. They are reformed into triglycerides where they are repackaged into water-soluble chlymicrons 4. Chylomicrons leave the epithelial cells and enter the lymphatic system via the lacteals
Evidence of Extraterrestrial Extinction
1. Unusual concentration of iridium 2. Shocked quarts, microtektites (impact debris) 3. Yucatan crater
What are the four integrated processes in respiration?
1. Ventilation 2. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between lungs and blood 3. Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood 4. Exchange of gases between blood and cells
Ventricular contraction
1. Ventricle contracts 2. Semilunar valve opens 3. Aorta and arteries expand storing pressure in elastic walls
6 steps of synaptic transmission
1. action potential travels down to the presynaptic terminal - this depolarization opens VOLTAGE GATED CA2+ CHANNELS 2. Ca2+ enters the cell - Eca is very positive (~+180 mV) 3. the influx of Ca2+ leads to the fusion of synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitter with the presynaptic membrane 4. the vesicles release their neurotransmitter into the SYNAPTIC CLEFT, where it diffuses toward the postsynaptic cell 5. the neurotransmitter (ligand) binds to ligand-gated ion channels causing them to open - in the example shown the ligand-gated channel allows both Na+ and K+ to cross the membrane, depolarizing the cell 6. the neurotransmitter diffuses away or is enzymatically degraded, ending the signal
relaxation
1. action potentials in the motor neuron cease, any remaining ACh is rapidly degraded by acetylcholinesterase present on the postsynaptic membrane 2. with no action potentials in t-tubules, Ca2+ release ceases immediately and Ca2+ is rapidly pumped back into the lumen of the SR by Ca2+-ATPase
the spread of action potentials
1. an action potential is generated as Na+ flows inward across the membrane at one location 2. the depolarization of the action potential spreads to the neighboring region of the membrane, re-initiating the action potential there - to the left of this region, the membrane is repolarizing as K+ flows outward 3. the depolarization-repolarization process is repeated in the next region of the membrane - in this way, local currents of ions across the plasma membane cause the action potential to be propagated along the length of the axon
speciation requires...
1. an interruption of gene flow 2. eventual production of isolating mechanisms
how do ion channels open?
1. changes in the membrane a. voltage gated b. stretch gated 2. channels activated by chemicals (ligands) 3. non-gated channels (leak channels)
two factors that affect the movement of ions
1. concentration gradient 2. charge
How many recombinations are possible with a cross between two AaBbCc parents?
3 Possibilities for a (AA, Aa, aa), b (BB, Bb, bb), and c (CC, Cc cc)=3x3x3=27
vertebrate skeletal muscle contraction process
1. myosin head is bound to ATP (low energy state - 45 degree angle) 2. the myosin head (an ATPase) hydrolyzes ATP ==> ADP+Pi (high energy state - 90 degree angle) 3. the myosin head binds to actin - forming a cross bridge 4. ADP+Pi is released - causing the myosin to return to its low energy state - leading to the sliding of the actin filament 5. binding of a new ATP releases the myosin head from the actin
3 requirements of natural selection
1. phenotypic variation (observable, measurable) 2. fitness differences associated with variation - variation matters for survival and reproduction 3. some of the variation has a genetic basis, that is, some genotypes leave more offspring that others (and more gene copies) *requires all 3!*
how do we generate a larger postsynaptic response?
1. presynaptic terminal release glutamate 2. glutamate binds to AMPA & NMDA 3. Ca2+ influx through NMDA receptors activates a number of pathways in the postsynaptic cell a. increases responsiveness of AMPA receptors (phosphorylation) b. increases # of AMPA receptors available c. leads to retrograde release of nitric oxide, a gaseous neurotransmitter, that enhances presynaptic release of glutamate
immune system functions
1. protection from pathogens - disease-causing invaders 2. removal of dead or damaged tissue 3. recognition and removal of abnormal cells
phagocytosis process
1. pseudopods extend and surround microbes - a receptor-mediated event 2. microbes are engulfed into the cell 3. formation of the vacoule containing the microbes 4. vacoule fuses with lysosome 5. enzymes and toxic proteins lead to the destruction (lysis) of the microbes 6. microbial debris is released from the cell by exocytosis
autoimmune disease may arise from...
1. restricted antigen becoming exposed to the blood 2. self-antigen combines with another compound 3. formation of autoantibodies 4. cross-reactivity of antibodies
regulation of muscle contraction
1. rise in [Ca2+]in 2. Ca2+ binds to troponin C 3. conformational change in tropomyosin-troponin complex, exposing myosin binding site on actin 4,5. contraction (filament movement) may now occur
4 types of ion channels
1. voltage gated 2. stretch gated 3. ligand gated 4. non-gated (leak channels)
first multicellular eukaryotes
1.2 bya
Homo Eragster
1.5-2 mya, Turkana boy (10-12 y.o.)
The species represented by "Turkana boy" was fully bipedal and lived approximately: 1.6 to 1.8 million years ago 3 to 3.3 million years ago 4.5 billion years ago 160,000 years ago 10,000 years ago
1.6 to 1.8 million years ago
A. sediba
1.8 - 2.0 mya -from South Africa -probably descended from A. africanus -shares more derived features with early Homo species than other australopithecines
How long do taste receptors live?
10 days
How many colors can we see?
10 million
Myelinated vertebrate axons travel about what speed?
120 m/s
sapiens brain to body size ratio
1200 - 1400 cc
How many years ago did native americans branch into two genetic groups?
13,000
How many smell receptors do dogs have? Humans?
150-200 million for dogs 5 million for humans
Saccule
16K hair cells designed for vertical movement in the Otolith organ
Hadrocodium wui
195 mya -derived ear structure: seperation of middle ear bones from the jaw -mass of only about 2 g
What type of ratio do you want for taxonomy and systematics?
1:1
What is the ratio of Na+? Inside:Outside
1:10
Olfactory receptors are encoded by how much of our DNA?
2-3% of all genes
Europeans and Asians show _____ introgression of nuclear DNA characteristic of Neandertals, but...
2-5%, those from only African descent do not share DNA with Neanderthals
Homo Habilis
2.0-2.3 Not fully bipedal 650-800 cc Oldowan tools
How many species exist on earth?
2.3 million
first eukaryotes
2.5 bya
Proterozoic Era
2.5 bya - 550 mya
When were the Australopithecine Africanus around?
2.5 million years ago
When was the australopithecus garhi around and where?
2.5 million years ago; eastern africa
Paranthopus boisei (P. boisei)
2.6 mya -sagittal crests -massive jaw muscles and teeth -small brains
Cranial material
2.6 mya to 25,000 post cranial shows gradual transition to h. Sapiens during Pleistocene
What is the human ear sensitive to?
20 - 20 KHz
How long ago did AMH arrive in the Americas?
20,000
Given calibrated rates of nucleotide substitutions in our lineage, about how far back in time do we have to go to account for the amount of modern-human genetic diversity - that is, what are typical coalescent times for current global genetic variation? 6000 years 40,000 years 2,000,000 years 1,000,000 years 200,000 years
200,000 years
How long ago did mitochondrial DNA sequences from living humans coalesce?
200,000 years ago.
Mesozoic Era
250 - 65 mya "middle life"
What years is the mesozoic era
250-65mya
What is monophyletic
A group that contains ALL descendants of their most RECENT common ancestors
Mimicry
A harmless prey mimicking a dangerous one
Fundamental characteristics of life are those traits shared by __________________.
All organisms
What is the Cornea?
A clear, outer coating
What is paraphyletic?
A group that DOES NOT contain all descendants of the groups most recent common ancestor
Glutamate binds to two types of glutamate receptors
AMPA and NMDA
What is common among all animal vision systems?
All organisms can see intensity and direction of light
What is the structure of a mollusk eye like? Squid or Octopus also have this
Backwards of us -> similar to a camera
What is an example of interspecific competition
Balanus and chthamalus growing
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Allele and genotype frequencies will remain constant between generations... despite the reshuffling of genes during the formation of gametes (meiosis) and during sexual reproduction
Antagonistic pairs
Allows the joints to be moved in two directions; Relax (extend) one muscle, Engage (contract) the other, then switch to move joint the other direction.
Why are pacemaker cells connected with electrical synapses?
Allows them to depolarize at one time
What is the purpose of saliva with taste?
Allows transportation to taste cells
Residual volume
Amount of air left over in the lungs after breathing out
What animals use positive pressure breathing
Amphibians
Examples of double circulation
Amphibians, reptiles, mammals and birds
Ocellus
Basic eyes in flatworm
Shortens the muscle, placing force on the tendons, pulling the more movable bone inward
Contraction
What alters the shape of the lens?
Contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscles
Tetanus
Contraction becomes sustained without any relaxations. [Ca2+] builds up
This information is carried out of the ear by the ____________ ___________ to the brain
Auditory nerve
What type of retina do birds have?
Avascular Retina
Do flatworms run away or towards light?
Away
Skeletal muscle pump
Contraction of skeletal muscle forces blood back toward the heart-aided by series of one-way valves
Vibrations cause the _________ ______- to vibrate and this pushes the ____ _____ against the _________ _________ causing them to bend.
Basilar membrane, hair cells, tectorial membrane
Whale evolution: Aquatica with hind limbs
Basilosuarus
Why is the evolution of mammals considered transitional?
Because we know how the lineage later evolved
Action potential travels down to the presynaptic terminal. This ___________ opens ___________-gated Ca2+ channels.
Depolarization, volatage
What is the postsynaptic effect?
Depolarization/Hyperpolarization
What is used to drive the K+/Na+ pump?
ATP
Myosin heads have binding sites for _____. tropomyosin and actin ATP and calcium actin and calcium tropomyosin and troponin ATP and actin
ATP and actin
The myosin head is also what?
ATPase
Anyhydrobiosis
Ability to survive when water source dries up
The process by which the lens changes shape to keep images in focus. Contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscles alters the shape of the lens.
Accommodation
All-or-none-, brief, regenerative changes in Vm.
Action potentials
__________ _____________ transmit signals over longer distances.
Action potentials
What is saltatory conduction?
Action potentials jumping from node to node, greatly increasing velocity
Gentle pressure is going to generally do what to sensory receptors?
Activate a low frequency of action potentials. More pressure will initiate a strong response.
What do G-coupled receptors do?
Activate secondary messenger pathways which can do all sorts of things
Hair cells bending causes what?
Activated mechanisensitive channels in the hair cells, depolarizaing them.
Stronger input does what?
Activates more motor units
What happens if glutamate binds to NMDA?
Activates the NMDA channel which is permeable to Na+, Ca+, and K+.
What is indirect Synaptic Transmission?
Activation of 2nd messenger pathways
What is the purpose of the outer ear?
Acts as a reflector to capture sound efficiently and focus it towards the ear canal
What is the Cornea's function?
Acts as the initial fixed lens - attempts to sharpen and focus
Omasum
After regurgitating and rechewing the cud, it is reswallowed and moves here; much of the water is removed
What is an example of a fixed-action pattern?
Aggression in male sticklebacks
Early mammal Phylogeny
Agnathans Placoderms Chondrichthyes Acanthodians Teleosts Gars Polyodon Polypterus Coelanths Linguistes Eusthenopteron (Acanthostega) Tetrapoda
What is the middle ear?
Air filled pouch extending from the pharynx to which it is connected by the Eustachian tube
How many divisions of biology does evolutionary biology encompass in its scope?
All divisions (development, ecology, physiology, genetics, behavior, cell biology, etc.) and all taxa
If blood pressure > osmotic pressure, across the entire capillary bed......
All fluid flow goes from blood to tissues
Which of the following statements about the stimulation of muscle cells is true? ------------------------------------------------ An action potential in a muscle cell ultimately results in the release of calcium ions into the cell. Acetylcholine opens channels that allow calcium ions into the muscle cell. Neurotransmitters are released into the synapse between two muscle cells. Calcium ions bind the actin-myosin complex to start the muscle contraction process.
An action potential in a muscle cell ultimately results in the release of calcium ions into the cell
What is the Aqueous humor?
An aqueous solution that fills the eye.
Ascending limb
Ascending limb is permeable to solutes, but not much to water; osmolarity of the filtrate increases; NaCl is actively transported out; osmolarity of filtrate decreases
To maintain tetanic contractions in a muscle, some motor units are contracting while other relax, in order to prevent muscle fatigue and failure
Asynchronous recruitment
What is involved with the process of muscle tone?
Asynchronous recruitment
ANP
Atrial natriuretic peptide
How are hair cell action potentials carried?
Auditory Nerve to the brain
Transduction
Conversion of energy from one form to another
What is the middle ear's purpose?
Convert air pressure to fluid pressure
Acts as an initial fixed lens
Cornea
What is the first layer that light travels through?
Cornea
Which has the most nephrons, juxtamedullary or cortical?
Cortical
What do connexons do?
Couple neural cells
5 big mass extinctions
Between Proterozoic and Paleozoic, During Paleozoic, Between Paleo and Meso (Biggest)(Called Permo-triassic), During Meso, Between Meso and Ceno (Called Cretaceous-Tertiary).
Semelparity
Big bang reproduction Salmon Century plant
Identify the role(s) of ATP in muscle contraction. -Binds to myosin to break an actin-myosin cross-bridge - Binds to the troponin complex to expose myosin-binding sites - Provides the energy to convert myosin to a form that forms a cross-bridge with actin
Binds to myosin to break an actin-myosin cross-bridge Provides the energy to convert myosin to a form that forms a cross-bridge with actin
What evolved first bipedality or brain to body size?
Bipedality. (You have to be able to carry a bigger brain before the brain can grow.)
What is the pigmented epithelium?
Block cells and protect the sensitive rods/cones
Closed circulatory system
Blood is confined to vessels and distinct from interstitial fluid
Circulatory fluid
Blood or hemolymph
What are bee's ommatidia set to detect?
Blue/Green/UV
Ligaments
Bones joined to cartilage
Tendons
Bones joined to muscles
monogamy
Both sexes mate and reproduce with one individual, not strict in nature. There are some frequencies.
What is the flow of urine through the kidney starting with the Bowman's capsule?
Bowman's capsule, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, descending loop, ascending loop, distal tubule, collecting duct, renal pelvis
How do invertebrates perceive and react to light?
Brain orients the animal by comparing light to the two ocelli until the number of action potentials is the same coming from each eye. The animal than moves directly away from the light.
Tiktaalik
Bridge between lobe finned fishes and tetrapods. Gills, scales fins, flattened head, eyes and nostrils on top with a neck. Limb bones with wrist. Intermediate between (Eusthenopteron and Acanthostega)
aposematic coloration
Bright warning colors in animals with a chemical defense
Neurotransmitter binds to and activates a receptor that is not directly _________ with an ion channel.
Coupled
Hadrocodium wui/Mammaliaform
Derived ear structure-separation if middle ear bones from the jaw
What is the equation for cardiac output?
CO= Heart rate X stroke volume
What are oticonia?
Calcium Carbinate crystals that are subject to gravity. This gives mass for a sense of direction
What can shared, derived morphological characters do?
Can map characters not eh phylogeny
Stenohaline
Can tolerate only narrow changes in external osmolarity
Each villus contains extensive __________.
Capillaries
What tastes do we recognize?
Carbohydrates, salty, umami
Arteries
Carry blood away from heart
Veins
Carry blood to the heart
Motor Neurons
Carry output of CNS to the effector cells that produce the appropriate response
What is the purpose of mucus membranes with smell?
Catches volatile particulates and moves them to olfactory cells
What is an example of range expansions or contractions?
Cattle egrets originally in Africa, spread throughout the world
Postsynaptic Cell
Cell that receives the neurotransmitter from the synapse
Presynaptic Cell
Cell that releases neurotrasmitter into the synapse
What is synaptic transmission?
Cell to cell communication in the nervous system
What helps make learning later in life harder?
Cells destroyed at a younger age
What role does the hippocampus play in long term memories?
Central role in formation and retrieval of long term memories
How do vertebrate eyes focus images?
Change the thickness of the eyes using muscles
What stimulates the opening of closing of voltage-gated ion channels?
Changes in Vm
What stimulates the opening or closing of stretch-gated ion channels?
Changes in the tension of the membrane
Adsorption of light does what to retinal?
Changes its shape from cis to trans
How do hydrostatic skeleton organisms move?
Changing shape of fluid filled compartments with muscles/contractile cells
What are ligands?
Channels that are activated by chemicals. These open or close when specific chemicals, like neurotransmitters, bind to a channel
Which are more common: Chemical or Electrical Synapses?
Chemical Synapses
What is 'Noxious Simuli'?
Chemicals released when cells are damaged or destroyed
Animals without structured nervous system use what to locate food and mates?
Chemoreception
What do bacteria use to sense their environment?
Chemoreception
What is one of the oldest senses evolutionarily?
Chemoreception
What is the lens held in place by?
Ciliary muscles
The statoliths distort the membranes of the _________ ________ ________ causing depolarization, this gives the animal an indication of their orientation in space.
Ciliated receptor cells
How much water is reabsorbed in the ____________ _______________ is highly regulated.
Collecting duct
Cryptic Coloration
Coloring to blend into surroundings
What are the categories of interspecific interactions effects on population densities?
Competition (-,-) Consumer-victim (+,-) Mutualism (+,+) Commenalism (+,0) Amensalism (-,0)
Biotic environment components
Competitors, predators, parasites, prey, host of an environment.
Stone age genomics
Complete genome sequences from neanderthals have been found From 600,000 sample is 99.5% similar Occasional hybridization between Neanderthals and AMH outside of Africa. Europeans and Asians now show 2-5% neanderthal nuclear DNA May have provided adaptive and non adaptive alleles. Hybridization happened between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago.
High water permeability.....
Concentrated urine
The 30:1 ____________ gradient favors the outward movement of potassium
Concentration
What are the two factors that affect the movement of ions?
Concentration gradient and charge
Detect color
Cones
High acuity: concentrated in fovea
Cones
High temporal integration; fast response, short integration time
Cones
More sensitive to direct axial rays
Cones
3
Cones have how many different photopigments?
What are tonic receptors?
Constant response receptors.
What interaction causes +,-?
Consumer-victim
Echinoderms
Contain ossicles of calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate bound with proteins
Leaky replacement model
Current consensus. Modern humans and neanderthals overlapped for 3,000-5,000 years and interbred which allowed hybridization and neanderthals went extinct.
The Nernst Equation
Describes the equilibrium potential for any ion based upon charge and concentration gradients
Sensory Neurons
Detect important internal and external stimuli
What are ommatidia highly adapted for?
Detecting motion
What does vasopressin do?
Decreases in blood pressure/blood volume carotid/ aortic baroreceptors/ atrial stretch receptors
Marine environment is _____________, so they tend to lose water from body by osmosis. How do you counteract this?
Dehydrating; counteract this by drinking large volumes of water
Generally correlated with increased activity
Depolarization
Taste stimulus results in what?
Depolarization
P wave
Depolarization of atria
QRS complex
Depolarization of ventricles
There are two forces affecting the movement of ions.
Electrical and concentration
What fueled the exponential growth of the human population?
Drop in death rates and increase in birth rates.
Why does stenosis happen?
Due to calcium deposits or scarring
Which mutation is the most able to give rise to new "gene families?"
Duplication
What organisms use the entire skin surface?
Earthworms; subset of amphibians
Respiratory pigments
Easily bind to CO and binds to O2 because air isnt water soluble and these pigments bind to the gas and make it easier to get into the blood stream
Ingestion
Eating
Contain ossicles of calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate bound with proteins
Echinoderms
The _________ attraction of the positive ions draws K+ to the negative interior.
Electrical
Chemical Synapse
Electrical activity in one neuron is conveyed to another by the release of a chemical messenger between them.
True or false? Myofibrils are the alternating light-dark units that produce the banded appearance of muscle fibers.
False
role reversals
Female female competition and male selection Mormon cricket, accepted females were bigger. He is maximizing his fitness by picking the female that can hold the most offspring.
Reverse sexual dimorphism
Females are more brightly colored/flashier/bigger than males (phalaropes)
Female choice is an indicator of male genetic quality
Females pick desireable traits which happen to correlate with better genes. Better plummage > fewer parasites.
What is a motor unit?
Fibers that are innervated by a single motor neuron
Steps to excretion
Filtration, reabsorption, secretion, excretion
By 40,000 years ago...
Fire, hearths, clothing, cave paintings, sculpture Graves, burials, beads, jewelry (30,000) evidence of religion
Examples of single circulation
Fishes
Protonephridia are a type of ___________.
Flatworm
What is Planaria?
Flatworm
Is the end of the basilar membrane stiff or flexible?
Flexible
Hydrostatic
Fluid held under pressure in a closed compartment, organism moves by changing shape of fluid-filled compartments with muscles/contractile cells
Neanderthals
Found from 400,000 to 40,000 in Europe and w. Asia. Fleshed out face Prominent browbridgr, bulbous nose, sloping for head, stocky build Occipital bun. Lived in Europe 40,000 years ago. 3000-5000 year overlap with AMH
Where are open circulatory systems found?
Found in insects, many arthropods, mulloscs
Birds have multiple ________.
Fovea
Tonotopic Map
Frequency map of hearing
Intensity of a stimulation is coded for in terms of what?
Frequency of action potentials generated Number of receptors activated Duration of stimulus
Human evolution time-line
From 6MYA to less than 100,000. Especially in Rift Valley of Africa
What taste bud looks like an onion?
Fungiform Papillae
How can gene flow interfere with natural selection?
Gene flow usually interferes with natural selection. When natural selection is acting locally, like if in two neighboring populations an "a" allele is good in one but bad in the other, gene flow acts antagonistically against natural selection, maintaining a mix of that allele in both populations instead of letting it become more/less common in a certain population. Example: only spraying 1/4 fields with a certain pesticide
Microevolution
Generation-to-generation changes--processes observed today --What are the causes of evolution? Why don't populations and species stay just as they are?
The population of the northern elephant seal declined to <20 individuals in the 1890's due to hunting, but the population was protected and recovered to >120,000 individuals. However, there is still no genetic variation at 24 enzyme genes. The southern populations, which didn't experience this population decrease, have the genetic variation one would expect from such a population. What is this an example of?
Genetic drift
What is a major short-term cause of changes in allele frequencies?
Genetic drift
Evolutionary change absolutely requires
Genetic variation
What kind of biologic diversity do we study?
Genetic, Species, Ecosystem
Alleles influence ________________, which influence _______________.
Genotypes, phenotypes
"Supporting cells" in the nervous system that fulfill a variety of important roles
Glial cells
Formation of blood-brain barrier
Glial cells
Insulate neurons electrically
Glial cells
Secretion of compounds for neuronal maintenance
Glial cells
Structural support
Glial cells
What is the Mylelin sheath made of?
Glial cells
What makes the blood/brain barrier?
Glial cells
Glia vs Neuron. Which is more numerous?
Glial cells are about 50x more numerous
The Bowman's capsule surrounds the ____________.
Glomerulus
What is an example of a stenohaline organism?
Goldfish
All action potentials are proceeded by what?
Graded potentials
What do the sensory systems respond to?
Graded potentials - also called receptor potentials
Thick myosin filaments only
H zone
Species of Genus Homo
H. Habilis 2-2.3 not fully bipedal H. Ergaster 1.5-2 H. Erectus .4-1.2 H. Neanderthalensis. 04-.4 H. Sapiens present to-.15 H. Naledi recently described but unknown age
Multi regional model
H. Sapiens dispersed throughout the old world and simultaneously evolved to modern form with abundant gene flow.
"Beijing man"
H. erectus in China 0.7 mya
What are macula?
Hair cells that are in an elliptical pattern
Vibrations in the basilar membrane cause what?
Hair cells to push against the tectorial membrane causing the hair cells to bend.
Exoskeleton
Hard covering of the body surface including shells or cuticles that attach to underlying muscles
Sinoatrial (SA) node
Has fastest rhythm, sets heart rhythm
Atrioventricular (AV) node
Has slower rhythm
Delete
Head position
Steps to the open circulatory system.
Heart pumps hemolymph to sinuses, which surround organs Heart relaxes and hemolymph is drawn back through ostia (one way pores)
Saliva helps do what in a taste bud?
Helps the chemical go down the taste bud
Reticulum
Here and in the rumen, prokaryotes and protists begin the process of breaking down the cellulose and release ratty acids as a by-product
Sharks maintain ___________ internal solute concentration.
High
Examples of Peramorphosis
High brain to body ratio
Respiration in terrestrial organisms
High concentration of oxygen available, oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse much faster in air than water, air is much easier to move than water, hard to maintain moisture over entire surface of respiratory tissues, air is delivered directly to body cells, larger air sacs deliver oxygen to larger organs, small insects do not require ventilation
Why bother to filter 180L of fluid per day if >99% of it will be reabsorbed?
High filtration rate clears foreign substances, filtering ions and water into the tubule simplifies their regulation
What frequencies are registered by the base of the basilar membrane?
High frequencies
More pressure is going to generally do what to sensory receptors?
High frequency of action potentials per receptor
Stronger stimuli generate ___________ frequency of action potentials.
Higher
Oxygen will move from areas of __________ partial pressure for oxygen to areas of _______ PO2.
Higher; lower
The ______________ plays a central role in the formation and retrieval of long-term memories
Hippocampus
What is the oldest part of the brain?
Hippocampus
What is the pupil?
Hole in the center that allows light.
Orangutan
Hominoid. not social, fruit eaters, differences in culture.
gorilla
Hominoiid. dominated by silverback male. male to male competition. males are twice the size of females.
What genus homo was recently discovered?
Homo Naledi
The Tasmanian Wolf is an example of what?
Homoplasy
The same pattern of bones, same genes turned on and off to produce same pattern of bones with modifications, is an example of what?
Homoplasy
Atavisms Examples
Horses with toes, whales with femur. Chick's with teeth. Human tails
we don't know, but about 2.3 million have been described by specialist.
How many species exist on earth?
doubling times
How you can tell if a population is growing exponentially. The time it takes for a population to double.
Compare ommatidia's ability to see flashes of light to that of human's.
Humans - 50/s Ommatidia - 330/s
Most commonly, tissues are ______________ compared to sea water.
Hypoosmolar
Thin filaments of actin
I-band
The opening and closing of _______ __________ alters the membrane's permeability to various ions.
Ion channels
The receptors for taste operate how? (two ways)
Ion channels or G-Protein Coupled Receptors
Diversity in the olfaction system allows what?
Identification of a huge variety of different chemical structures
Example of how gene flow speeds up global adaptation
If all farmers in an area are spraying their fields with the same pesticide but only some populations have alleles for resistance, gene flow can cause all populations to become resistant.
Example of how gene flow prevents local adaptation
If only one region of a field is sprayed with a certain insecticide, gene flow keeps bringing in the "wrong" (susceptible) allele, preventing these insects from adapting to the pesticide
Boyle's law
If the volume of a container of gas changes, the pressure of the gas will change in an inverse manner
Where are taste receptor cells also found?
In the soft palate, esophagus, epiglottis, and larynx
What is marasmus?
Inadequate caloric intake
What can also produce an effect like genetic drift?
Inbreeding
Higher stimulus will do what to Action Potential generation?
Increase the frequency
Characteristics of Homo
Increasing brain:body Making tools
IPSP
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential
What is the action for ANP?
Inhibits Na+ reabsorption in distal tubules, inhibits release of renin from juxtaglomerular cells
The number and complexity of dendrites is correlated with the amount of ________ the neuron receives
Input
What are Arthropods?
Insects and Crustaceans
Malphighian tubules are a types of ______________.
Insects and terrestrial arthropods
Is the [K+] higher inside or outside of the cell?
Inside
What does the Myelin Sheath provide?
Insulation
Information processing
Integrate data -> decide on an appropriate response
What is the role of the nervous system?
Integrate information
What is the charge relative to?
Interior to the outside
The vast majority of cells in the nervous system are _________.
Interneurons
What type of cell are the vast majority of cells in the nervous system?
Interneurons
Taste stimuli cause a membrane depolarization and a rise in ____________ Ca2+
Intracellular
Sexual Selection: 2 types
Intrasexual selection and Intersexual selection
Contains several 1000 ommatidia- each capable of detecting light in a particular visual space
Invertebrates
Simplest eyes only detect light intensity and direction it is coming from.
Invertebrates
What type of retina do vertebrates have?
Inverted Structure
How does cardiac muscle differ from the other types of muscle? - It contains unbranched cells. - It contains multinucleated cells. - It contains branched cells. - It is organized into thin sheets.
It contains branched cells.
What is a reason that medicine tastes bad?
It interferes with the body's physiological processes
Exponential growth model
J type curve. dn/dt=rN.
What is the word Umami?
Japanese word for delicious
What was one of the first life tables?
John Graunt calculated population in london in 1662
What are the two inhibitory channels?
K+ Cl- channel
What channel is taste similar to?
Kidneys
What is the communication of neurons?
Language of Electrical Impulses
Respiratory surfaces tend to be ____________ and ________ to maximize gas exchange.
Large and thin
What are non-gated channels?
Leak channels - they are always open
What is the importance of plasticity?
Learning Long Term Depression
If the graph is shifted to the left.....
Less O2 is released per give Po2
History of Life on Earth
Life at 3.7 BYA. 3.5 Stromatolites 2.1 Single Cell Eukaryotic 1.2 Multicellular Eukaryotic 535-525MYA Cambrian Explosion 500 MYA colonization of land by fungi, plants and animals
Type III
Life table curve shows large amount of births but few survive and the ones that do live long.
Type I
Life table curve that shows low amount of births and good long survival rate for offspring.
In TEM what is dark and what is light?
Light - Thin Filaments Dark - Thick Filaments
Abiotic environment components
Light, Water, Wind, PH, Temp of an environment.
Assortative mating
Like phenotypes only mate with each other, NOT with unlike phenotypes (big beetles mate with big beetles, small beetles mate with small beetles)
What is the largest disadvantage of the electrical synapses?
Limited flexibility
Is genetic drift adaptive change?
No, it's non-adaptive change due solely to sampling error.
As humans spread across the globe minor genetic changes arose from ______ and _____ to allow variance inn height, lactose digestion, cold tolerance, skin color, malaria resistance?
Local Selection and genetic drift.
What is myosin?
Long coiled tail + globular head
Long lasting changes in how the synapse responds
Long term potentiation
Macroevolution
Long-term changes above the species level--reconstructs historical patterns over long time scales --What has been the history of life on Earth? When did certain groups evolve or grow extinct?
Presbyopia
Loss of lens accommodation with aging - causes farsightedness
What frequencies are registered at the apex of the basiler membrane?
Low frequencies
Solutes move selectively across the transporting epithelium to/from the blood to the _________ of the tubule.
Lumen
Attachment site for thick filaments
M line
The ultimate source of ALL genetic variation is . . .
MUTATION
aurignacian tools
Made by H. Sapiens
Z-Line
Made of proteins that attach to actin Defines the basic unit of contraction - The sarcomere
John Graunt
Made on of he first life tables (London)
Sphygmomanometry
Measurement of blood pressure
Identify the correct statement(s) about sensory receptors. - Mechanoreceptors detect sound. - Electromagnetic receptors detect pheromones. - Foods taste spicy when they activate the same sensory receptors that high temperatures activate.
Mechanoreceptors detect sound. Foods taste spicy when they activate the same sensory receptors that high temperatures activate.
How do hair cells figure out which way the fluid is moving?
Mechanoreceptors. If the fluid is moving the preferred direction the cell releases many action potentials. If the fluid moves the other way, the cell releases fewer action potentials than the resting state.
What are the classes of sensory receptors?
Mechanosensitive Receptors Thermoreceptors Chemoreceptors Electromagnetic Receptors Nociceptors
This activates _________________ ______________ in the hair cells, depolarizing them
Mechanosensitive channels
Respond to mechanical energy
Mechanosensitive receptors
Taste stimuli cause a ____________ _____________ and a rise in intracellular Ca2+
Membrane depolarization
The plasma membrane of a neuron has voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels. What is the effect of membrane depolarization on these channels? --------------------------------------- Membrane depolarization opens sodium and potassium channels at the same time. Membrane depolarization first opens sodium channels and then opens potassium channels. Membrane depolarization opens sodium channels but closes potassium channels.
Membrane depolarization first opens sodium channels and then opens potassium channels.
All neurons have a potential difference across their plasma membrane called....
Membrane potential
iridium
Metal that is rare in rocks at Earth's surface but is relatively common in meteorites and asteroids.
Two overlapping and artificial categories of evolution
Microevolution Macroevolution Overlapping subject: speciation
Where are the ossicles found?
Middle Ear
Action Potential Threshold
Minimum depolarization necessary to generate an action potential
In what way do molecules stimulate the taste receptors?
Molecules dissolved in a solution
What are some examples of creatures that evolved single lens eyes independently?
Molluscs Jellies Spiders
If the graph is shifted to the right.....
More O2 is released per given Po2
What is the difference between one and many receptors activating?
More action potentials are generated
Carry the output of the CNS to the effector cells that produce the appropriate response
Motor neurons
The olfaction cells sit in what?
Mucus
What is found in a taste bud?
Mucus
Syncytium
Multinucleate mass of cytoplasm resulting from fusion of cells.
Each motor neuron can innervate how many muscle fibers?
Multiple muscle fibers
Why are antagonistic pairs necessary?
Muscles contract to move a load and relax passively
Explain positive pressure breathing
Muscles lower the floor of the oral cavity, air flows in through the nostrils, nostrils and mouth close, floor of the mouth rises, forces air down the trachea, lung recoil and body movements force air back out of the lungs during expiration
Osmoregulators
Must control its internal osmolarity (all freshwater and terrestrial animals)
Osmoregulators, if it lives in a hypoosmotic environment it.....
Must get rid of excess water
Osmoregulators, it if lives in a hyperosmotic environment it.......
Must take in water (marine life)
UVR
Mutagen, destroys folale and is correlated with skin pigmentation.
What process creates new alleles?
Mutation
In many vertebrate neurons the axons are covered with what?
Myelin Sheath
Focal point falls in front of retina
Myopia
Long coiled tail, globular head
Myosin
Which of the following interactions is the molecular basis of muscle contraction? ------------------------------------------------ Sarcomeres and T tubules. Troponin and tropomyosin. Myosin and thin filaments. Myosin and thick filaments.
Myosin and thin filaments.
Which molecules form the thick filaments of sarcomeres? ------------------------------------------------ Myosin. T tubules. Actin Myofibrils.
Myosin.
neanderthals did or did not evolve as a group into modern Europeans?
NOT
What are the three excitatory channels?
Na+ Ca2+ Cation-selective channel
What are involved with the production of the action potential?
Na+/K+ channels
What does it mean for natural selection to act globally?
Natural selection is affecting the entire population
What does it mean for natural selection to act locally?
Natural selection is only affecting a portion of the entire population
Myopia
Nearsightedness Focal point falls in front of the retina
The 3 conditions of natural selection are both _____________ and ____________
Necessary (all 3 must be satisfied); sufficient (natural selection will only occur if all 3 are satisfied)
In many areas, blood flow to specific organs is determined according to what?
Need
At normal intracellular pH what is the charge inside the cell?
Negative
What are some examples of a hydrostatic skeleton?
Nematodes Annelids
What is the functional unit of the kidney?
Nephron
What plays a role in maintaining homeostasis?
Nervous System
The functional unit of the nervous system
Neurons
What are 2nd messenger pathways?
Neurotransmitter binds to and activates a receptor that is not directly coupled with an ion channel
What are some things that taste bitter?
Nightshade Venoms Medicines
Are rods present in fovea?
No
Are we good at smelling?
No
Do all sensory receptors fire action potentials?
No
Do birds have blood vessels in the back of their eyes?
No
Does the CNS regenerate?
No
Is the human population still growing exponentially?
No
Is the taste system a sensitive one?
No
Is there such a thing as a tongue map?
No
non-evolving population
No net mutations occur • Population large (actually, infinite): no genetic drift • Population isolated from others - no gene flow • Mating is random - e.g., no inbreeding or assortative mating (inbreeding increases homozygotes) • No natural selection (the Hardy Wineburg conditions)
Why do photoreceptors not fire action potentials?
No voltage-gated Na2+ channels
Paleobiology
Offers insight to earth history through fossil record
Cercopithecoids
Old world monkeys
What is the only sense that makes its first connection in the brain?
Olfaction
What are some examples of phasic receptors?
Olfactory receptors and photoreceptors
How does the membrane change its permeability to various ions?
Opening and Closing of Ion Channels
As pressure waves travel through the cochlea, membranes within the __________ vibrate at the same frequency as the incoming sound
Organ of corti
Delete
Organisms retain genes for making structures no longer found in their lineage
Eryhaline
Organisms that can tolerate large fluctuations in external osmoslarity
Most invertebrates are ______________.
Osmoconformers
Protonephridia do what type of osmosis?
Osmoregulation
Malpighian tubules do what type of osmosis?
Osmoregulation and excretion of N2 wastes
Metanephridia do what type of osmosis?
Osmoregulation and secretion
Most vertebrates are ______________.
Osmoregulators
Secretion
Other unwanted compounds are actively extracted from the body fluids and added to the filtrate for excretion
On and in the otolithic membrane are millions of calcium carbonate crystals that are subject to gravity
Otoconia
Sense linear acceleration and head position.
Otolith organs
Gills
Outfoldings of the body that are suspended in water
Is the [Na+] higher inside or outside of the cell?
Outside
Vibrations from the stapes go where?
Oval Window
What does each Otolith organ contain?
Ovoid sac of gelatinous membrane
If a large population has two alleles at the "A" gene, allele A at frequency p=0.5 and allele a at frequency q=0.5, what is the probability of losing an allele (A or a) if two individuals are chosen at random (4 copies of the gene)?
P(0A4a)=0.0625 P(4A0a)=0.0625 P(0A4a∪4A0a)=2(0.0625)=0.125=12.5%
The phanerozoic Eon is composed of what eras?
Paelozoic, mesozoic, and cenozoic
When was the biggest mass extinction?
Paleozoic and Mesozoic
Diastole
Period when specific chambers of the heart relax after a contraction
The post synaptic effect depends upon the _____________ of the channel activated.
Permeability
What does the post synaptic effect depend on?
Permeability of the channel activated
K+ ions are most ___________.
Permeable
NDMA
Permeable to Na, k and Ca; active only when both glutamate is bound and the cell is depolarized
What is a sensory receptor that does not fire an action potential?
Photoreceptors
There are many specific mechanisms of dispersal and gene flow, including
Pine pollen clouds, seeds with pappi, blue jays carrying acorns, animal migration, etc
Acts as a reflector to capture sound efficiently and focus it toward the ear canal
Pinna
What is another name for the outer ear?
Pinna
Anthropoidea (Simiiformes)
Platyrhines and Catarrhines
Distal tubule
Plays key role in regulation of NaCl and K+ in body fluids by varying their absorption and secretion, respectively; also in pH regulation
Collecting duct
Plays role in how much NaCl is reclaimed in the filtrate by altering its active transport; as it passes through the medulla, more water is reabsorbed, concentrating the urine
What is Spatial Summation?
Post synaptic neurons sum up all their inputs in space
What is Temporal Summation?
Post synaptic neurons sum up all their inputs in time
What is synaptic integration?
Postsynaptic neurons sum up all their inputs in both time and space
What is the membrane potential?
Potential difference across the plasma membranes of cells
What control whether blood flows through the capillary beds or not?
Precapillary sphincters
What releases glutamate?
Presynaptic terminal
Examples of Paedomormorphosis
Retention of juvenile gills in mature axolotl. Human skulls. Can be induced by thyroxine injection
What is summation?
Process of combining individual twitches, largely due to the arrival of additional nerve impulses before the previous contraction has subsided
Sarcopterygians showed development of which characteristic?
Proximal osseous elements (Stylopod)
What are the three distinct parts to circulation?
Pulmonary, cardiac and systemic
What were some of the transitional steps in fossil records?
Quadrupedal paddling pelvic undulation caudal undulation caudal oscillation
Stochastic
Randomly determined
Bottom heavy pyramid indicates what kind of growth?
Rapid
What do neurons do?
Receive and transmit information
What do the neurons do?
Receive and transmit information
Respond ot stimuli with graded potentials
Receptor potentials
What is the purpose of our umami sense?
Recognition of amino acids
What does sweet function as?
Recognition of carbohydrates
What does salty function as?
Recognition of minerals
A short-term source of genetic variation in a sexual population
Recombination
What processes create new genotypes?
Recombination and sex
Active retinal is reduced to inactive form in pigment epithelium when?
Recovery
Inactive retinal returns to rod and combines with opsin when?
Recovery
Tension generated gets greater the more fibers that are stimulated, stronger input activates more motor units
Recruitment
The _________ stores the feces until their elimination through the ___________.
Rectum; anus
Tapetum
Reflective layer behind the rods and cones. This is what dogs and cats have that reflect creepily in the dark
Tip link proteins are what in inhibition?
Relaxed
Vasopressin
Released from posterior pituitary
Diuresis
Removal of excess water from the body in urine
Birds don't have a problem with ___________ _____________.
Residual volume (Air inhaled, but not exhaled)
Respiration in aquatic organisms
Respiratory membranes always moist, relative oxygen in water much lower than in air, countercurrent exchange ensures that the concentration gradient for oxygen movement always favors the flow of oxygen into the blood
Animals transport oxygen to their tissue using ____________ _________.
Respiratory pigments
Thermoreceptors
Respond to changes in temperature
Mechanosensitive Receptors
Respond to mechanical energy
What are phasic receptors?
Response adapts rapidly after initial burst of activity
When neurons are not actively signaling, the membrane potential is referred to as....
Resting potential
When neurons are not actively signaling, the membrane potential is referred to as.....
Resting potential
Diarrhea
Results when the colon becomes irritated and is less able to reabsorb water
Constipation
Results when the feces pass too slowly through the colon and additional water is reabsorbed
Vertical movements
Saccule
Delete
Sagittal crests Massive jaw Muscle and teeth Small brains
The myelin sheath and clustering of ion channels cause the action potential to jump from node to node, greatly increasing conduction velocity
Saltatory conduction
Proximal tubule
Salts, especially NaCl, water and nutrients are absorbed primarily in the proximal tubule
Osmotic pressure is roughly the _____________ along the length of the capillaries, but the blood pressure _________ sharply.
Same; drops
Example of Echinoderm
Sand Dollar
What is the purpose of the Aqueous Humor?
Scatter light?
What is the purpose of sour?
Scientists are not sure. Gilbertson just things it is a byproduct.
Rods and cones have a synaptic terminal. Where does it terminate?
Second Order Bipolar Cells
Bipolar cells are what?
Second order cells
African Finches, Disruptive selection
Selection to the extremes. Small or Large beaks are most adaptive. Intermediate are not.
What were some characteristics of the ambulocetus?
Semi-aquatic, full hind limbs
The ___________ __________ lie in three distinct planes to detect angular head movements.
Semicircular canals
What are Otolith Organs
Sense linear acceleration and head position - help provide balance
Response adapts rapidly after initial burst of activity
Sensory adaptation
Detect important internal and external stimuli
Sensory neurons
Photoreceptors are basically what?
Sensory neurons that do not fire action potentials
What is a statocyst?
Sensory organ that contains ciliated receptor cells that respond to mechanical deformation
Conformational change of retinal does what to the retinal - opsin complex?
Seperates it
What are the subconscious senses highlighted in class?
Somatic Stimuli Visceral Stimuli
Commensalism.
Some species benefits from the other, but the other gets nothing, no benifit or harm to other species. (+,0)
What drives the cardiac cycle?
Specific collections of cells, produce electrical signals intrinsically that cause the precisely timed contractions of the atria then the ventricles
Population structure
Specific to a species: The species' subdivision in space and its fluctuations over time Graph in text: Number of individuals/time
Whale evolution: Pakicrtus
Spent some of its time submerged, transitional species of whales
What evidence is there of the extraterrestrial cause of the mass extinction at the end of the mesozoic?
Spike in iridium, impact debris, right age and size, shocked quartz, oil company
Supported by hard particles of inorganic material, called spicules
Sponges
What are the types of endoskeleton?
Sponges Echinoderms Chordates
Vibrations transmitted from the _________ to the __________ __________ cause fluid movements within the chambers in the ____________.
Stapes, oval window, cochlea
As the animal moves, the particle within the statocyst, called ___________, move and settle to the lowest point by gravity.
Statoliths
Most organisms are said to be ___________.
Stenohaline
Two students studying physiology taste a known "bitter" substance, and both report sensing bitterness. They then sample another substance. Student A reports sensing both a bitter taste and a salty taste, but student B reports only a salty taste. What is the most logical explanation? ------------------------------------------------ Student A has normal "bitter" taste buds; student B has defective "bitter" taste buds that result in lower sensitivity to bitterness. Student A has normal saliva, whereas student B's saliva is more alkaline than normal. Student A has a protein receptor capable of detecting a bitter molecule found in that substance, whereas student B lacks that particular protein receptor. Student A had an allergic reaction to the food, causing him to perceive the food as being bitter.
Student A has a protein receptor capable of detecting a bitter molecule found in that substance, whereas student B lacks that particular protein receptor.
Biodiversity Ecology
Study of extinction.
Ecology
Study of interactions between organisms and their environments, both abiotic and biotic components. Understanding the dynamics of invasive or endangered species.
Community Ecology
Study of multiple species.
Tetrapod Limb
Stylopod (humerus/femur), zeugopod (radius/ulna,tibia/fibula),autopod (phalanges)
Graded responses occur because of what?
Summation
Purpose of a skeleton
Support Protection Movement
Sponges
Supported by hard particles of inorganic material called spicules
Glia are what?
Supporting cells that fulfill a variety of functions
Ampulla
Swelling parts of the semilunar canals that contain hair cells
Evolution of Synapsids
Synapsid->Therapsids->cynodont->mammals
Where did mammals come from?
Synapsids
Temporal Fenestra
Synapsids (300MYA) Therapsids (280) Early Cynodont (260)
Postsynaptic neurons sum up all their inputs in both time and in space
Synaptic integration
TCR
T cell receptor - takes part in stimulating cytokine release
What led to the theory of muscle contraction?
TEM of muscle fiber
the job of sensory systems
TRANSDUCE incoming stimuli into electrical signal
there is genomic evidence of occasional hybridization between Neanderthals and AMH outside of africa?
TRUE
Nocturnal animals have a reflective layer called?
Tapetum
Tarsiiformes
Tarsiers
Dissolved in the saliva
Taste
Where do anhydrobiosis live?
Temporary ponds
What is the cenozoic era composed of?
Tertiary
If contraction become sustained without any relaxations it is called?
Tetanus
What is a possible reason that smell is linked strongly with memories?
That the olfaction system makes its first connection with the brain
Visual Acuity
The ability to form/see sharp images
The number and complexity of dendrites is correlated with what?
The amount of input the neuron receives
What differs between offspring and parent generations in natural selection?
The amount of variation in/average value of a trait
A person able to hear only high-frequency sounds would probably have which of the following structural problems in the ear? - The basilar membrane is stiffened along its entire length. - The tympanum is damaged because of chronic ear infections. - The ear ossicles are abnormally thickened. - All of these problems could result in inability to detect low-frequency sound.
The basilar membrane is stiffened along its entire length.
Stabilizing selection on a gall size in a fly
The birth weight of babies, the median or the highest rate of survival comes from 7lbs, the mortality rate goes if the 9+lbs and the mortality rate skyrockets if the baby is 4 or less pounds
Where does the olfactory system make its first connection?
The brain
What does the Nernst Equation describe?
The equilibrium potential for any ion based upon their charge and concentration gradients
Filtration
The excretory tubule collects a filtrate from the blood. Blood pressure forces water and solutes across the selectively permeable membrane into the tubule
What is a neuron?
The functional unit of the nervous system
How does gene flow prevent local adaptation?
The gene which would ordinarily be selected against and decrease in proportion is continually brought into the population, so it can never be removed by selection.
How do Molluscs/Jellies/Spiders focus their lenses?
The iris changes the diameter of the pupil to let in more or less light by moving it forward and backward
What is the origin?
The less moveable bone
What does it mean when a chemical defense is induced?
The levels are increased when the plant sense danger
How do insects hear?
The majority of insects have body surfaces ccovered with hairs of varying length and thickness that vibrate at different frequencies. This activates mechanosensitive channels at their base
What is a carrying capacity?
The maximum population size that can be supported by available resources
Stabilizing selection
The mean doesn't change, but the variance shrinks. The phenotypes of the population converge toward intermediate variants
Disruptive selection
The mean remains constant, but the distribution is now bimodal. This is the opposite of stabilizing selection. The population shifts towards both ends of the phenotypic range.
Directional selection
The mean shifts right/left, but the variance remains constant The population shifts towards one end of the phenotypic range
What is the insertion point?
The more moveable bone
How do the statoliths create the sense of gravity?
The move and settle to the lowest point by gravity. They distort the membranes of the ciliated receptor cells causing depolarization.
Archaeopteryx lithographica
an extinct bird which shows an evolutionary transition between ancestral dinosaurs and modern birds. -150 mya
What is proprioception?
The perception of body in 3D space
Why is the resting potential of cells at -70 mV?
The permeability of the membrane to multiple different ions.
Which step constitutes the power stroke of muscle contraction? ------------------------------------------------ The phosphate ion is released, and the myosin head moves back to its original position. ATP binds myosin, causing the myosin head to be released from actin. ADP is released. ATP is hydrolyzed, causing myosin to bind another actin subunit.
The phosphate ion is released, and the myosin head moves back to its original position.
Membrane Potential
The potential difference across their plasma membrane of all neurons; Language of cell communication
What is accomodation?
The process by which the lens changes shape to keep images in focus.
Allele frequencies
The proportion of all the copies of the "A" gene that are 'A' versus the proportion that are 'a' in a population
Vm is closer to Ek; what does this imply?
The resting membrane is more permeable to K than it is to Na
What is the general olfactory transduction pathway?
The system opens up a Ca2+ Ca2+ opens up Ca2+/Cl- channel Cell very quickly depolarizes
What causes the channels to open when the hair cells move?
The tip link protein change in conformation as the hairs move
Taste receptor cells reside primarily in what?
The tongue
Reabsorption
The transport epithelium reclaims needed substances from the filtrate where they return to the body fluids
What is the key to reabsorption and secretion/
The transporting epithelium
How do semilunar canals provide balance?
There are three canals that go in different directions. The stereocilia of the hair cells project into a gel matrix. As the head moves, the gel presses on the stereocilia.
Respond to changes in temperature
Thermoreceptors
What do the blood vessels do?
They act as a blood/nutrient supply to the retina
Why do hair cells have a more positive resting membrane potential?
They are always releasing action potentials
Which of these examples is not an atavism? chick tissue developing tooth enamel a dolphin with an external hind limb a platypus laying an egg a newborn human with a post-anal tail a horse with side toes
a platypus laying an egg
Vessels
Through which the circulatory fluic moves
Salivary amylase
To begin breakdown of carbohydrates; hydrolyzes starch and glycogen
Pump
To provide the pressure for fluid movement
Where do the fluid waves go?
To the end and back through the round window
Where does the graph shift to if there is an increased temperature and Pco2 and decreased pH?
To the right
Pressure-sensitive baroreceptors, nociceptors, and some tactile and proprioceptors are what?
Tonic receptors
We recognize and reject those things which could potentially harm us
Toxin avoidance
What is the job of the sensory systems?
Transduce incoming stimuli into an electrical signal
Activated opsin activates G protein
Transducin
What is the purpose of the inner ear?
Transform fluid pressure into electrical signals
What is the mesozoic era composed of?
Triassic, jurassic, and cretaceous
Rod-shaped, closely associated with actin
Tropomyosin
3-protein complex that associates with tropomyosin to form a barrier to formation of cross-bridges between actin and myosin
Troponin
True or false: life has been on earth between 3.5-4 billion years
True
True or false: there are trade-offs between current reproduction and survival or future reproduction
True
Competition can be post-copulatory. True or False?
True; Example: sperm competition
Secretory systems in different organisms all share...
Tubular-like structure, large surface area and ability to transport water solutes and nitrogenous wastes
What is a contraction of an individual muscle fiber?
Twitch
What is homoplasy
Two or more organisms share a character not by common ancestry but by independent evolution
Pakicetus and Ambulocetus
Two supposed whale ancestors that are now known to have been land animals
What is another name for the eardrum?
Tympanic Membrane
In the middle ear, what is the order of movement of pressure waves?
Tympanic Membrane -> Ossicles -> Oval Window
Where do osmoconformers live?
Typically osmoticall stable environments
neutral mutation
UAU-tyrosine UAC- Tyrosine. Even if you change the C it stays the same. UAG- stop codon UAA- stop codon.
juvenilization
barking, fawning, face-licking, etc. PLUS juvenile-wolf skull proportions
What organisms use the entire surface area of the body for respiration?
Unicellular organisms; sponges, flatworms
What is a bad source of sour?
Unripened berries that have fewer nutrients
How do invertebrates have a sense of balance?
Using a statocyst
Horizontal movements
Utricle
Recombination and sex greatly increase
Variation in how genes are "packaged" into individuals
Driving force for blood flow is the pressure created by _____________ _________________.
Ventricular contraction
Heart contracts again before all the pressure in the elastic walls of the arteries is relieved during?
Ventricular diastole
Blood pressure is greatest in the arteries during?
Ventricular systole
Where are closed circulatory systems found?
Vertebrates; earthworms, squid and octopus
Is the sense of smell sensitive?
Very
What are the advantages to the electrical synapses?
Very Fast Very Reliable -> Not much to go wrong
Capillaries
Very small vessels where chemicals/gases are exchanged within organs
Where is the oval window attached?
Vestibular canal
Waves of fluid movements travel through the cochlea in the ___________ _______ and back through the ________ ______ where the pressure is dissipated at the _________ __________.
Vestibular canal, tympanic canal, round windo
two types of natural selection
Viability selection Sexual selection
Microvilli cover the _________.
Villi
What are some general cone characteristics?
Visual Acuity Highly concentrated in the fovea Not sensitive to low light levels
Which of the following is a direct result of depolarizing the presynaptic membrane of an axon terminal? --------------------------------------- Voltage-gated calcium channels in the membrane open. Ligand-gated channels open, allowing neurotransmitters to enter the synaptic cleft. Synaptic vesicles fuse with the membrane. The postsynaptic cell produces an action potential.
Voltage-gated calcium channels in the membrane open.
Descending limb
Water reabsorption continues; the descending limb is water permeable but not very permeable to solutes; osmolarity of the filtrate increases
What is 'Toxin Avoidance"?
We recognize and reject those things which could potentially harm us - things that interfere with processes
What is nutrient recognition?
We respond to those things we need in our diet to survive
Strepsirhines
Wet nosed Lorises Galagos Lemurs
Ultimate causation
Why something exists the way it does in the first place, and not some other way (evolutionarily speaking) "Why is the male cardinal red and not the female?" "How and when did mitochondria originate? (endosymbiosis)"
Ultimate Causation
Why something exists the way it does, why are these dice cubed shaped? Because it was poured into a cube shape, the dice wouldn't function the way it's supposed to.
How do oticonia move?
With changes in head positions
Size Dimorphism
Within a certain group, males are bigger than females, females are bigger than males, males are twice the size of females.
Are olfaction cells constantly being turned over to make new connections?
Yes
What is the advantage of phasic receptors?
You can filter out background noise/signals
What is the consequence for Long Term Potentiation?
You increase the number of receptors and you have a larger postsynaptic response after Long Term Potentiation
If it is kin selection, what must it be?
a costly behavior
What are life tables
a counting of births or deaths
Thrinaxodon
a cynodont from the early triassic
Exponential growth of the global human population has been mostly caused by: - a lengthening of generation times - an increase in doubling times - an increase in birth rates - a drop in death rates - the 888 progeny of Moulay Ismail Ibn Sharif, Emperor of Morocco
a drop in death rates
cupula
a gel matrix which the stereocilia of the hair cells projects into
Epistasis
a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus
cohort
a group of people from a given time period
natural selection
a nonrandom process that depends on fitness differences among the different phenotypes
batesian mimicry
a palatable or harmless species mimics an unpalatable or harmful model
Microtektites represent: - evidence of life over three billion years ago - a group that went extinct at the end of the Mesozoic - part of the debris associated with an asteroid impact - a common element within comets and asteroids - a cult of IT specialists that worship extremely small computers
a part of the debris associated with an asteroid impact
Sensory adaptation is apparent when _____. ------------------------------------------------ your initial dive into a cold swimming pool gives your skin "goose bumps" sitting in a hot room causes you to sweat individuals who live in cold climates have fewer cold receptors in their skin water above a certain temperature stimulates pain receptors rather than temperature receptors a person is no longer aware of a heavy necklace that was put on earlier in the day
a person is no longer aware of a heavy necklace that was put on earlier in the day
Which of these traits is most strongly associated with the evolution of bipedal locomotion? having an opposable big toe free rotation at the shoulder a repositioning of the foramen magnum shortening of the hindlimbs relative to the forelimbs an increase in depth perception
a repositioning of the foramen magnum
depolarization (the action potential)
a stimulus opens some sodium channels - Na+ inflow through those channels depolarizes the membrane - if the depolarization reaches the threshold, it triggers an action potential
functions of glia
a. structural support b. maintenance of ionic compositions c. remove "extra" chemicals (neurotransmitters,...) following their release from neurons d. insulate neurons electrically e. formation of blood-brain barrier (astrocytes) f. provide a path for developing neurons g. secretion of compounds for neuronal maintenance h. participate in information flow in the nervous system
What are two components of ecology?
abiotic and biotic
In the equation, H^2 = Vg/Vp, a value of 0.5 means what?
about half of the variation in the trait is due to genetic variation, the other half is caused by variation in the environment
apical microvilli
absorptive area in receptor cells where most receptors/channels are located
Life Tables
accounting of births and deaths. used to calculate life expectancies, rates of increase. Type I,II,III curves.
The thin filaments of sarcomeres are mostly composed of _____. ------------------------------------------------ myofibrils actin motor neurons myosin Z lines
actin
indirect synaptic transmission
activation of 2nd messenger pathways - neurotransmitter binds to and activates a receptor that is not directly coupled with an ion channel
direct synaptic transmission
activation of ligand-gated ion channels - the postsynaptic effet (depolariazation/hyperpolarization) depends upon the permeability of the channel activated > comes in two basic types: 1. Excitatory (depolarization): Na+ channel & Ca2+ channel & cation-selective channel ==> moves the cell closer to threshold 2. Inhibatory (hyperpolarization): K+ channel & Cl- channel (most cells) ==> moves the cell further from threshold
cornea
acts as an initial fixed lens
A factor that regulates a population is generally one that: - interferes with mating success affects juvenile stages most strongly - causes proportionally more deaths when population density is low - causes a population to overshoot its carrying capacity - acts in a positively density-dependent way
acts in a positively density-dependent way
Natural selection is
adaptation: the process where a character is improved for a specific function. Morphological, physiological, behavioral, and life-history traits can all show adaptation
Neandertals may have been a source of both ________ & ________ for non-African environments
adaptive & non-adaptive alleles
Many processes can cause evolutionary change in populations, but there is only one process (natural selection), which produces
adaptive change
What does amine do?
affects brain chemistry?
Monoamine Oxidase genes affect the levels of what in humans?
aggression
The middle ear converts _____. ------------------------------------------------ air pressure waves to fluid pressure waves fluid pressure waves to nerve impulses fluid pressure waves to air pressure waves air pressure waves to nerve impulses
air pressure waves to fluid pressure waves
contraction of an individual muscle fiber is?
all-or-none event ("twitch")
action potentials
all-or-none, brief, regenerative changes in Vm - once generated, the magnitude of an action potential is the same - stronger stimuli generate higher frequency (#) of action potentials
Which of these causes the release of neurotransmitter molecules? --------------------------------------- the receipt of a signal from the postsynaptic neuron the opening of voltage-regulated calcium channels and the diffusion of calcium ions out of the neuron an action potential reaching the end of the cell body an action potential reaching the end of the axon an action potential reaching the end of the dendrite
an action potential reaching the end of the axon
middle ear
an air-filled pouch extending from the pharynx - to which it is connected by the eustachian tube - begins at the eardrum, or tympanic membrane - contains three bones called the ossicles: malleus, incus, and stapes -tympanic membrane ==> [ malleus ==> incus ==> stapes ] ==> oval window
gynandromorph
an individual organism that is part male and part female -results from incorrect division of sex chromosomes early in development
cation-selective channel
an ion channel that is permeable to BOTH Na+ and K+ equally
Delete
analysis of the fossil record
rheumatoid arthritis
antibodies against connective tissue in joints
autoantibodies
antibodies against own antigens
diabetes mellitus
antibodies against pancreatic ß cells
rheumatic fever
antibodies against pathogen attack antigen in the heart ==> heart damage
Grave's disease
antibodies against thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor (activation!)
humoral response
antibodies defend against infection in body fluids
plasma cells
antibody-producing cells that secrete antibodies during an active infection
complement proteins
antimicrobial protein -activated by pathogens to eventually lyse microbes or activate acquired immune responses
lysozyme
antimicrobial protein -digests cell walls of bacteria
interferons (α or β)
antimicrobial protein -produced by virus-infected cells that activate other defenses related to inhibition of viral reproduction
interferon (γ)
antimicrobial protein -secreted by lymphocytes that leads to macrophage activation
defensins
antimicrobial protein -secreted by macrophages - damage pathogens, leading to their destruction
What is an example of mutualistic interaction
ants tending a treehopper cow
What are hominoids?
apes including humans
How do distasteful or dangerous prey warn predators?
aposematic coloration
You should know the rough sequence of human evolution, what comes before what?
ardipeithecus came before australopithecus, etc.
What is the first taxon that is clearly on the branch that led to humans?
ardipithecus ramidus
Which list is in a correct chronological order, from earliest (oldest) to latest (youngest)? Dr. Messina is born, Cro-Magnon people, Australopithecus afarensis, Homo habilis, Dr. Gilbertson is born Ardipithecus ramidus, "Lucy", Neanderthals, Homo habilis, Homo sapiens none of these sequences is in a correct chronological order Ardipithecus ramidus, Australopithecus afarensis, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Cro-Magnon people Australopithecus afarensis, Homo ergaster, Homo habilis, Java man, Neanderthals
ardipithecus ramidus, australopithecus afarensis, homo habilis, homo erectus, cro-magnon people
virtually all species that have existed on earth...
are extinct
What is classical conditioning?
associate or pair one usually neutral stimulus with another, non-neutral stimulus
What was the most recent mass extinction?
asteroid hitting the earth
The biggest known mass extinction occurred: at the boundary between the Paleozoic and Mesozoic after the first Biol 1610 exam from Drs. Mott and Podgorski about 10,000 years ago at the boundary between the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic around 550 million years ago
at the boundary between the paleozoic and mesozoic
M line
attachment site for thick filaments
natural killer cells
attack virus-infected and cancerous cells by recognizing certain protein signatures on these cells and triggering apoptosis (cell death)
Where was the first large modern human migration from africa to?
australasia
failure of self-tolerance leads to...
autoimmune diseases
allopolyploidy is more common than autopolyploidy because...
autopolyploids often produce QUADRIVALENTS that mess up chromosomal segregation at meiosis
Generation time.
average time between birth of a female and the birth of her offspring.
What is an example of paedomorphosis?
axolot: retention of juvenile gills in adult
Why do Na+ ions enter the cell when voltage-gated Na+ channels are opened in neurons? --------------------------------------- because the Na+ concentration is much lower outside the cell than it is inside because the Na+ concentration is much higher outside the cell than it is inside, and the Na+ ions are actively transported by the sodium-potassium pump into the cell because the Na+ ions are actively transported by the sodium-potassium pump into the cell because the Na+ concentration is much higher outside the cell than it is inside, and the Na+ ions are attracted to the negatively charged interior
because the Na+ concentration is much higher outside the cell than it is inside, and the Na+ ions are attracted to the negatively charged interior
gene flow keeps populations from...
becoming different from each other genetically
What is organismal ecology?
behavioral; Focusing on particular organism and specific physiology/behaviors
Crossing over
between homologous chromosomes, this process mixing things up even more, the crossing over during meiosis.
class 1 MHC
bind peptides derived from foreign antigens (cells that have become cancerous/infected) - class 1 MHC are recognized by cytotoxic T cells, which kill the cell
What does furanocoumarin do?
binds to dna in cells
What is ecosystem ecology?
biogeochemistry, nutrient cycling, input of social energy
Are crocodilians more closely related to birds or reptiles?
birds
Are lizards and snakes are more closely related to turtles or birds?
birds
One sign that the Reptilia is a paraphyletic group is that crocodilians are more closely related to _______________ than they are to other reptiles. turtles fish birds politicians lizards
birds
birth rates
births/females in each age group
rods
black and white -high sensitivity to light; night vision; more numerous (20:1) -more photopigment; captures more light -low temporal resolution: slow response, long integration time -more sensitive to scattered light
rod system
black and white -low acuity: not present in central fovea -achromatic: one type of rod pigment
What is an example of animal behavior?
bleach-headed gulls removing egg shells from the nest
autoimmune disease
body makes antibodies against its own cells through T cell-activated B lymphocytes
fever production
body will respond to certain infections by setting the body's thermostat higher
osteichthyes
bony fish with paired lateral fins without bones
What is the Kill deers behaviorial defense against predators attacking its eggs?
broken wing display
How can interspecific interactions be classified
by their effects on population densities
what are secondary compounds?
by-products of major biochemical pathways
The release of _____ ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum is required for skeletal muscle contraction. ------------------------------------------------ sodium phosphate potassium chloride calcium
calcium
What are life tables used for?
calculate life expectancies of increase
density dependent population
can lead to population cycles. rises and drops in prey and predator.
mouse mesenchyme
can make birds grow teeth.
K
carrying capacity
What is an example of cryptic coloration?
caterpillar, leaf-tailed gecko
Evolution is continuous because of the
ceaseless replication of nucleic acids
synaptic transmission
cell-to-cell communication in the nervous system
Suppose a particular neurotransmitter causes an IPSP in postsynaptic cell X and an EPSP in postsynaptic cell Y. A likely explanation is that __________. --------------------------------------- only cell Y produces an enzyme that terminates the activity of the neurotransmitter cells X and Y express different receptor molecules for this particular neurotransmitter the threshold value in the postsynaptic membrane is different for cell X and cell Y the axon of cell X is myelinated, but that of cell Y is not
cells X and Y express different receptor molecules for this particular neurotransmitter
Mutation and recombination do not
change allele frequencies much over short time scales by themselves.
changes in Vm reflect...
changes in cell activity
macromutations
changes in chromosome or gene number 1. deletions 2. duplications 3. translocations 4. inversions 5. fusions
steroscopic color vision, bony orbits protect eyes, large brain size relative to body size, largely tree dwelling and tropical, opposable thumb and digits with independent mobility.
characteristics of primates
Which type of receptor would you expect to be most abundant in the antennae of a moth? ------------------------------------------------ thermoreceptors mechanoreceptors electroreceptors chemoreceptors
chemoreceptors
What is an example of animal cognition?
chimps in the wild learn to crack nuts by watching
autopolyploidy
chromosome duplication in a single species
taste buds
clustered in organelles containing ~100 taste receptor cells
unencapsulated lymphoid tissues
collection of immune cells in various tissues -include: tonsils, gut-associated lymphoid tissues, Peyer's patches
Certain mite species feed on nectar and are transported from flower to flower via the nostrils of hummingbirds. Because mites neither harm nor benefit hummingbirds, this interaction is described as: -Competition - Mutualism - Amensalism -Parasitism -Commensalism
commensalism
What interaction causes +,0?
commensalism
What interaction causes -,-?
competition
What is animal cognition?
complex form of learning that involves reasoning, problem solving, judgment
When an action potential from a motor neuron arrives at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), a series of events occurs that leads to muscle contraction. Which of the following events will occur last (that is, after all of the others)? ------------------------------------------------ acetylcholine (ACh) release depolarization of the muscle cell conformational change in troponin release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
conformational change in troponin
lymph nodes
contains immune cells to trap pathogens
transduction
conversion of energy from one form to another
What is an example of detoxification?
converting nicotine to nornicotine
Evolutionary Biology
core, unifying concept for biology, understanding the four forces and how they work. Evolutionary perspective is needed for a complete perspective and a deep understanding.
What is an example of evolution in predation?
cryptic coloration
What can cause major changes in human behavior over short time-scales?
culture
What is trenching?
cutting into a plant to relieve pressure and feed
cell-mediated response
cytotoxic cells defend against infection in body cells
What is the equation if a population grows exponentially?
dN/dt = bN - dN
What is the equation for a carrying capacity?
dN/dt = r*N * [(K-N)/K]
death rates
deaths/ population in each age group
Wat is altruistic behavior
decrease the fitness of individual expressing the behavior but benefit other individuals
What does alkaloid do?
defense against malaria
What is a factor that keeps a population regulated?
density of population
rising phase of the action potential (the action potential)
depolarization opens most sodium channels, while the potassium channels remain closed - Na+ influx makes the inside of the membrane positive with respect to the outside
T lymphocytes (T cells)
derived from lymphocytes that have migrated to the thymus gland from the bone marrow -participate in cell-mediated immunity
What is paedomorphosis?
descendant is less developed for a character than the ancestor was because of a slowing down of the expression of regulatory genes
Evolution
descent with modification, The change in allele and genotype frequencies between generations; changes in the genetic composition of populations Cumulative changes in traits, can lead to new species, diversification
the nernst equation
describes the equilibrium potential for any ion (Ex) based upon charge and concentration gradients
What do chemical defense do?
deter feeding, interfere with digestion, act as a toxin
How does the golden poison frog get its toxins?
diet
sexual dimorphism
differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species - males have the trait in question
Anisogamy
different sizes (investment) per gamete (big eggs, small sperm)
In a species that experiences gene flow, if the rate of migration is low, then
differentiation will occur.
What adaptations to boreal and complex social life do primates have?
digits with mobility, opposable thumbs, flat nails, no claws, sensitive fingers, complex facia musculature, half-turn rotation at elbow, free rotation of shoulder
Intrasexual selection
direct competition for mates between members of the same sex, usually male-male competition
three modes of selection
directional (====>), stabilizing (==> <==), disruptive (<== ==>)
Three modes of selection
directional, stabilizing, disruptive
antimicrobial proteins
directly attack pathogens or interfere with their reproduction
Acanthostega and Icthyostega showed the development of which characteristics?
distal element (autopod) and polydactyly
the fossil record indicates major periods of...
diversification and extinction
What is an example of classical conditioning?
dog salivated at the ring of a bell
What were some characteristics of cynodont
dog teeth
Genotypes leaving more offspring will
dominate future populations
What was human exponential growth fueled by?
drop in death rates: better nutrition and medical care, lower infant mortality
haplorhines
dry nosed- tarsiiformes and anthropoldea.
why are ion distriubutions across the cell unequal?
due to the activity of the Na-K pump
chemical synapses
electrical activity in one neuron (the presynaptic cell) is conveyed to another (the postsynaptic cell) by release of a chemical messenger between them - more common
What are some traits of the australopithecine africanus?
endocranial volume getting bigger, foramen magnum moved under head
chordates
endoskeleton of calcified bones or cartilage often joined together by ligaments or to muscles by tendons
Mitochondria originated from
endosymbiosis of an aerobic heterotrophic prokaryote
What is landscape and global ecology?
environmental sciences, climate models
acheulean tools were used by which homo species?
erectus
systematics
establishes genealogical relationships among organisms by reconstructing phylogenies
everything in biology is the product of...
evolution
what is the single unifying concept for biology?
evolution
we rely on the fossil record for...
evolution in the lineage that led to H. sapiens
what kind of perspective is needed for a complete understanding of any biological phenomenon?
evolutionary perspective
Character Displacement
evolve to compete less, create less overlap, so that they use different resources. an evolutionary response to chronic competition.
What were some characteristics of the basilosaurus?
external hind limbs
What are some characteristics of ardipithecus ramidus?
facultatively bipedal, good tree climber, grasping big toe, woodland omnivore, reduced canines
All primates have stereoscopic, trichromatic color vision. True False
false
True or false: amensalism is one form of competition
false
True or false: if something is paedomorphosis, it does not have to be a type of heterchrony too
false
True or false: imprinting is reversible
false
True or false: mammals did not coexist with dinosaurs
false
true or false: species interactions don't affect local species diversity
false
Of three major characteristics of modern mammals - hair, mammary glands, and live births - mammary glands evolved last. True False
false, live birth evolved last
An iteroparous organism is defined as an organism that lives for more than one year. True False
false; Breeds multiple times in a lifetime
Plants and fungi are more closely related to each other than either one is to animals. True False
false; Fungi is more closely related to animals than to plants
A population will grow as long as its net replacement rate, R0, is greater than zero. True False
false; must be greater than 1
stabilizing selection
favors intermediate variants and acts against extreme phenotypes
What characteristics did the Archaeipteryx lithographica have?
feathers like birds, bones tail.
What are some characteristics of the robust australopithecines?
fed on rough material, large jaw muscles, sagittal crests, small brains
postzygotic isolating mechanism
fertilization occurs, but hybrids are inviable or infertile or breakdown after only a few generations
What are some density-dependent factors?
food and water resources predation vector-transmitted diseases territorial behavior toxic wastes
Examples of positively dependent factors
food and water, predation, disease, territorial behavior, toxic waste.
Net Replacement rate
for every age class multiply proportion(Ix) and offspring(Mx) and then add up total (SUM(I*M))How you know whether a population is growing (>1), shrinking (<1) or staying the same (=1)
Why do organisms retain genes
for making structures no longer found in their lineage - pseudogenes
Deliberately shaped or flaked stone tools have been made by various Homo species: - since about 40,000 years ago - for over 2 million years - since about the time Dr. Gilbertson took his first high-school shop class - for the last 10,000 years since about 500,000 years ago
for over 2 million years
electrical synapses (gap junctions)
formed by proteins called connexons present in both cells - provide a direct connection between cells allowing electrical signals to pass between them > very fast > very reliable > limited flexibility
what tells us the sequence of evolutionary events that led to the tetrapod limb?
fossil record and gene action
The _____ is the region of the eye where photoreceptors are most highly concentrated. ------------------------------------------------ lens fovea optic nerve pupil sclera
fovea
What are some characteristics of orangutan?
fruit eaters, not as social, on forest floor occasionally, lengthened palm,
How did mammals evolve?
fur mammary glands live birth
pseudogenes
genes for making structures no longer found in an organisms lineage
What are regulatory genes?
genes that produce transcription factors and expression
In a species that experiences gene flow, if the rate of migration is high, then
genetics will converge
allopatric speciation
geographical separation; occurs in many ways: glaciation, drying out, other climate, island colonization
Golden Poison frog
gets toxins from diet, enough alkaloid to kill 10,000 mice.
What are examples of tiktaalik?
gills, scales, and fins like a fish -- but flattened head, eyes and nostrils on top, and a neck
If natural selection is acting ____________, gene flow speeds up natural selection
globally
G-actin
globular, units form helical structure F-actin (filamentous)
Which of these is not a plant secondary compound? these are all plant secondary compounds alkaloid furanocoumarin cardenolide glucose
glucose
AMPA
glutamate receptor: cation-selective channel (Na, K)
NMDA
glutamate receptor: permeable to Na, K, & Ca; active only when BOTH glutamate is bound and the cell is depolarized (by AMPA receptors)
sour
good and bad
biological species
group of populations which can interbreed but are reproductively isolated from other such groups
taxonomy is...
groups within groups
oldowan tools
habilis
Which of the following sensory receptors is correctly paired with its category? ------------------------------------------------ hair cell - mechanoreceptor rod - chemoreceptor muscle spindle - electromagnetic receptor taste receptor - mechanoreceptor
hair cell - mechanoreceptor
During an auditory transduction, ion flow varies across the _____. - basilar membrane - round-window membrane - tectorial membrane -hair cell membrane
hair cell membrane
About how many of the 800 olfactory receptor gene isn humans are turned off?
half
Brachiation
hand over hand swinging motion
social complex facial muculaturee
happy and sad face. showing emotions through facial expressions.
endoskeleton
hard, supporting structures (i.e. bones) encased in the soft tissues of an animal
sex that invests more per offspring...
has fewer reproductive opportunities -1. is expected to be "choosier" -2. becomes a limiting resource for the opposite sex
Keystone Species
have dramatic effect on whole ecological community, when present or extinct. allow predator-mediated coexistince.
What are some clear adaptations of modern humans
heigh, lactose digestion, cold tolerance, malaria resistance, skin color,
sexual selection arises from...
heritable differences in the ability to find and mate with members of the opposite sex
An evolutionary change in the timing or rate of development is called: -isogamy -anisogamy -heterochrony -homoplasy -allopatry
heterochrony
What is an example of peramorphosis?
high brain/body size ration in humans
type 3 survivorship curve
high death rates for the young and a lower death rate for survivors (clams)
unlike most neurons, olfactory receptor neurons have...
high intracellular [Cl-] - this makes ECl more positive than Vm ==> opening a Cl- channels depolarizes the cell
inhalation of antigens can trigger...
histamine release ==> stuffy nose, etc...
Evolutionary biology differs from other areas of biology because of the central role of
history--historical pathways that led to characteristics of modern organisms
pupil
hole in the center that allows light in - diamter determined by iris
Gibbons
hominoid. 12 species, eat fruit and are social.
What genus homo was the first to leave africa?
homo erectus
Characters that are shared because of convergent evolution represent: atavisms homoplasy allopatry homology heterochrony
homoplasy
inbreeding increases
homozygotes
pitch or frequency
human ear: sensitive from 20-20,000 Hz -most acute 1000-3000 Hz
Stylopod
humerus and femur.
stylopod
humerus/femur
types of skeletons
hydrostatic, exoskeleton, endoskeleton, sponges, echinoderms, chordates
Rods exposed to light will _____. ------------------------------------------------ hyperpolarize due to the closing of sodium channels hyperpolarize due to the closing of potassium channels depolarize due to the opening of potassium channels depolarize due to the opening of sodium channels
hyperpolarize due to the closing of sodium channels
How can truly altruistic behaviors spread?
if recipients of benefits are close relatives, who also carry copies of altruism gene
developmental biology
important tool for reconstructing paths of change and for understanding how a genetic change leads to a change in the phenotype. early developmental stages are conserved. tells us about homologous characters.
A survivorship curve that first rises steeply and then drops at later ages is: - impossible - a Type III curve - a Type II curve - a Type I curve - a sure sign of an impending apocalypse
impossible. Survivorship must start at the top and can only go down from there (As a general rule).
oldest skeletal material suggests the earliest evolution of AMH was...
in Africa > 200,000 years ago
A graded hyperpolarization of a membrane can be induced by _____. - increasing its membrane's permeability to Ca++ - decreasing its membrane's permeability to Cl- - increasing its membrane's permeability to Na+ - increasing its membrane's permeability to K+
increasing its membrane's permeability to K+
shared, derived characters (morphological or molecular)
indicate genealogical relationships
The two sexes can be determined by
individual sex chromosomes, sets of chromosomes, individual genes, the environment, etc.
the two sexes can be determined by...
individual sex chromosomes, sets of chromosomes, individual genes, the environment, etc.
allergy
inflammatory immune system response to a nonpathogenic antigen
antigen-presenting cells
ingest molecular and cellular antigen and express parts on their cell surface
spatial summation
input from multiple other cells adding together
sympatric speciation
interruption of gene flow without geographic separation
helper T cells
involved in most antigenic responses
One of the fundamental processes by which memories are stored and learning takes place _____. is related to changes in the degree of myelination of axons results in an increase in the diameter of axons involves two types of glutamate receptors results in a shift from aerobic to anaerobic respiration in neurons
involves two types of glutamate receptors
the receptors for taste are...
ion channels or g-protein coupled receptors
Stabilizing graph
is the as you get it away it doesn't go up, fitness rises slowly as is get bigger and comes down rapidly, doesn't have to be symmetrical
Which is not true of the logistic model of population growth? it includes the concept of a carrying capacity it assumes that r is constant it produces an s-shaped curve it assumes that K decreases as population size becomes larger it predicts an equilibrium population size
it assumes that K decreases as population size becomes larger
If natural selection is acting ____________, gene flow interferes with natural selection
locally
long term potentiation (LTP)
long lasting changes in how the synapse responds (lasts hours ==> days ==> weeks ==> ...)
What are some characteristics of australopithecus afarensis?
lacked cranial material, strong adaptation to partially bipedality, vertebral column in between ape and human, lack of splayed big toe
The FOXP2 gene is an important transcription factor for:
language develoment
What are some charactetistics of mammaliaform?
large brain to body size, jaw bones in back of jaw
The dopamine D2 Receptor gene leads to variation among humans in the ability to:
learn from mistakes
What is a type 1 survivorship curve?
little juvenile mortality, and then a big drop off
sarcopterygians
lobe-finned fishes with proximal osseous elements (stylopod)
gene flow prevents...
local adaptation
class 2 MHC
made by antigen-presenting cells (dendritic cells, B cells, macrophages), which are capable of ingesting and presenting foreign antigens - these class 2 MHC are recognized by helper T cells, which activate other immune cells
myelin sheath
made of oligodendrocytes and schwann cells, insulate the axon
Z line
made of proteins that attach to actin, defines the basic unit of contraction, the sacromere
retina
made up of cells involved in phototransduction -ganglion cell layers -interneuron layer -photoreceptors
loudness
measured in decibels -conversation: 60 dB - >80 dB sustained ==> damage - =120 dB: jet engine, concert
hearing and balance
mechanoreception: produce receptor potentials in response to membrane fluid distortion
A sensory transduction in the auditory system is much like transduction of _____. - odorant molecules binding to receptor proteins on olfactory neurons - hormones binding to receptor proteins - visual stimuli by rods in the retina mechanosensory stimuli - sweet-tasting molecules binding to receptor proteins on the tongue
mechanosensory stimuli
natural selection does not lead to...
optimal design, it acts on only what is available right now
tikktalik
morphological bridge between fin and limb.
What is tiktaalik?
morphological bridge between lobe-finned fishes and tetrapods
What is a type 3 survivorship curve?
mortality especially concentrated in early stages
neutrophils
most abundant of the white blood cells (50-70%) -are phagocytic, ingesting 5-20 bacteria during their 1-2 day lifespan -release a number of cytokines, including pyrogens and those involved in the inflammatory response
falling phase of the action potential (the action potential)
most sodium channels become inactivated, blocking Na+ inflow - most potassium channels open, permitting K+ outflow, which makes the inside of the cell negative again
The thick filaments of sarcomeres are composed of _____. ------------------------------------------------ myofibrils actin motor neurons myosin Z lines
myosin
The contraction of skeletal muscles is based on _____. ------------------------------------------------ myosin filaments coiling up to become shorter myosin cross-bridges binding to actin and transitioning from a high-energy to a low-energy state actin cross-bridges binding to myosin and transitioning from a high-energy to a low-energy state actin and myosin filaments both coiling up to become shorter
myosin cross-bridges binding to actin and transitioning from a high-energy to a low-energy state
The only process able to produce adaptive change is
natural selection
The only process that produces adaptive change is
natural selection
the only process that produces adaptive change is
natural selection
Mousterian stone tools are associated with: Homo erectus Homo habilis Neanderthals Black & Decker Homo sapiens
neanderthals
What are platyrrhines?
new world monkeys
platyrhines
new world monkeys (an anthropoid) -dichromatic color vision -prehensile tail -2.1.3.3 (3 premolars)
What are some characteristics of catarrhines?
no prehensile tail, 2 premolars, narrow nasal septum
age structure
no. of individuals at each age
Why do we need biosynthetic materials?
organic raw materials (carbon skeletons; nitrogen) to synthesize own molecules
the fossil record is biased toward...
organisms that fossilize well, but provides the major patterns of evolution in increasing detail
natural selection can sometimes cause...
non-adaptive change (indirectly)
A population in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is defined as being a
non-evolving population; allele and genotype frequencies will remain constant between generations
What is an example of batesian mimicry?
non-stinging flies
What could happen if you reproduce too much?
offspring could die, and you could die as well because there is too much invested
What are cercopithecoids?
old world monkeys
What are catarrhines?
old world monkeys and apes
Most of the chemosensory neurons arising in the nasal cavity have axonal projections that terminate in the _____. - gustatory complex - posterior pituitary gland - olfactory bulb - occipital lobe
olfactory bulb
The "motor unit" in vertebrate skeletal muscle refers to _____. ------------------------------------------------ one motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers on which it has synapses one myofibril and all of its sarcomeres one actin binding site and its myosin partner one sarcomere and all of its actin and myosin filaments
one motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers on which it has synapses
What is combined culture?
one shows logistic growth and the other goes extinct
Which of the following will increase the speed of an action potential moving down an axon? I) Action potentials move faster in larger diameter axons. II) Action potentials move faster in axons lacking potassium ion channels. III) Action potentials move faster in myelinated axons.
only I and III
The cochlea _____. I) amplifies sound vibrations II) collects sound pressure waves III) detects the frequency of sounds
only II and III
how does a cation-selective channel lead to cell depolarization?
opening a cation-selective ion channel from rest ==> drives the membrane potential (Vm) toward 0 mV (depolarization above threshold!) ==> cell activation!
What are two kinds of heterchrony?
paedomoprhosis and peramorphosis
the axolotl is an example of?
paedomorphosis
The geologic era between 550 and 250 million years is called the: Cenozoic Hoglezooic Phanerozoic Mesozoic Paleozoic
paleozoic
Gas exchange occurs across the _____________ in birds.
parabronchi
Why can behaviors be modified by natural selection?
partial genetic basis
spatial subdivision examples
patchy food and nesting sites
Spacial subdivision
patchy foods, nesting sites or other habitat features. How much gene flow is occurring
What are "bee guides"
patterns on the flower under UV light to direct bee to where the pollen is
high brain/body size ratio in humans is an example of?
peramorphosis
internal defenses
phagocytic cells, natural killer cells, antimicrobial proteins, inflammatory response 1. phagocytosis 2. fever production 3. antimicrobial proteins 4. inflammatory response 5. natural killer cells
how hangingflies (female) choose their mate
pick males by the amount of food the male is bringing her. It will also depend on how long they will stay together by how much food he brings, she will eat while the copulation occurs. The longer you copulate the more sperm that will be transferred Also looks at the size and quality of the food he brings
What is an example of aposematic coloration?
poison dart frog
allopolyploidy
polyploidy resulting from contribution of chromosomes from two or more species
Delete
population is increasing
What is population ecology?
population level
synaptic integration (summation)
postsynaptic neurons sum up all their inputs in both time (temporal summation) and in space (spatial summation)
predation
powerful agent for the evolution of prey defenses.
What is a key stone species
presence greatly affects other local species
innate immunity
present before pathogenic invasion; effective before birth; non-specific; rapid response
adaptation
process where a character is improved for specific function
What is pleiotropy?
production of a single gene of two or more apparently unrelated effects
What is heritability?
proportion of total phenotypic variation caused by underlying genetic variation
Which taxon is paraphyletic? birds hominoids crocodiles mammals protists
protists
Later amphibians showed the development of what characteristics?
proximal autopod elements (carpals)
What are the two types of behavior?
proximate vs. ultimate causation
What name is given to the opening that allows light into the interior of the eye? ------------------------------------------------ sclera pupil ligament optic nerve retina
pupil
unami
recognition of amino acids (protein)
sweet
recognition of carbohydrates
salty
recognition of minerals
lymphocytes
recognize specific antigens -have membrane receptors that react to only one type of pathogen
What is developmental biology an important tool for?
reconstructing paths of change and for understanding how a genetic change leads to a change in the phenotype. Understanding developmental pathways and how they change, particularly with respect to regulatory genes
A nerve poison that blocks acetylcholine receptors on dendrites would _____. - inhibit the regeneration of acetylcholine for use by the presynaptic terminals - inactivate acetylcholinesterase, allowing acetylcholine to persist in the synapse - reduce the binding of acetylcholine to its receptors on the postsynpatic membrane - cause continued stimulation of the postsynaptic membrane cause an immediate and enduring depolarization
reduce the binding of acetylcholine to its receptors on the postsynpatic membrane
Rods and cones are similar in that they both _____. ------------------------------------------------ respond to all wavelengths of light release glutamate as the primary neurotransmitter use photopsins as the visual pigments in both rods and cones fire action potentials when exposed to light depolarize when exposed to light
release glutamate as the primary neurotransmitter
spleen
removes damaged red blood cells via phagocytosis and contains immune cells to trap pathogens
semelparity
reproduction in which an organism produces all of its offspring in a single event
What was the archaeopteryx lithographic a mixture of?
reptilian and bird
You can't predict which genotype will have optimal fitness without
research
thermoreceptors
respond to changes in temperature (hot or cold)
chemoreceptors
respond to chemicals -taste -smell -osmoreceptors -carotid body receptors
electromagnetic receptors
respond to light or electromagnetic fields -vision -electromagnetic fields
nociceptors
respond to noxious stimuli -pain (tissue damage)
adaptive immunity
responds after exposure to pathogen; very specific to the pathogen; slower response
transitional species can be only identified...
retrospectively
photopigment in rods
rhodopsin
What is a type 2 survivorship curve?
same chance of dying in every age class
The sense described as umami is one of _____. ------------------------------------------------ flavors of oak barrels in wine incoming nutrients at the level of the small intestine savory and delicious sensation on the tongue olfactory essence of chocolate a burning sensation associated with chili peppers
savory and delicious sensation on the tongue
COMT, G72 among many genes that influence the risk of what?
schizophrenia
taxonomy
scientific naming and classifying of organisms
What name is given to the tough layer that forms the "white" of the eye? ------------------------------------------------ blind spot choroid fovea sclera aqueous humor
sclera
What is a chemical defense for plant?
secondary compounds
chemical herbivore defense
secondary compounds (by-products of major biochemical pathways) deter predation. Deter feeding, interfere with digestion, or are toxic. Examples: alkaloids, latex, waxes, toxins.
clonal expansion
selective proliferation and differentiation of lymphocytes that occurs the first time the body is exposed to a particular antigen (primary immune response)
statocyst
sensory organ that contains ciliated receptor cells that respond to mechanical deformation (invertebrates)
A thermosensory neuron in the skin converts heat energy to nerve impulses via a conversion called _____. - reception - sensory transduction - perception - integration - sensation
sensory transduction
What is a fundamental niche
set of environment conditions and resources within which the population can sustain a positive growth rate
Fundamental Niche
set of environmental conditions and resources within which the population can sustain a positive growth rate.
Homology
shared characters representing common ancestry. Ex: limbs on humans, cats, whales.
contraction
shortens the muscle, placing force on the tendons, pulling the more movable bone inward
What is a decent summary of "lucy" and other afarnesis:
shorter than humans, more sexually dimorphic, ape like protecting jaw, more muscular, mixed bipedal, curved phalanges, made stone tools, brain size relative to body size
What is separate cultures?
show logistic growth to maybe half of what they would grow to if growing alone
What are fixed-action patterns triggered by?
sign stimulus or releaser
Which combination of characters best describes the genus Paranthropus: small brain, makes far too many lame jokes, enjoys teaching Biol 1620 small brain, small teeth, obligate bipedalism small brain, small teeth, quadrupedalism small brain, very large teeth, facultative bipedalism large brain, small teeth, obligate bipedalism
small brain, very large teeth, facultative bipedalism
taste receptor cells reside primarily in the tongue, but are also in the...
soft palate, esophagus, epiglottis, and larynx in significant numbers
Detoxification enzymes
some insects are able to convert nicotine to nornicotine is an example. organism takes a toxin and converts it to a nontoxin.
Brassica oleracea
source of distinct cultivars in Europe All these vegetables have arrived from the same branch You can show genetically that all this genetic variation came from one wild species
Fire Salamander
sprays neurotoxin at 300 cm/sec. irritates mucus membranes and can cause convulsions.
What are some characteristics of primates?
stereoscopic color vision, large brain relative to body size, largely tree-dwelling and tropicall
toxic or distasteful prey
stick out with colors, use aposematic colors as warning.
The correct sequence of sensory processing is _____. ------------------------------------------------ sensory adaptation → stimulus reception → sensory transduction sensory perception sensory perception → stimulus reception → sensory transduction sensory adaptation stimulus reception → sensory transduction → sensory perception sensory adaptation stimulus reception → sensory perception → sensory adaptation sensory transduction
stimulus reception → sensory transduction → sensory perception sensory adaptation
Postively density dependent factor
stronger effects on mortality as population size increases, therefore can regulate population, keeping it in upper and lower bounds.
recruitment
stronger input activates more "motor units"
Organismal ecology
study of individuals in a species.
What is ecology?
study of interactions between organisms and their environment
Population Ecology
study of species as a whole. How can we describe a population? is it growing or shrinking and why?
Demography
study of the vital statistics of a population. (age structure, birth rates, death rates, genration time per age class).
What order did the tetrapod limb evolve in? stylopid, autopod, zuegopod zeugopod, stylopod, autopod stylopid, zeugopod, autopod autopod, zeugopod, stylopid
stylopod zeugopod autopod
Ecological niches
sum total of the organisms use of biotic and abiotic components. what resources are needed and how.
role of the skeleton
support, protection, and movement
sponges
supported by hard particles of inorganic material, called spicules
CD4
surface protein - takes part in stimulating cytokine release
The "undershoot" phase of after-hyperpolarization is due to _____. --------------------------------------- slow restorative actions of the sodium-potassium ATPase slow opening of voltage-gated sodium channels sustained opening of voltage-gated potassium channels rapid opening of voltage-gated calcium channels
sustained opening of voltage-gated potassium channels
The space between an axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron is called a(n) _____. --------------------------------------- synaptic cleft node of Ranvier internodes synapse synaptic terminal
synaptic cleft
Neurons store neurotransmitter molecules in vesicles located within _____. the cell body myelin the synaptic cleft dendrites synaptic terminals
synaptic terminals
Primate phylogeny indicates that the sister group to the anthropoids is the group that contains the: platyrhines strepsirhines tarsiers catarrhines cercopithecoids
tarsiers
trenching
technique to use mandibles to cut stem and drain out resin canals
When two excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) occur at a single synapse so rapidly in succession that the postsynaptic neuron's membrane potential has not returned to the resting potential before the second EPSP arrives, the EPSPs add together producing _____. --------------------------------------- tetanus spatial summation temporal summation the refractory state
temporal summation
stylopod, zeugopod, autopod.
tetrapod limbs
What is considered exponential growth?
the a population doubles in shorter amounts of time
Selection can change either _______________, ______________, or both
the average value of a character; the amount of variation in the character
If all 3 conditions of natural selection are satisfied, then
the average value of the trait, or the amount of variation in the trait, will be different among the offspring than it was among the parent generation
how are different frequencies (pitch) detected?
the basilar membrane. Narrow at base and wide at end to detect different frequencies.
The example of character displacement discussed in class involved: the locations of two barnacle species in the intertidal protection of acacia trees by associated ants the bill sizes of Galapagos finches the population growth of two Paramecium species the interaction between egrets and large ungulates
the bill sizes of galapagos finches
acquired (adaptive) immune responses are those in which...
the body recognizes a specific foreign substance and selectively reacts to it; mediated by lymphocytes
changes at the synapse
the cellular basis for learning & memory
nodes of ranvier
the clustered location of ion channels that contribute to the generation of action potentials
neuronal plasticity
the connections between neurons can be either strengthened or weakened due to activity of the the synapse
natural selection depends on...
the current environmental challenges and the type and amount of genetic variation that is available to respond to current environments
Statistics comparing relative replacement rates of different genotypes are comparing
the fitness differences between the genotypes
speciation requires...
the formation of mechanisms of reproductive isolation
neurons
the functional unit of the nervous system - recieve and transmit information
resting state (the action potential)
the gated Na+ and K+ channels are closed - ungated channels maintain the resting potential
Which taxonomic group does not contain humans? Hominoids Catarrhines Haplorhines Anthropoids the human species is included in all of these groups
the human species is included in all of these groups
proximate causation
the immediate or short-term cause of something -"how" questions
Independent segregation
the random division of maternal and paternal chromosomes into gametes during meiosis
insect hearing
the majority of insects have body surfaces covered with hairs of varying length & thickness that vibrate frequencies -specific stimuli activate specific types of hairs that are coupled to activation of mechanosensitive channels at their base -tympanic membrane
Hair cells in the vertebrate ear are responsible for transducing sound pressure waves. Ion channels in the hair cell membrane open when _____. - a chemical ligand binds to the ion channel - light is absorbed by a molecule in the membrane - the cell membrane reaches a threshold voltage -the membrane is distorted mechanically
the membrane is distorted mechanically
ciliated receptor cells
the membranes causing depolarization - this gives the animal an indication of their orientation is space
saltatory conducion
the myelin sheath and clustering of ion channels causes the action potential to "jump" from node to node - unmyelinated vertebrate axons: ~1 m/s - myelinated vertabrate axons: up to 120 m/s
During the course of muscle contraction the potential energy stored in ATP is transferred to potential energy stored in _____. - the myosin head - the myosin tail - the thin filament - actin - the Z line
the myosin head
After the depolarization phase of an action potential, the resting potential is restored by _____. - a brief inhibition of the sodium-potassium pump - the opening of voltage-gated potassium channels and the closing of sodium channels - a decrease in the membrane's permeability to potassium and chloride ions - the opening of more voltage-gated sodium channels
the opening of voltage-gated potassium channels and the closing of sodium channels
epitope
the part of an antigen molecule where the lymphocyte is (and eventually the antibody binds)
statoliths
the particles within the statocyst that move and settle to the lowest point - they distort membranes leading to depolarization
Many features of organisms, including humans, reflect . . .
the particular history of their lineages
the basis for all electrical signaling in the nervous system lies in the fact that...
the permeability of the cell membrane to various ions can change and with it, there are changes in Vm - the membrane potential!
The single-gene mutation rate is very low, but
the probability that a mutation occurs somewhere in the genome (the genome-wide rate) is not so low: If Drosophilia has 10^4 functioning genes, and the average rate of a mutation which affects the phenotype is 10^-5 per gene, then the probability of a mutation somewhere in the genome is 10^4 x 10^-5 = 0.1, or 10%
accommodation
the process by which the lens changes shape to keep images in focus - contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscles alters the shape of the lens (rounder for close objects)
summation
the process of combining individual twitches, which is due largely to the arrival of additional nerve impulses before the previous contraction has subsided, and the resulting inability of the SR to keep up with increases in [Ca2+]
Of these events, the first to occur when a motor neuron stops sending an impulse to a muscle is _____. the pumping of calcium ions out of the cytoplasm and back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum the release of myosin heads from the thin filament thin filaments slide back to their relaxed positions proteins on the thin filaments block actin's myosin-binding sites all of these events occur simultaneously
the pumping of calcium ions out of the cytoplasm and back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
For a population in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, allele and genotype frequencies will remain constant between generations, despite
the reshuffling of genes during the formation of gametes (meiosis) and during sexual reproduction
there is more genetic diversity from mtDNA in African than...
the rest of the world combined
paedomorphosis
the retention in an adult organism of the juvenile features of its evolutionary ancestors
What is a realized niche
the set of environments that a population actually occupies
Realized niche
the set of environments that a population actually occupies. can be smaller than normal if population is excluded by competitors or natural enemies.
speed of conduction
the size (diameter) of an axon influences how fast the action potentials can spread
undershoot (the action potential)
the sodium channels close, but some potassium channels are still open - as these potassium channels close and the sodium channels become unblocked (though still closed), the membrane returns to its resting state
The net replacement rate, R0, is calculated as: the sum of the instantaneous rate of increase plus the carrying capacity none of these answers is correct the sum of lx values divided by mx values for each age class all age-specific survival values plus all age-specific fecundity values the sum of age-specific survival times age-specific fecundity for each age class
the sum of age-specific survival times age-specific fecundity for each age class
Pisaster sea stars were called a keystone species because: they were the most ecologically abundant species they formed a mutualistic interaction with mussels they were the top predator in the community their removal greatly reduced species diversity they fed on both herbivores and other carnivores
their removal greatly reduced species diversity
sliding filament theory
theory on the mechanism for muscle contraction
1° lymphoid tissues
thymus gland & bone marrow (long bones) ==> produce immune cells
Convergent evolution
traits in two or more organisms appear to be similar, but evolved independently. Ex: tasmanian tiger. happens because of homoplasmy.
Life History Traits
traits that affect a populations schedule of births & deaths. Ex: life span, litter size, age of first reproduction, number of reproductive bouts.
Stimuli alter the activity of excitable sensory cells and generate action potentials via _____. ------------------------------------------------ transmission transduction amplification integration
transduction
What is an example of a herbivore showing counter-adaptation?
trenching
What type of vision do catarrhines have?
trichromatic color vision
True or false: animals and fungi are more closely related
true
True or false: hominoids have very sophisticated locomotion through trees
true
True or false: prey and predator populations are linked to each other
true
True or false: the Australiopithecus sediba shared more derived features with early homo species than any other australopithecine?
true
True or false: the Australopithecus sediba lived fairly recently in south africa
true
macroevolutionary studies
try to reconstruct the actual history of life on earth
The major migration from Siberia caused what?
two different genetic groups as they were isolated from each other
Competitive exclusion
two species compete so much for same resources that they can't co-exist.
cell-mediated immunity
type of immunity produced by T cells that attack infected or abnormal body cells
What causes range expansions or contractions?
understanding the dynamics of invasive species or endangered species
inner ear
vibrations transmitted from the stapes to the oval window cause fluid movements within the chambers in the COCHLEA -waves of fluid movements travel through the COCHLEA in the VESTIBULAR CANAL and back through the TYMPANIC CANAL where the pressure is dissipated at the ROUND WINDOW -as these pressure waves travel through the cochlea membranes within the ORGAN OF CORTI vibrate at the same frequency as the incoming sound
Phanerozoic Eon
virtually all fossils of multicellular organisms from the last 550 million years -the last of the 4 eons
To understand why a population is growing or not, we need to know its
vital statistics
vulcanism
volcanic activity
What was the biggest mass extinction caused by?
vulcanism
we call transitional species "transitional" because...
we know how the lineage later evolved
toxic avoidance
we recognize and reject those things which could potentially harm us
nutrient recognition
we respond to those things we need in our diet to survive
Strepirhines
wet nosed- lorises, galagos, lemurs.
embryonic tail
what do all hominods have as an embryo and lose as they develop?
siberia migration wave.
what single migration wave went to americas 23,000 years ago?
passive immunity
when a person is given anitbodies (Abs) made by another organism -considered passive because own cells do not produce antibodies against the pathogen
stromatolites
when bacteria die and leave successive generations of decomposed bacteria that form columns of mass
sexual selection
when individuals select mates based on heritable traits
resting potential
when neurons are not actively signaling (-60mV to -80mV)
axon hillock
where info from the dendrites accumulates
The chance a mutation will occur is not affected by . . .
whether or not it is advantageous to the organism (mutations arise stochastically)
ultimate causation
why something exists the way it does in the first place - and not some other way -"why" questions
How do foraging worker honeybees know where to look for pollen and nectar?
will dance at the degree from the sun, using that angle to direct waggle dance to food
Are pheromones usually apart of the olfactory system?
yes, although they don't have to be
Most cells have a Ecl where?
~ -83 mV