Biology 1620 Final - Spring 2018 - USU - Gilbertson/Messina

¡Supera tus tareas y exámenes ahora con Quizwiz!

What does the epithelium of the intestine secret?

Number of digestive enzymes (some, bound)

We respond to those things we need in our diet to survive

Nutrient recognition

Negative feedback takes you back to a _____________.

Set point

What is homology

Shared characters from similar ancestors

Homoplasy

Shared characters not because of common ancestor, but independent evolution.

Primate Characteristics

Stereoscopic, color vision. Bony orbits protect eyes. Large brain:body Tree dwelling (arboreal) tropical

Is the base of the basilar membrane stiff or flexible?

Stiff

What causes presbyopia?

Stiffening of the lens

What is the process of sensory transduction?

Stimulus -> Convert Stimulus into electrical signal -> Convert into secondary messenger (Ca2+) -> Afferent neurons into CNS

What is the progression from stimulus to change in activity of a cell?

Stimulus -> Open/Close Ion Channel -> Changes in Ion Permeability -> Change in Vm -> Change in activity

Mutations don't arise deterministically, they arise . . .

Stochastically

Primate classifications

Strepsirhines Haplorhines -Tarsiiformes -Anthropoidea -Platyrhines -Catarrhines

What are the classifications of primates?

Strepsirhines (wet nosed), haplorhines (dry nosed), tarsiiformes, anthropoidea

Tip link proteins are what in excitation?

Stretched

What are the earliest fossils?

Stromatolites

What is recruitment?

Stronger input activates more motor neurons

What are some important roles of glial cells?

Structural Support Maintenance of ionic compositions Remove extra chemicals following their release from neurons Insulate neurons electrically Formation of blood brain barrier secretion of compounds for neuronal maintenance

prezygotic isolating mechanism

barriers to the interbreeding of populations that prevent the fertilization of eggs by sperm

What happens if the population overshoots K?dn/dt will be negative.

if population overshoots K what happens?

contraction of a whole muscle is?

graded event - determined by the number of muscle fibers contracting and the rate of contraction

In birds, sexual dimorphism is

greater in polygynous species than in monogamous species

the effect of insulating the axon

greatly increased conduction velocity

inflammatory response

increase of temperature, attraction of white blood cells & swelling (increased blood flow) associated with tissue injury or pathogenic infection

the role of the nervous system

integrate information ==> decide on appropriate response

What are some characteristics of common chimps and bonobo?

intensely social, males group hunt, feed and sleep in trees, often on ground, knuckle walkers, extensive tool use, extended child care, prolonged adolescence

properties of the receptor potential

intensity of stimulation is coded for in terms of: -frequency of action potentials generated -number of receptors activated (population coding) -duration of stimulus -EXCEPTION: not all sensory receptors fire action potentials - photoreceptors

While gene flow usually ______________ with natural selection, in rarer cases it _________________ natural selection.

interferes; speeds up

Eusthenopteron and Sauripterus showed the development of what characteristic

intermediate elements (zeugopod)

polygynandry

multiple males and females

A single muscle cell is referred to as a _____. - myofibril - muscle fiber - muscle neurons - sarcolemma - sarcomere

muscle fiber

Sex that invests more in offspring

must be choosier in their mates. The cost of reproduction is higher, so they must choose a good mate.

ultimate source of all genetic variation?

mutation

memory cells

long-lived cells that can respond rapidly upon a second exposure to the antigen

What are examples of strepsirhines

lorises, galgaos, lemurs

What is habitutation?

loss of responsiveness to a stimulus that is neither beneficial or harmful

When there is a low prey population, what happens to the predator population?

lowers

migration

movement from one place to another

Gene flow

movement of individuals or gametes between subpopulations this averages out subpopulations, keeping them from differentiating

dispersal-mediated speciation

movement of species causes a population to be cut off - one time rare dispersal event

role of the muscles

movemnt of the skeleton

antihistamines

prevent mast cell degranulation or block histamine receptor

Genetic similarity/differences between humans and chimpanzees

95-98% sequence similarity but 9 inversion differences Human: 2N=46 Chimpanzee: 2N=48

What percent of all species that have existed on earth are extinct?

99%

How similar are AMH and Neanderthals to their most recent common ancestor? (Percent)

99.5%

we share how much DNA with neanderthals?

99.5%

peramorphosis

Development of adult characteristics faster than in ancestral history (Brain:Body ratio in primates)

What affected skin pigmentation evolution, other than UV light?

Diet

How are transitional seciesidentified?

Retrospectivley, because we know how the lineage later evolved.

What do rods contain?

Rhodopsin

Good for night vision

Rods

High apmlification; capable of single photon detection

Rods

High sensitivity to light; night vision; more numerous

Rods

More sensitive to scattered light

Rods

Rhodopsin is found in...?

Rods

Why are colors at night muted?

Rods only show grey

Round or oval for close objects?

Round

Where is the tympanic canal attached?

Round window

____________ ___________- provide a direct connection between cells, allowing electrical signals to pass between them.

Electrical synapses

What type of cell are pacemaker cells?

Electrical synapses - coupled with connexons

The ECG

Electrocardiogram, useful as a diagnostic tool of heart function

Respond to light or electro magnetic fields

Electromagnetic receptors

What is an example of specific hungers?

Elephants using tusks to scrape salt filled rocks and chewing the rock pieces to suck the salt from them

As the head moves, _________ moves, pushing on the cupula and bending the hair cells.

Endolymph

Hard, supporting structures encased in the soft tissues of an animal

Endoskeleton

Gastrovascular cavities

Ensure diffusional distances are short, diffusion over only 1-2 cell layers, from simple to elaborate in design

Logistic growth model

Environments set a limit on growth. carrying capacity(K) gets factored in growth equation. dN/dT = rN ((K-N)/K) = rN (1-(N/K))

When the electrical and concentration gradients balance out what do you have?

Equilibrium

When the electrical gradient and the concentration gradient balance out.

Equilibrium potential

What is systematics?

Establishing relations by constructing phylogenetic trees

Protists are

Eukaryotic lineages that don't evolve multicellularity

______________ organisms can tolerate large fluctuations in external osmolarity.

Euryhaline

Parts of the middle ear

Eustachian tube, tympanic membrane, ossicles, oval window

Intermediate elements (zeugopod)

Eusthenopteron and Sauripterus

Heterochrony

Evolutionary change in timing or rate of development Paedomormorphosis Peramorphosis

The vibrations entering the oval window cause what?

Fluid movements within the chambers of cochlea

What is the lense?

Focuses the light onto back of the eye

Typhlosole

Fold in intestine to increase surface area

Function follows _____________.

Form

Sphecomyrma freyi

Fossil bridging gap between ants and wasps

What tells us the sequence of evolution events that led to the structural elements of the tetrapod limb

Fossil record and gene action

Stromatolites

Fossils that appeared around 3.5 BYA (cyanobacteria)

What is the effect of the insulation on the axon?

It causes the action potential to jump from node to node, greatly increasing conduction velocity

Do 27 different genotype possibilities mean there are 27 different phenotype possibilities?

No. This depends on dominance and epistasis, but there will still be more phenotypes than if there is only 1 genotype possibility.

Respond to noxious stimuli

Nociceptors

Ions channels that contribute to the generation of action potentials are clustered where?

Node of Ranvier

Examples of genetic drift

Northern elephant seals Greater prairie chickens

Effector

"target" whose activity is altered in order to compensate to bring parameter back into its normal range

What four basic activities is physiology concerned with?

1. Reproduction 2. Growth 3. Metabolism 4.Excitation and contraction

About how long does food stay in the large intestines?

12-24 hrs

About how long down food stay in the stomach?

2-6 hrs

Carbohydrates has how many kcal/gm?

4

Protein has how many kcal/gm?

4

About how long does food stay in the small intestines?

4-6 hrs

How much of the body's energy goes into maintaining homeostasis?

90%

Most organisms (like us) are considered ____________________.

Bulk feeders

What are examples of macro-minerals?

Calcium, chloride, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, sulfur. Everything else is a trace mineral

Absorption

Cells take up amino acids, sugars, fatty acids

Minerals

Chemical (inorganic) elements required by living organisms

What is an example of positive feedback system?

Childbirth

The essential fatty acids are represented by members of the ____________________________ family.

Cis-polyunsaturated fatty acid

Mucin

Coat/protect oral cavity

Why do we need essential nutrients?

Compounds we need to survive that we cannot make from any food

What happens in the jejunum?

Contributes to nutrient and water absorption

What are the three parts to the small intestine?

Duodenum, jejunum, ileum

Opportunistic feeders

Eat foods outside the norm if their preferred diet is unavailable

Diet must supply what three nutritional needs?

Fuel, essential nutrients, biosynthetic materials

What is an appetite stimulator?

Ghrelin

About how often are the contents in the stomach remixed by the contraction of smooth muscles?

Half-minute

The first studies in animal physiology was by who?

Herophilus

What amino acid is required more in children?

Histidine

Most medical treatments and therapies are designed to return on to a condition of ________________.

Homeostasis

What did Claude Bernard formalize?

Homeostasis

What is the central theme is physiology?

Homeostasis

What are the 4 stages to processing of nutrients?

Ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination

Explain a positive feedback system.

It is when a signal is enhanced by itself and also can be ended by it's own doing, negative feedback loops go back to a set point and are continuous until they are in the normal working range as before

What is an example of protein deficiency?

Kwashiorkor

Malnourished

Lacking one or more essential nutrients

What are some appetite suppressors?

Leptin, PYY, and insulin

What fatty acids are required in the diet?

Linoleic acid, linolenic acid, docosahexaneoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid

Sensor

Measure some physiological parameter, constantly and when significant changes occur

What happens in the duodenum?

Most of enzymatic hydrolysis and nutrient absorption

What traits constitute metabolism?

Movement, responsiveness, growth, reproduction, respiration, digestion, absorption, excretion, circulation, assimilation

Protein deficiency is....

Multiple amino acid deficiency

Specific hungers

Nutrient deficiency causes a specific rise in responsiveness and subsequent intake of food containing the deficient substance

Extracellular digestion

Occurs in specialized compartments that are contiguous with the outside of the body

Herbivores, carnivores and omnivores can be called _____________ feeders.

Opportunistic

Incomplete essential amino acids are...

Plant products

Why aren't positive feedback loops commonly found?

Positive feedback systems lead to further instability

What happens in the ileum?

Primarily absorbs vitamin B12, bile salts, and anything the jejunum missed

What is an example of negative feedback system?

Regulation of body temperature

Leptin

Released from adipose (fat) tissue; an indicator of body fat levels

Insulin

Released from pancreas after a meal-induced rise in glucose

PYY

Released from small intestine after meals

Ghrelin

Released from the stomach; triggers hunger pangs

What does the gall bladder secrete?

Releases bile that was received from the liver

What are the three components of a negative feedback system?

Sensor, integrator, effector

Digestion

Sequential process of breaking food down into smaller and smaller parts; at the end of digestion, left with small absorbable molecules

Both the entry to and the exit from the stomach are closed off by _________________.

Sphincters

Homeostasis

Stability of all functions required for living

Where does protein digestion start?

Stomach

Crop

Storage site for food-fluid is added

Anatomy deals with ______________. Physiology deals with __________.

Structure; Function

Integrator

Sums information from sensors, "control center"

What type of feeders are there?

Suspension feeders, substrate feeders, fluid feeders, bulk feeders

What are the essential nutrients?

The are nutrients required for normal body functioning that either cannot by synthesized by the body at all, or cannot be synthesized in amounts adequate for good health and thus must be obtained from a dietary source

Physiology

The study of the physical and chemical processes that take place in living organisms during the performance of life functions

Water-soluble vitamins

These are cleared and excreted in urine; body is better at handling moderate excess intake

Fat-soluble vitamins

These are stored in body fat; overconsumption more likely to lead to toxicity

Why do we need fuel?

To run all the cellular processes of the body

Elimination

Undigested material passes out of the digestive system

What are examples of fat-soluble vitamins?

Vitamin A, D, E, K. Water-soluble is everything else

To be able to maintain the metabolic characteristics what factors are required?

Water, food, oxygen, heat, pressure

What are the two sub-groups to vitamins?

Water-soluble and fat-soluble

Peristalsis

Waves of coordinated muscular contractions, move the food bolus to the stomach in an involuntary fashion

Positive energy balance will result in.....

Weight gain

Negative energy balance will result in....

Weight loss

A. africanus

- 2.5 mya "Taung child" (3-4 y/o) - endocranial skull volume 490cc - forward foramen magnum

What is the order of the retina?

Optic Nerve Fibers -> Ganglion Cell -> Amacrine cell -> Bipolar Cell -> Horizontal cell -> Rods/Cones -> Pigmented Epithelium

Where does carbohydrate digestion start?

Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus

What is the paleozoic era composed of?

Ordovician, silurian, devonian, and carboniferous

Vitamins

Organic compounds required in tiny amounts for essential metabolic reactions in a living organism

What 6 levels are ecological studies conducted at

Organismal, population, community, ecosystem, landscape and global, biodiversity

basilar membrane

Part of the ear which detects frequency of sound vibrations. Not uniform - narrow at base, wide at end.

What is the most important role of glial cells (highlighted in red in the notes)?

Participate in information flow in the nervous system

Intracellular digestion

Particles take in by phagocytosis or pinocytosis

Spatial subdivision of a species is due to

Patchy food, nesting sites, or other habitat features

Systole

Period of active contraction

How old are virtually all multi-cellular organism fossils?

Phanerozoic; 550 mya

Olfactory receptors and photoreceptors

Phasic receptors

Transmit signal to CNS when stimulus intensity changes

Phasic receptors

Osmotic pressure

Pressure produced by a solution in a space divided by a semipermeable membrane due to a difference in the concentrations of solute

What are some examples of tonic receptors?

Pressure sensitive baroreceptors Nociceptors Some tactile and proprioceptors

Osmoregulation

The maintenance of salt (solute) and water balance in an organism

True or False: Reptilian is an artificial group

True

Regurgitation

When a valve fails to close tightly, heart must work much harder, blood leaks back the wrong way

Stemosis

When a valve fails to open fully, less blood is able to pass through the valve

How are gastric ulcers formed?

When bacteria destroy the protective mucus layer allowing the gastric juice to attack the stomach wall

When is NMDA active?

When glutamate is bound and the cell is depolarized

Although we can predict the overall rate of mutations, we can't predict . . .

Which copy will undergo mutation (random process) (mutations arise stochastically)

pleiotropy

a single gene affects multiple traits

sensory neurons

detect important internal & external stimuli

Humans growing a tail when developing is an example of

developmental biology

quinine

first line of defense against malaria

Balenopteron

first pentadactyly in early amphibians

viability selection

fitness differences that arise because of differences in rates of survival and mortality

Early development pathways are often _________

fixed

Type 1 survivorship curve

few offspring, live long life (humans)

shocked quartz, microtektites

impact debris

If a chemical defense is constitutive it is ____________

always present

What were the ant fossils found in and what did it help further study?

amber bridges gap between modern its and wasps

What interaction causes -,0?

amenalism

What does it mean to integrate information?

Decide on an appropriate response

How do hearing and balance receptors produce receptor potentials?

In response to membrane distortion (particles; fluids)

Osmosis occurs when water is __________ ____________ across the membrane than the solute

More permeable

Do hair cells have a more or less positive resting membrane potential than the average cell?

More positive

What is glutamate?

Most common excitetory neurotransmitter

Polygyny

Most common in mammals, successful males mate will many females and females mate with only one male.

The mollusk lens does what?

Moves like a camera

Models of H. Sapiens emergence

Multiregional Replacement Leaky replacement

What would happen to people exposed to a chemical warfare agent that blocked acetylcholine from binding to muscle receptors? ------------------------------------------------ Action potentials would be continuously generated, causing convulsive muscle contractions. Action potentials would be continuously generated, causing convulsive muscle contractions; muscle contractions would then be prevented, causing paralysis. Muscle contractions would be prevented, causing paralysis. Muscle contractions could still occur, but relaxation of the muscle would be impaired.

Muscle contractions would be prevented, causing paralysis.

A condition where a muscle or set of muscles are kept partially contracted for extended periods

Muscle tone

What is the stimulus for ANP?

Increased blood pressure-heart-releases ANP

Small diameter, longer pipes have what issue?

Increased resistance

What is the consequence of a high intracellular [Cl-]?

Increases Ecl

Thrifty gene hypothesis

Natural selection favored the survival of those individuals who could store as many calories as possible, then burn them as slowly as possible

Once generated does the magnitude of an action potential change?

No

Are ion distributions equal?

No - the K+/Na+ pump

What is a muscle fiber?

One cell that functions as one unit

Each muscle fiber receive input from how many motor nuerons?

One motor neuron

Acromatic

One type of pigment; Rods

How does a female philanthus digger wasp identify and return to the precise location of her particular nest?

spatial learning

What is kin selection?

special form of natural selection

The hydrostatic skeleton of the earthworm allows it to move around in its environment by _____. ------------------------------------------------ swimming with its setae using peristaltic contractions of its circular and longitudinal muscles alternating contractions and relaxations of its flagella walking on its limbs

using peristaltic contractions of its circular and longitudinal muscles

single-gene mutation rate is...

very low

What does the liver secrete?

Bile salts that emulsify fat (aid digestion/absorption)

Osmoconformers have no tendency to _____________ or ____________ water.

Gain; lose

Freshwater animals ________ water by osmosis and ______ salts by diffusion

Gain;lose

What does the pancreas secrete?

Hydrolytic enzymes (proteases); bicarbonate buffer

Focal point falls behind retina

Hyperopia

Sharks tissues are____________ to sea water.

Hyperosmolar

Generally correlated with decreased activity

Hyperpolarization

Sensory organ that contains ciliated receptor cells that respond to mechanical deformation

Statocyst

Dispersion (Definition and Types)

Spacing between organisms; - Clumped - Uniform - Random

Osmosis

Special case of diffusion in which the molecules dissolved in water are not diffusing, but rather the water molecules diffuse across the cell membrane

What were the highlighted conscious senses?

Special senses Somatic Senses Proprioception

Obligate Mutualism

Species need each other, and are always found together in environments.

What is an example of a eryhaline organism?

Tilapia

What holds the hairs on the hair cells together?

Tip Link Protiens

What is ecological community?

assemblage of species in a given area

Ecological community

assemblage of species in a given area.

What is operant conditioning?

associate one of its own behaviors with a reward or punishment

The _____ changes shape to focus light on the retina. ------------------------------------------------ vitreous humor blind spot cornea lens optic nerve

lens

sympathetic ophthalmia

lens of eye damaged, lens protein gets into circulation Ab's are raised against it ==> damages eye

What do classifications not always reflect?

phylogenies

classifications do not always reflect...

phylogenies

What is an example of keystone species

pisaster sea star

hippocampus

plays a central role in the formation and retrieval of long-term memories

Delete

population is decreasing

the net replacement rate

the sum of Lx times Mx for each age class X

Study 6 step process of Chemical Synaptic connections...

...

View phototransduction diagram.

.....

Homo neanderthalensis

.04-.4 Mousterian tools

Homo Sapiens

.15-present 1200-1400 cc Aurignacian tools

Homo erectus

.4-1.2 900-1200 cc Acheluan tools Java Man (.7 mya) Beijing Man (.7 mya)

Some, though not as common, have Ecl at what?

0 mV

H. neanderthalensis

0.03 - 0.4 mya -occipital bun -distinct jaw lines

H. Sapiens

0.15 mya to present. brain size 1200-1400cc

First prokaryotes

3.5 bya

A. afarensis

= 3 mya "Lucy" - all toes parallel to axis of foot - femur and spine indicate some bipedality - made tools - climbed with curved phalanges - smaller ape-like jaw

Driving force

= |Vm - Ex|

According to the slides, when does damage to the ear occur?

> 80 dB

What must the coefficient of relatedness, r, to occur in a stable kin group?

>0

Thick myosin filaments overlapping with actin

A bands

Muscle tone

A condition where a muscle or set of muscles are kept partially contracted for extended periods

Taste stimulus causes what?

A depolarization and a rise in intracellular Ca2+

What do electrical synapses provide?

A direct connection between cells, allowing electrical signals to pass between them

What was the dimetrodon?

A synpasid

Ca2+ influx through NMDA receptors activates what?

A number of pathways in the postsynaptic cell: a. Increases responsiveness of AMPA receptors to phosphorylation b. Increases # of AMPA receptors available c. Leads to retrograde release of nitric oxide, a gaseous neurotransmitter that enhances presynaptic release of glutamate

What is batesian mimicry?

A playable or harmless prey mimics a distasteful or dangerous one

All neuron cells have what?

A potential difference across their plasma membrane

Recombination

A short-term source of genetic variation in a sexual population -Two processes at meiosis which increase the divergence between parent and offspring gametes -Shuffles genes into new combinations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection

Point mutations:

A single base substitution in a single codon can change it to code for a variety of different amino acids or even itself (redundancy of the genetic code)

endemism

A state in which species are restricted to a single region

Neanderthal DNA (how recent?)

AMH from 37,000 to 42,000 had 6-9% N. DNA. Only 6 generations removed.

What is the sour taste?

Acidic things with a pH between 2 and 4

Whale evolution: Semi aquatic, 12 ft crocodile

Ambulocetus

Complete essential amino acids are....

Animal products

What is the vitreous humor?

Another liquid layer

What are ommatidia?

Each are capable of detecting light in a particular visual space

Hyperopia

Farsightedness (can only see far) Focal point falls behind the retina

Large axons conduct signals much _________ than small ones.

Faster

Bending of stereocilia does what?

Increased action potentials in proportion to the rotational acceleration

Elastic fibers

Around alveoli, provide the elastic recoil of the lungs

Phototransduction

Begins when light strikes the photopigment in photoreceptors

When do tonic receptors transmit signals to the CNS?

As long as the stimulus is present

What are the two sub-groups to minerals?

Macro-minerals and trace minerals

Muscles are attached to bones in _____________ ____________.

Antagonistic pairs

ADH

Antidiuretic hormone

Taste receptor cells have what increase absorptive area?

Apical microvilli to help increase absorptive area

What is the second layer?

Aqueous Humor

Denisovans

Archaic hominin Finger bones and tooth DNA indicate 4-6% of DNA in modern melanesians

The players

Ardipithecus ramidus 4.4-5 Australopithicus anamesis 3.9-4.2 A. Afarensis (Lucy) 3-3.9 A. Africanus and A. Garhi 2.4-2.8 A. Sediba 1.8-2 Paranthropus robustus/boisei/aethiopicus 1-2.7 Homo habilis 2-2.3 Homo ergaster 2-1.5 Homo erectus .4-1.2 H. Neanderthalensis .03-.4 H. Sapiens present -.2

Osmoconformers

Are isoosmotic with surroundings

Low pH kills what?

Bacteria

Undernourished

Caloric deficiency

Respond to chemicals

Chemoreceptors

At equilibrium what happens?

Diffusion/movement but no net diffusion/movement

How do animals apply their digestive processes to food without digesting their own cells and tissues?

Digestion occurs in specialized compartments

Arboreal and Social adaptations

Digits with independent mobility and opposable thumbs. Flat nails, no claws, sensitive fingers Complex facial musculature

Where are the photopigments?

Disks

Juxtamedullary nephron

Dives deep into the medulla; enables mammals to produce urine that is hyperosmotic to body fluids

Polyandry

During breeding season females mate and reproduce with many males and males typically have one female to mate with. Honey bee queens.

What is the modified Nernst Equation?

E = 62 mV * log (Xout/Xin)

In most cases sensory response is what?

EPSP - rarely IPSP

Metanephridia are a type of _________.

Earthworm

Annelids are what?

Earthworms

Ventilation

Exchange of air between atmosphere and lungs

EPSP

Excitatory postsynaptic potential

Hard covering of the body surface including shells or cuticles that attach to underlying muscles

Exoskeleton

Pinna

External ear

Almost all species on earth are...?

Extinct

How have birds adapted to have good visual acuity?

Extreme number of cones

What layers/types of cells does the retina contain?

Ganglion cell Layer Interneuron Layer Photoreceptors

Hyperpolarization

Generally correlated with decreased activity - deactivation/inhibition

Gene flow counteracts

Genetic drift

Astigmatism

Imperfectly shaped cornea (thicker in some areas) -> generates 2 focal points

Why are essential fatty acids important?

Important in membrane structure/function; vision, brain function; gene expression; cell signaling

In each Otolith organ, how do the hair cells sit?

In all possible orientations

Gastric ceca

In insects, birds; storage area that is used to help break down plant materials. Mammals have a rudimentary cecum

Membrane potential is at -40 mV and transmitter is being released when?

In the dark

Na+ and K+ channels are open when?

In the dark

Rhodopsin is in inactive form when?

In the dark

cGMP levels are high when?

In the dark

Activated opsin activates G protein when?

In the light

Activated transducin activates phosphodiesterase when?

In the light

Net decrease in cGMP closes Na+ channels when?

In the light

Retina absorbs light and unbinds from opsin when?

In the light

What determines the diameter of the pupil?

Iris

How many ways did the history of life happen?

Just one.

Focuses the light onto back of the eye

Lens

What is the retina?

Made up of the cells involved in phototransduction. It is the photoreceptor layer

Monomorphism

Males and females look similar

Sexual size dimorphism

Males are usually bigger than females: Gorilla: Males are 2x the size of females Humans and chimpanzees: Males are 5-10% bigger than females

What are the ossicles?

Malleus Incus Stapes

Ossicles

Malleus, Incus, Staples

What animals use negative pressure breathing?

Mammals

What is the real world application of tetanus?

Maximum tension

RAAs

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System;Responds to changes in blood volume and pressure, not necessarily osmolarity

Iteroparity

Repeated reproductions Humans Oak trees

T wave

Repolarization of ventricles

Semelparity

Reproduce once in a lifetime. (Salmon, century plant)

Cortical nephron

Resides entirely in the cortex; reduced Loop of Henle

Are rods or cones more numerous in humans?

Rods

Replacement model

Single group evolved into modern form in africa, and then only relatively recently dispersed from africa and replaced all archaic forms.

very low

Single-gene mutation rate is

The ___________ of an axon influences how fast the action potentials can spread.

Size

What influences how fast the action potentials can spread?

Size of an axon

Muscle contraction is due to what theory?

Sliding filament theory

What is the disadvantage of tonic receptors?

Slow to adapt

Where does fat digestion start?

Small intestine

Where does nucleic acid digestion start?

Small intestine

Dissolved in mucus

Smell

Arterioles are surrounded by _______________ that can contract or relax as needed

Smooth muscle

Which muscle type is involved in the function of the digestive tract and blood vessels? ------------------------------------------------ Smooth. Skeletal. Voluntary. Cardiac.

Smooth.

Two potassium in and three sodium out of the cell is what?

Sodium potassium pump

Why are action potentials usually conducted in one direction? --------------------------------------- The axon hillock has a higher membrane potential than the terminals of the axon. The brief refractory period prevents reopening of voltage-gated Na+ channels. Voltage-gated channels for both Na+ and K+ open in only one direction. The nodes of Ranvier conduct potentials in one direction.

The brief refractory period prevents reopening of voltage-gated Na+ channels.

Na+, Ca2+ and cation-selective channel move what?

The cell closer to threshold

K+ and Cl- move what?

The cell further from threshold

Which statement is false regarding human evolutions? o BIpedality evolved before high brain-to-body size ratio o Neanderthals lacked a cranial vault and facial retraction o The diversity of mitochondrial DNA sequences from living humans coalesces to about 20,000 years ago o Cave art was produced >35,000 years ago o 160,000-year-old fossils are nicely intermediate between late H.erectus and H. sapiens

The diversity of mitochondrial DNA sequences form living humans coalesces to about 20,000 years ago

What are the two opposite attractions in a cell?

The electrical attraction of positive ions draws K+ to the negative interior The concentration gradient favors the outward movement of K+

Olfactory neurons are super strange when it comes to Cl-. Why?

The neurons have high intracellular [Cl-]. This makes Ecl more positive than Vm. This means that opening of Cl- will depolarize the cell

What is the graded event determined by? (hint: 2 things)

The number of muscle fibers contracting The rate of contraction

What neural cells live?

The ones that are more active - competition!

As the sound waves travel through the cochlea membranes what happens?

The organ of corti vibrates at the same frequency as the incoming sound

Abomasum

The part of the ruminant stomach where chewed cud, loaded with microorganisms, moves for final digestion by the cow's enzymes. The additional of so much microbial material makes the meal more nutritious than grass alone

How could an asteroid that was only 10 miles wide cause something so large?

The speed of the asteroid

What are some general rod characteristics?

They only show grey colors They have a high sensitivity to light High amplification

What are the semilunar canals?

They provide mammalian balance.

What do salivary glands release?

Things to help dissolve and aid in primary digestion (certain lipases)

How can gene flow speed up natural selection?

This is a rarer process which occurs when gene flow spreads a favorable allele to somewhere it doesn't exist yet Example: If all nearby fields receive a certain pesticide and individuals in one field develop a resistant allele, gene flow can spread this allele to individuals in other fields

Explain negative pressure breathing

Thoracic cavity expands, pressure in alveioli drops and air rushes, thoracic cavity contracts, pressure in alveoli increases and air rushes out

Metarteriole

Thoroughfare channel

Hyperosmotic

When one solution has a greater osmolarity than another

Hypoosmotic

When one solution has more dilute solution than another

Equilibrium Potential

When the electrical and concentration gradients of a cell balance out.

Ulcers

When the protection breaks down

When do phasic receptors transmit a signal to the CNS?

When the stimulus intensity changes

Isoosmotic

When two solutions have the same osmolarity

Respiratory pump

When we inhale, pressure changes in thoracic cavity favor blood flow to heart

Rumen

Where the initial bolus of food is stored and initial breakdown begins

What is biodiversity ecology?

Why some species go extinct, is it preventable, etc.

graded potential

a membrane potential - Vm that varies in magnitude in proportion to the intensity of the stimulus

vicariant speciation

a barrier prevents movement

paraphyletic

a common ancestor isn't in group. at least one species is left out of group on tree.

transitional species

a species w/ traits that are intermediate between those of older and younger species.

much of evolutionary change involves...

a speeding up or slowing down of development -relative to the ancestral condition

density dependent factors

a variable affected by the number of organisms present in a given area

DNA sequences to establish genealogical relationships between organisms. How is this done?

aligning them allows us to see where there are deletions, insertions, etc

What are some characteristics of hominoids?

brachiation arms and shoulders more flexible, larger pelvis, loss of tail, spine stiffer, scapulae more dorsal

Monophyetic

branch is how its grouped, common ancestors is most important in branching. ideally all taxonomic groups should be this way.

Sphecomyrma freyi

bridges gap between ants and wasps

Sexual Dimorphism

brightly colored male

sexual selection

broad pattern explained by a special kind of natural selection

histamine

chemical released from mast cells and basophils that increase the number of white blood cells to the injury site, open pores in capillaries, and dilates blood vessels to increase blood flow to the region

What were the first signs of life?

chemical signatures

What is an example of organisms retaining genes?

chick tissue

all traits of organisms are...

compromises that reflect historical constraints and imperfect solutions

systematics is where we...

construct phylogenies

cyanobacteria stromatolites

early fossils found 3.5 billion years ago

Morganucodon

early mammaliaform -about 205 mya

cytotoxic T cells

effectors of cell-mediated immunity

B cells

effectors of humoral immunity

What is an example of commensalism

egrets and large ungulates

A skeletal muscle deprived of adequate ATP supplies will _____. - immediately relax - fire many more action potentials than usual and enter a state of "rigor" - enter a state where actin and myosin are unable to separate - sequester all free calcium ions into the sarcoplasmic reticulum

enter a state where actin and myosin are unable to separate

high endemism increases...

extinction risk

type 2 survivorship curve

fairly constant death rate at all ages (small mammals and large birds)

lens

focuses the light onto back of the eye

polyploidy

increase in the number of chromosomes

temporal summation

increased input from one other cell

immunization (vaccination)

injection of non-pathogenic components of a pathogen in order to mount a secondary response later should the pathogen be encountered

two types of defense against pathogens

innate immunity & adaptive immunity

In the example of the voles, the meadow vole does not form pair bonds, but when inserted with the vasopressin receptor gene from the prairie voles, what happens?

it elicits pair-bonding behavior

all photoreceptors contain similar types of pigments that absorb light in terms of...

its INTENSITY and DIRECTION - the photoreceptors change this energy into an electrical signal

What is a good example of a predator not returning to eat something with a certain coloration?

jay

self-tolerance

lack of response to lymphocytes to cells of the body

What are traits that affect a population's schedule of births and deaths called?

life history traits

Type II

life table curve is linear. and shows equal survival rate throughout life. probability of dying is independent of age.

proximal distal elaboration.

limbs evolved in this sequence.

MHC

major histocompatibility complex

What are some characteristics of gorillas?

male-male competition -- polygyny

MAC

membrane attack complex - a series of 5 complement proteins form a pore in the membrane causing a loss of ion distributions, Ca2+ regulation and Vm ==> cell lysis

taste stimuli can cause a...

membrane depolarization and a rise in intracellular Ca2+

cytokines

molecules released from one cell that effect the growth or activity of another cell -attract other immune cells to site -increase capillary permeability (diapedesis) -induce fever

What type of posture do hominoids have?

more erect than in monkeys

The sum total of an organism's interaction with the biotic and abiotic resources in its environment would represent its: none of these answers is correct niche density-dependent factor population growth rate habitat

niche

natural selection, unlike artificial selection, has...

no predetermined path or goal

Which statement correctly describes human evolution? Homo sapiens showed some temporal overlap with Australopithecus afarensis none of these statements is correct there are no transitional forms showing the gradual emergence of Homo sapiens anatomically modern humans first appear in the fossil record about 40,000 years ago humans evolved from modern chimpanzees

none of these statements is correct

allergens

nonpathogenic antigen

genome-wide rate of mutation is...

not so low

Density

number of individual per unit area.

How does the monarch butterfly protect itself?

obtains cardenolides from milkweed

What does the intensity of competition depend on?

overlap of ecological niches

after speciation...

populations that once could interbreed can no longer do so -the evolution of reproductive isolation in an ancestral species -results in two or more descendant species

zeugopod

radius-ulna/tibia-fibula

Delete

rapid growth

genetic changes needed for isolating mechanisms can be...

rather minor

analyses of the entire mtDNA genome point to...

recent (0.25 mya) African orgin of anatomically modern humans (same for autosomes, Y-chromosome genes)

Homo naledi

recently described early Homo species, but the age of the remains is not yet known

Fitness is a measure of

relative reproductive success

What is iteroparity?

repeated reproduction

shared characters do not always...

represent common ancestry(homology) but may represent homoplasy

What is semelparity?

reproduce once and die

tropomyosin

rod-shaped, closely associated with actin AND troponin

macula

rough elliptical patch of hair cells -Utricle: 30,000 hair cells - horizontal movements -Saccule: 16,000 hair cells - vertical movements

What is an example of semelparity?

salmon, century plant

otolith organs

sense linear acceleration & head movement -each consists of an avoid sac of gelatinous membrane -each has a roughly elliptical patch of hair cells, called a MACULA -Utricle: 30,000 hair cells - horizontal movements -Saccule: 16,000 hair cells - vertical movements - hair cells lie in all possible orientations in each organ -on and in the otolithic membane are millions of calcium carbonate crystals, called OTOCONIA that are subject to gravity -OTOCONIA move with changes in head position

chemoreception

sensing of chemicals -one of the oldest senses evolutionarily

How did primate traits evolve?

sequentially

synapses

sites of cell-to-cell communication

barrier defenses

skin; mucous membranes; secretions

once threshold is reached, additional increases in intensity, rate, duration of motor neuron impulses give only...

slight increase in contraction strength of THAT FIBER

What is community ecology?

species interactions

the fossil record indicates...

specific paths of evolution in particular lineages

Gene flow can both ____________ and _______________ adaptive change in populations

speed up; slow down

What is peramorphosis?

speeding up of development through continue of turning on the genes when ancestrally they were turned off

Evolutionary change involves:

speeding up or slowing down of development

2° lymphoid tissues

spleen & lymph nodes (encapsulated) and unencapsulated ==> capture damaged, dead, or infected cells

sacromere

the basic unit of contraction

speciation

the orgin/formation of a new species

Vm - membrane potential

the potential difference all neurons (cells) have across their plasma membrane

macrophages

the primary scavengers of the tissues (ingest 100+ bacteria in lifespan) -remove larger particles -an antigen-presenting cell

H zone

thick myosin filaments only

A bands

thick myosin filaments overlapping with actin

Myosin heads bind to _____, which they then pull and cause to slide toward the center of the sarcomere. thin filaments Z lines sarcomeres myofibrils thick filaments

thin filaments

I-bands

thin filaments of ACTIN

What is a physical defense for a plant

thorns, spines, leaf toughness, hairs, resins, latex canals

Physical herbivore defense

thorns, spines, toughness, hairs, canals.

Paleozoic (oldest), Mesozoic(2nd oldest, jurrasic), Cenozoic (most recent).

three era's in the phanerazoic eon?

semicircular canals

three fluid-filled canals in the inner ear responsible for our sense of balance

Asynchronous Recruitment

to maintain tetanic contractions in a muscle, some motor units are contracting while others relax, in order to prevent muscle fatigue and failure

What is isoflavonoid?

toxic

The realized niche is always the same size or smaller than the fundamental niche. True False

true

organ of corti

vibrations cause the BASILAR MEMBRANE to vibrate and this pushes the HAIR CELLS against the TECTORIAL MEMBRANE causing them to bend - this activates MECHANOSENSITIVE CHANNELS in the hair cells, depolarizing them - this info is carried out of the ear by the AUDITORY NERVE to the brain

photopigment in cones

3 different photopigments - similar to rhodospin

What do cones contain?

3 different photopigments similar to rhodopsin

When were the australopithecus afarensis present?

3 million years ago

The following steps refer to various stages in transmission at a chemical synapse. 1. Neurotransmitter binds with receptors associated with the postsynaptic membrane. 2. Calcium ions rush into neuron's cytoplasm. 3. An action potential depolarizes the membrane of the presynaptic axon terminal. 4. The ligand-gated ion channels open. 5. The synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. Which sequence of events is correct?

3 → 2 → 5 → 1 → 4

The fossil record extends back to approximately how many years ago? all the way back to when Dr. Messina was in high school 35,000,000,000,000 3,500,000 6000 3,500,000,000

3,500,000,000

troponin

3-protein complex that associates with tropomyosin to form a barrier to formation of cross-bridges between actin and myosin (at rest)

Ratios of c13 to c12 isotopes in carbonaceous rocks suggest life is how old?

3.7 billion years

first life as suggested by ratios of C13 and C12 isotopes in carbonaceous rocks

3.7 bya

Archean Eon

3.8 - 2.5 bya

How long do olfactory cells live?

30 days

Neanderthals overlapped with AMHs for ________ ?

3000-5000 years - ample time for both genetic and cultural exchanges

What is the ratio of K+? Inside:Outside

30:1

Utricle

30K hair cells designed for horizontal movement in the Otolith organ

How many terrestial vertebrate species have become extinct due to human activity?

322 out of 21,000

What is an example of human activity in biodiversity?

322 species of terrestrial vertebrates have gone extinct

How long is the Basilar membrane? Is it uniform along the whole length?

33 mm, No

Basilosaurus

35-40 mya -whale evolution -zeuglodon (hind legs) -teeth

Reptiles have a ___________ chambered heart.

3ish

Mammals and birds have a _________ chambered heart.

4

How old is the earth

4.5 billion years

When were the ardipithecus ramidus present?

4.5 million years ago

Ardipithecus ramidus

4.5 mya -facultatively bipedal -good tree-climber -grasping big toe -woodland omnivore -reduced canines -brain only 300-350 cm^3 -more ape-like than later Australopithecus

Hadean Eon

4.6 - 3.8 bya

How fast did the asteroid hit earth?

40 times as fast the speed of sound

Neanderthals went extinct when?

40,000 years ago

complete genome sequences have been obtained from multiple neanderthal specimens from...

40,000 years ago

Neanderthals found in Europe and western Asia

400,000 to about 40,000 years ago -prominent browridge, bulbous nose, sloping forehead, stocky build

What is the rod range

400-650

What is our color range?

400-700 nm

Ambulocetus

41-48 mya -semi-aquatic whale ancestor like a 12 foot crocodile

Human: 2N=

46

The biggest mass extinction in the fossil record killed off approximately what percentage of marine invertebrate families? 50 30 100 90

50

A fungiform taste bud is composed of how many taste bud cells?

50 - 100 taste bud cells

What did the biggest mass extinction cause?

50% of marine invertebrate families to go extinct

Data suggests hybridization (Neand and AMH) occurred how long ago?

50,000 - 60,000 years ago, soon after AMH left Africa

When did the colonization of land by fungi, plants, and animals occur?

500 mya

Cambrian explosion

535-525 mya; Expansion of animal diversity

Paleozoic Era

550 - 250 mya "ancient life"

Virtually all fossils of multicellular organisms are from the last

550 million years

What years is the paleozoic era

550-250mya

How loud is a normal conversation? (according to the slides)

60 dB

In modern Japan what percent of individuals die by age 90?

60%

What percent of individuals died by age 16 in london 1662?

60%

Cenozoic Era

65 mya - present "recent life"

chicxulub crater

65.08 mya, at least 180km wide in yucatan peninsula.

habilis brain to body size ratio

650 - 800 cc

What years is the Cenozoic era

65mya-present

What is normal intracellular pH?

7.2

Birds have #-# air sacs that keep air moving throughout the lungs.

8-9

How old are Ochre engravings, beads, and stone tools found in S. Africa?

80,000 y.o.

Where and when were the oldest artifacts found?

80,000 years ago from Africa

What was found in Blombos Cave, South Africa?

80,000 years old. Engravings, beads, awls, stone tools, heat treated stones

Fat has how many kcal/gm?

9

Gizzard

Contains hard material to help breakdown food mechanically

What are disks?

Contains phototransduction machinery

What is a hydrostatic skeleton?

Fluid held under pressure in a closed environment

Excretion

Getting rid of the bad and keeping the good

The _________ changes the diameter of the pupil to let in more or less light

Iris

Made up of the cells involved in phototranscution

Retina

Bleaching

Retinal absorbs light and unbinds from opsin

Are there more than one myosin head per filament?

Yes

tetanus

if contraction becomes sustained without any relaxations

Hypertension

"High blood pressure," cause is mostly unknown, prolonged hypertension promotes atherosclerosis

Turkana Boy

10-12 age 1.6 Mya in Kenya Early H. Erectus or h. Ergaster Cranial capacity 900cc Not AMH, not ape

Turkana Boy

10-12 years old at death, 1.6 mya, fully bipedal, cranial capacity of 900cc. not modern human or ape. early african H. Eragster.

Which number is closest to the percentage of once-living species on Earth that are now extinct? 25 50 100 10 80

100

What frequencies are our ears most sensitive to? (according to the slides)

1000 - 3000

What do Arthropods have as visual systems?

1000's of Ommatidia

The stomach can hold about how much food?

2L

Amphibians have a __________ chambered heart.

3

What is the ratio of K+ to Na+ pumped across the membrane?

3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ in

historical restraints

"Advantages" of bipedalism in lineage that led to "disadvantages" in AMH - chronic lower back pain, slipped discs (about 80% of americans experience back pain) - inguinal hernia, varicose veins (vertical posture, blood has to go against gravity) - hip/knee joint stress, wear, fallen arches - maxillary sinus openings, etc. (many sinuses, with cilia, the maxillary pair is at the top that has to go against gravity, so all that crap gets stuck in there)

Atherosclerosis

"Hardening of the arteries"

mass extinctions

"reset" the history of life, account for much of what we see today

Carrying Capacity (K)

# of individuals that can be supported based off available resources in environment.

How do a few insects hear?

'Ears' with tympanic membranes covering an air filled chamber. As sound waves strike the tmpanic membrane it vibrates causing the activation of receptor cells underneath which signals the brain

each person has ___(A)___ different B cell types; ___(B)___ T cells with each a particular antigen specificity

(A) 10^6 (B) 10^7

small diameter, longer pipes have ______(A)______ RESISTANCE than short, large diameter pipes which have _____(B)_____ RESISTANCE

(A) greater (B) less

B cells recognize ___(A)___ and T cells recognize ___(B)___

(A) intact antigens (B) small fragments of antigens bound to MHC molecules

___(A)___ & ___(B)___ are the primary phagocytic cells

(A) macrophages (B) neutrophils

natural killer cells release ___(A)___ and ___(B)___ that trigger ___(C)___ in the target cell

(A) perforins: pore-forming proteins (B): granzymes: proteases (C): cell death

Absorption of light changes the conformation of ______ which then alters the shape of the ________.

(A) retinal (B) opsin

Homo Georgicus

(H. Erectus) prehuman on the move. 1.7 Mya found in Georgia Similar to turkana boy

Hominoids

(Includes apes and humans) Brachiation, more errent posture Arms and shoulders more flexible Spine stiffer. Arms extend laterally Larger pelvis, loss of a tail Orangutan, gorilla (polygyny) chimps extensive tool use

Intersexual selection

(mate choice): differences in attractiveness to the opposite sex, usually non-random choice by females

otoconia

(millions of) calcium carbonate crystals on and in the otolithic membrane that are subject to gravity -move with changes in head position

H. georgicus

(or H. erectus) -1.7 mya in Republic of Georgia -not anatomically modern

Mutualism

+,+ Pollination

Consumer-victim Relationship

+,- - Example: Predation

Eca

+180

Ena

+62

Atavism

- "Throwbacks" to ancestral form - Occurs as mutations or non-genetic, developmental anomalies - Indicates evolutionary history - Organisms retain genes for making structures no longer found in their lineage - pseudogenes

AMH

- 160,000 y.o. fossils. Morphologically intermediate to archaic African fossils and AMHs present by 100,000 y.o. - Modern-like homo skulls from 190,000 years ago - Single migration wave from Siberia less than 23,000 years ago settled in American contient then branched into 2 genetic groups

Mutation

- A random error in DNA replication or other alteration of the genome - Despite DNA repair, mutations always occur at low rates at a given gene (1 per 10^5 to 10^9 cell divisions) -Mutations continuously supply new alleles at a given gene - Ultimate cause of genetic variation

biggest mass extinction

- Boundary of Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras -250 mya -"Permotriassic" -killed of >50% of marine invertebrate families (80-90% of species) -most likely due to massive vulcanism (volcanoes)

Autopod

- carpals and metacarpals - tarsals and metatarsals - phalanges

Extinction at the boundary of the paleo & meso (250 mya)

-Biggest -Killed off more than 50% of marine invertebrate families and 80-90% species -Caused by vulcanism.

Central Nervous System.

-Brain and Spinal Column -integrate info in its current context and with recent history and produces the most appropriate output -the vast majority of cells in the nervous system are interneurons

Catarrhines

-Cercopithecoids (old world monkeys) -Hominids (apes, including humans) -No prehensile tail -narrow nasal septum -trichromatic color vision -2.1.2.3 dental

Competition between two species results in what type of interaction?

-,- Two species negatively impact each other. Often because they are both dependent on the same limited resource.

Amensalism

-,0 interaction. Many 'competitive' relationships are actually amensalistic.

A. garhi

-2.5 mya; eastern Africa -post-cranial skeleton indicates a candidate ancestor to Homo

Cro-Magnon

-35-40,000 years ago -Tall, with rounded skulls -Tools, fires, clothing, cave paintings, religious beliefs, elaborate burials -Lived in groups -Disconnceted from neanderthals.

The Ek of K+ is what?

-92 mV

Founder effect

-A form of genetic drift (over space, not time) -Can make a new, small population very different genetically from its large, ancestral population--"founders" carry unusual allele frequencies by sampling error alone -May be very important for some cases of speciation (e.g. on oceanic islands) Caused by: -different allele frequencies of founders -New natural selection

Why is evolution the single unifying concept for biology?

-All life is the product of >3 billion years of continuous evolution -An evolutionary perspective is needed for a complete understanding of any biological phenomenon

erectus brain to body size ratio

900 - 1200 cc

Changes associated with evolution

-Changes in allele and genotype frequencies between generations (changes in the genetic composition of populations) -Cumulative changes in the traits of organisms, which sometimes can lead to new species (diversification)

Tonic receptors

-Constant response -transmit signal to CNS as long as stimulus is present -slow to adapt.

Chimpanzees

-Hominoid -Omnivores -Prolonged adolescence, puberty 8-10 years -Often on ground -Shared common ancestor 7 mya with humans.

genus Homo (classifications)

-Homo habilis: 2.0 - 2.3 mya (not fully bipedal) -Homo ergaster (erectus): 1.5 - 2.0 mya -H. erectus: 0.4 - 1.2 mya -H. neanderthalensis (sapiens): 0.04 - .4 mya -H. sapiens: present - 0.15 mya

as the sacromere (z-line to z line) shortens...

-I band shortens -H zone is reduced -A band is unchanged *increased overlap of actin & myosin*

Processes of genetic recombination

-Independent segregation of non-homologous chromosomes -Crossing-over between homologous chromosomes -Union of gametes to form diploid zygotes

Extinction at the boundary of meso & ceno (65 mya)

-Killed off remaining dinosaurs -Asteroid was 8 to 10 miles wide and traveled 40 times as fast as speed of sound.

Characteristics of a non-evolving population (in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium):

-No net mutations occur -Population is infinitely large=no genetic drift -Population is isolated from others=no gene flow -Mating is random=no inbreeding or assortative mating -No natural selection

Fossil Record Tetrapod Limb (120MYA)

-Paired latéral fins sans bones (Osteichthyes) -Stylopod (Sacropterygians) -Zeugopod (Eusthenopteron and Sauripterus) -Autopod and polyadactyl (Acanthostega and Icthystega) -Pentadactyly (Balenopteron) -Carpals in later amphibians

the Phanerozoic Eon is composed of

-Paleozoic Era -Mesozoic Era -Cenozoic Era

Genetic drift

-Random changes in allele frequencies due to sampling error, which can be propagated between generations -presence of a bottlenecking event -Depends on population size (smaller populations have greater genetic drift) -Eventually causes a loss of genetic variation in a population (one/the other allele can be lost by chance) -Non-adaptive change due solely to sampling error

classification of primates

-Stepsirhines: lorises, galagos, lemurs -Haplorhines: Tarsiiformes, Anthropoidea -Tarsiiformes: tarsiers -Anthropoidea: Platyrrhines, Catarrhines -Platyrhines: new-world monkeys -Catarrhines: Cercopithecoids, Hominoids -Cercopithecoids: old-world monkeys -Hominoids: apes and humans

recovery (phototransduction)

-active retinal is reduced to inactive form in pigment epithelium -inactive retianl returns to rod and combines with opsin

vital statistics (demography)

-age structure -birth rates -death rates -generation time

cone system

-color -high acuity: concentrated in fovea -chromatic: 3 types of cones, each with distinct pigment sensitive to a different part of visible spectrum -lower sensitivity; day vision -less photopigment -lower amplification -high temporal integration: fast response, short integration time -more sensitive to direct axial rays

tonic receptors

-constant response -transmit signal to CNS as long as stimulus is present -slow to adapt -includes: pressure sensitive baroreceptors, nociceptors, some tactile and proprioceptors

B lymphocytes (B cells)

-formed in the bone marrow -these cells produce primary & secondary antibody responses (humoral immunity) -primary purpose is to secrete antibodies -mature B cells have anitbodies on their surface for specific antigen (epitope)

prezygotic barrier examples

-habitat -temporal -behavioral: mate recognition systems -mechanical -gametic

myosin

-long coiled tail + globular head -globular head has ATPase activity -250 myosin molecules ==> 1 thick filament

anaphalactic shock

-massive constriction in bronchioles -dilation of peripheral vessels -drop in blood pressure -can lead to death

two broad categories of cells in the nervous system

-neurons -glial cells

phasic receptors

-response adapts rapidly after initial burst of activity = SENSORY ADAPTATION -transmit signal to CNS when stimulus intensity changes -allows us to filter out background noise (signals) -includes: olfactory receptors & photoreceptors...

phototransduction in the light

-retinal absorbs light and unbinds from opsin (bleaching) -activated opsin activates G protein (transducin) -activated transducin activates phosphodiesterase - cGMP ==> 5' GMP -net decrease in [cGMP] closes Na+ channels -cell hyperpolarizes (~-70 mV) -transmitter release decreases

phototransduction in the dark

-rhodopsin is in inactive form -cGMP levels are high -Na+ and K+ channels are open ("dark current") -membrane potential is at -40 mV & transmitter is being released

subconscious sensory system

-somatic stimuli -muscle length-tension -visceral stimuli -blood pressure -pH & O2 content of blood -pH of cerebrospinal fluid -lung inflation -osmolarity of body fluids -temperature -blood glucose -distension of GI tract

conscious sensory system

-special senses -vision -hearing -taste -smell -equilibrium -somatic senses -touch-pressure -temperature -pain -proprioception

characteristics of primates

-stereoscopic color vision, bony orbits protect eyes -large brain relative to body size -largely tree-dwelling and tropical

H. Neanderthal

0.04-0.4 mya in europe and western asia. fleshed out face, used tools called mousterian and had sloping forehead.

H. erectus

0.4 - 1.2 mya

"Java man"

0.75 mya

Fishes have a ________ chambered heart

1

Unmyelinated vertebrate axons travel about what speed?

1 m/s

How sensitive are rods?

1 photon can set them off

Fungiform Papillae are found in what numbers of taste buds?

1, 2, or 4. Never 3

When and Where did dark skin pigmentation evolve?

1-2 mya in the savannas of Africa.

Three modes of selection

1-Directional 2-Stabilizing 3-Disruptive Example: mice in Florida -directional selection toward white coats toward the shore (sand) and toward dark coats away from the shore (dirt)--Disruptive selection?

excitation-contraction coupling

1. ACh binds to postsynaptic receptors on muscle opening ligand-gated cation channels, which depolarize the cell 2. this depolarization (an end-plate potential, EPP) generates action potentials in the muscle cell which are conducted down the t-tubules 3. action potentials trigger Ca2+ release channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and causing a rise in intracellular Ca2+ 4. Ca2+ binds to troponin C, removing tropomyosin block and allowing myosin-actin interaction and filament sliding

Steps for systole and diastole

1. Atrial and ventricular diastole 2. Atrial systole; ventricular diastole 3. Ventricular systole; atrial diastole

How do materials cross the capillary?

1. Diffusion-fat (lipid) soluble substances diffues across freely 2. Coupled endocytosis/excytosis 3. Diffusion through intercellular junctions 4. Specific transport proteins

Describe the ventilation by birds.

1. First inhalation: air fill the posterior air sacs 2. First exhalation: posterior air sacs contract, pushing air into lungs 3. Second inhalation: air passes through lungs and fills anterior air sacs 4. Second exhalation: As anterior air sacs contract, air that entered body at first inhalation is pushed out of body

Ventricular relaxation

1. Isovolumic ventricular relaxation 2. Semilunar valves close 3. Elastic recoil of arteries sends blood forward

What is the steps of the cardiac cycle for the pacemakers

1. Pacemaker generates wave of signals to contract 2. Signals are delayed at AV node 3. Signals pass to heart apex 4. Signals spread throughout ventricles

Natural selection requires these 3 (and only these 3) conditions:

1. Phenotypic (observable and measurable) variation 2. Fitness differences associated with variation (variation matters for survival or reproduction) 3. Some of the variation has a genetic basis: some genotypes leave more offspring (and gene copies) than others

The four-chambered stomach

1. Rumen 2. Reticulum 3. Omasum 4. Abomasum

How does blood get back to the heart?

1. Skeletal muscle pump 2. Respiratory pump

Steps for adaptations for absorption of fat

1. Triglycerides are broken down by lipases (enzymes) 2. Fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides diffuse or are transported inside of cells 3. They are reformed into triglycerides where they are repackaged into water-soluble chlymicrons 4. Chylomicrons leave the epithelial cells and enter the lymphatic system via the lacteals

Evidence of Extraterrestrial Extinction

1. Unusual concentration of iridium 2. Shocked quarts, microtektites (impact debris) 3. Yucatan crater

What are the four integrated processes in respiration?

1. Ventilation 2. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between lungs and blood 3. Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood 4. Exchange of gases between blood and cells

Ventricular contraction

1. Ventricle contracts 2. Semilunar valve opens 3. Aorta and arteries expand storing pressure in elastic walls

6 steps of synaptic transmission

1. action potential travels down to the presynaptic terminal - this depolarization opens VOLTAGE GATED CA2+ CHANNELS 2. Ca2+ enters the cell - Eca is very positive (~+180 mV) 3. the influx of Ca2+ leads to the fusion of synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitter with the presynaptic membrane 4. the vesicles release their neurotransmitter into the SYNAPTIC CLEFT, where it diffuses toward the postsynaptic cell 5. the neurotransmitter (ligand) binds to ligand-gated ion channels causing them to open - in the example shown the ligand-gated channel allows both Na+ and K+ to cross the membrane, depolarizing the cell 6. the neurotransmitter diffuses away or is enzymatically degraded, ending the signal

relaxation

1. action potentials in the motor neuron cease, any remaining ACh is rapidly degraded by acetylcholinesterase present on the postsynaptic membrane 2. with no action potentials in t-tubules, Ca2+ release ceases immediately and Ca2+ is rapidly pumped back into the lumen of the SR by Ca2+-ATPase

the spread of action potentials

1. an action potential is generated as Na+ flows inward across the membrane at one location 2. the depolarization of the action potential spreads to the neighboring region of the membrane, re-initiating the action potential there - to the left of this region, the membrane is repolarizing as K+ flows outward 3. the depolarization-repolarization process is repeated in the next region of the membrane - in this way, local currents of ions across the plasma membane cause the action potential to be propagated along the length of the axon

speciation requires...

1. an interruption of gene flow 2. eventual production of isolating mechanisms

how do ion channels open?

1. changes in the membrane a. voltage gated b. stretch gated 2. channels activated by chemicals (ligands) 3. non-gated channels (leak channels)

two factors that affect the movement of ions

1. concentration gradient 2. charge

How many recombinations are possible with a cross between two AaBbCc parents?

3 Possibilities for a (AA, Aa, aa), b (BB, Bb, bb), and c (CC, Cc cc)=3x3x3=27

vertebrate skeletal muscle contraction process

1. myosin head is bound to ATP (low energy state - 45 degree angle) 2. the myosin head (an ATPase) hydrolyzes ATP ==> ADP+Pi (high energy state - 90 degree angle) 3. the myosin head binds to actin - forming a cross bridge 4. ADP+Pi is released - causing the myosin to return to its low energy state - leading to the sliding of the actin filament 5. binding of a new ATP releases the myosin head from the actin

3 requirements of natural selection

1. phenotypic variation (observable, measurable) 2. fitness differences associated with variation - variation matters for survival and reproduction 3. some of the variation has a genetic basis, that is, some genotypes leave more offspring that others (and more gene copies) *requires all 3!*

how do we generate a larger postsynaptic response?

1. presynaptic terminal release glutamate 2. glutamate binds to AMPA & NMDA 3. Ca2+ influx through NMDA receptors activates a number of pathways in the postsynaptic cell a. increases responsiveness of AMPA receptors (phosphorylation) b. increases # of AMPA receptors available c. leads to retrograde release of nitric oxide, a gaseous neurotransmitter, that enhances presynaptic release of glutamate

immune system functions

1. protection from pathogens - disease-causing invaders 2. removal of dead or damaged tissue 3. recognition and removal of abnormal cells

phagocytosis process

1. pseudopods extend and surround microbes - a receptor-mediated event 2. microbes are engulfed into the cell 3. formation of the vacoule containing the microbes 4. vacoule fuses with lysosome 5. enzymes and toxic proteins lead to the destruction (lysis) of the microbes 6. microbial debris is released from the cell by exocytosis

autoimmune disease may arise from...

1. restricted antigen becoming exposed to the blood 2. self-antigen combines with another compound 3. formation of autoantibodies 4. cross-reactivity of antibodies

regulation of muscle contraction

1. rise in [Ca2+]in 2. Ca2+ binds to troponin C 3. conformational change in tropomyosin-troponin complex, exposing myosin binding site on actin 4,5. contraction (filament movement) may now occur

4 types of ion channels

1. voltage gated 2. stretch gated 3. ligand gated 4. non-gated (leak channels)

first multicellular eukaryotes

1.2 bya

Homo Eragster

1.5-2 mya, Turkana boy (10-12 y.o.)

The species represented by "Turkana boy" was fully bipedal and lived approximately: 1.6 to 1.8 million years ago 3 to 3.3 million years ago 4.5 billion years ago 160,000 years ago 10,000 years ago

1.6 to 1.8 million years ago

A. sediba

1.8 - 2.0 mya -from South Africa -probably descended from A. africanus -shares more derived features with early Homo species than other australopithecines

How long do taste receptors live?

10 days

How many colors can we see?

10 million

Myelinated vertebrate axons travel about what speed?

120 m/s

sapiens brain to body size ratio

1200 - 1400 cc

How many years ago did native americans branch into two genetic groups?

13,000

How many smell receptors do dogs have? Humans?

150-200 million for dogs 5 million for humans

Saccule

16K hair cells designed for vertical movement in the Otolith organ

Hadrocodium wui

195 mya -derived ear structure: seperation of middle ear bones from the jaw -mass of only about 2 g

What type of ratio do you want for taxonomy and systematics?

1:1

What is the ratio of Na+? Inside:Outside

1:10

Olfactory receptors are encoded by how much of our DNA?

2-3% of all genes

Europeans and Asians show _____ introgression of nuclear DNA characteristic of Neandertals, but...

2-5%, those from only African descent do not share DNA with Neanderthals

Homo Habilis

2.0-2.3 Not fully bipedal 650-800 cc Oldowan tools

How many species exist on earth?

2.3 million

first eukaryotes

2.5 bya

Proterozoic Era

2.5 bya - 550 mya

When were the Australopithecine Africanus around?

2.5 million years ago

When was the australopithecus garhi around and where?

2.5 million years ago; eastern africa

Paranthopus boisei (P. boisei)

2.6 mya -sagittal crests -massive jaw muscles and teeth -small brains

Cranial material

2.6 mya to 25,000 post cranial shows gradual transition to h. Sapiens during Pleistocene

What is the human ear sensitive to?

20 - 20 KHz

How long ago did AMH arrive in the Americas?

20,000

Given calibrated rates of nucleotide substitutions in our lineage, about how far back in time do we have to go to account for the amount of modern-human genetic diversity - that is, what are typical coalescent times for current global genetic variation? 6000 years 40,000 years 2,000,000 years 1,000,000 years 200,000 years

200,000 years

How long ago did mitochondrial DNA sequences from living humans coalesce?

200,000 years ago.

Mesozoic Era

250 - 65 mya "middle life"

What years is the mesozoic era

250-65mya

What is monophyletic

A group that contains ALL descendants of their most RECENT common ancestors

Mimicry

A harmless prey mimicking a dangerous one

Fundamental characteristics of life are those traits shared by __________________.

All organisms

What is the Cornea?

A clear, outer coating

What is paraphyletic?

A group that DOES NOT contain all descendants of the groups most recent common ancestor

Glutamate binds to two types of glutamate receptors

AMPA and NMDA

What is common among all animal vision systems?

All organisms can see intensity and direction of light

What is the structure of a mollusk eye like? Squid or Octopus also have this

Backwards of us -> similar to a camera

What is an example of interspecific competition

Balanus and chthamalus growing

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Allele and genotype frequencies will remain constant between generations... despite the reshuffling of genes during the formation of gametes (meiosis) and during sexual reproduction

Antagonistic pairs

Allows the joints to be moved in two directions; Relax (extend) one muscle, Engage (contract) the other, then switch to move joint the other direction.

Why are pacemaker cells connected with electrical synapses?

Allows them to depolarize at one time

What is the purpose of saliva with taste?

Allows transportation to taste cells

Residual volume

Amount of air left over in the lungs after breathing out

What animals use positive pressure breathing

Amphibians

Examples of double circulation

Amphibians, reptiles, mammals and birds

Ocellus

Basic eyes in flatworm

Shortens the muscle, placing force on the tendons, pulling the more movable bone inward

Contraction

What alters the shape of the lens?

Contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscles

Tetanus

Contraction becomes sustained without any relaxations. [Ca2+] builds up

This information is carried out of the ear by the ____________ ___________ to the brain

Auditory nerve

What type of retina do birds have?

Avascular Retina

Do flatworms run away or towards light?

Away

Skeletal muscle pump

Contraction of skeletal muscle forces blood back toward the heart-aided by series of one-way valves

Vibrations cause the _________ ______- to vibrate and this pushes the ____ _____ against the _________ _________ causing them to bend.

Basilar membrane, hair cells, tectorial membrane

Whale evolution: Aquatica with hind limbs

Basilosuarus

Why is the evolution of mammals considered transitional?

Because we know how the lineage later evolved

Action potential travels down to the presynaptic terminal. This ___________ opens ___________-gated Ca2+ channels.

Depolarization, volatage

What is the postsynaptic effect?

Depolarization/Hyperpolarization

What is used to drive the K+/Na+ pump?

ATP

Myosin heads have binding sites for _____. tropomyosin and actin ATP and calcium actin and calcium tropomyosin and troponin ATP and actin

ATP and actin

The myosin head is also what?

ATPase

Anyhydrobiosis

Ability to survive when water source dries up

The process by which the lens changes shape to keep images in focus. Contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscles alters the shape of the lens.

Accommodation

All-or-none-, brief, regenerative changes in Vm.

Action potentials

__________ _____________ transmit signals over longer distances.

Action potentials

What is saltatory conduction?

Action potentials jumping from node to node, greatly increasing velocity

Gentle pressure is going to generally do what to sensory receptors?

Activate a low frequency of action potentials. More pressure will initiate a strong response.

What do G-coupled receptors do?

Activate secondary messenger pathways which can do all sorts of things

Hair cells bending causes what?

Activated mechanisensitive channels in the hair cells, depolarizaing them.

Stronger input does what?

Activates more motor units

What happens if glutamate binds to NMDA?

Activates the NMDA channel which is permeable to Na+, Ca+, and K+.

What is indirect Synaptic Transmission?

Activation of 2nd messenger pathways

What is the purpose of the outer ear?

Acts as a reflector to capture sound efficiently and focus it towards the ear canal

What is the Cornea's function?

Acts as the initial fixed lens - attempts to sharpen and focus

Omasum

After regurgitating and rechewing the cud, it is reswallowed and moves here; much of the water is removed

What is an example of a fixed-action pattern?

Aggression in male sticklebacks

Early mammal Phylogeny

Agnathans Placoderms Chondrichthyes Acanthodians Teleosts Gars Polyodon Polypterus Coelanths Linguistes Eusthenopteron (Acanthostega) Tetrapoda

What is the middle ear?

Air filled pouch extending from the pharynx to which it is connected by the Eustachian tube

How many divisions of biology does evolutionary biology encompass in its scope?

All divisions (development, ecology, physiology, genetics, behavior, cell biology, etc.) and all taxa

If blood pressure > osmotic pressure, across the entire capillary bed......

All fluid flow goes from blood to tissues

Which of the following statements about the stimulation of muscle cells is true? ------------------------------------------------ An action potential in a muscle cell ultimately results in the release of calcium ions into the cell. Acetylcholine opens channels that allow calcium ions into the muscle cell. Neurotransmitters are released into the synapse between two muscle cells. Calcium ions bind the actin-myosin complex to start the muscle contraction process.

An action potential in a muscle cell ultimately results in the release of calcium ions into the cell

What is the Aqueous humor?

An aqueous solution that fills the eye.

Ascending limb

Ascending limb is permeable to solutes, but not much to water; osmolarity of the filtrate increases; NaCl is actively transported out; osmolarity of filtrate decreases

To maintain tetanic contractions in a muscle, some motor units are contracting while other relax, in order to prevent muscle fatigue and failure

Asynchronous recruitment

What is involved with the process of muscle tone?

Asynchronous recruitment

ANP

Atrial natriuretic peptide

How are hair cell action potentials carried?

Auditory Nerve to the brain

Transduction

Conversion of energy from one form to another

What is the middle ear's purpose?

Convert air pressure to fluid pressure

Acts as an initial fixed lens

Cornea

What is the first layer that light travels through?

Cornea

Which has the most nephrons, juxtamedullary or cortical?

Cortical

What do connexons do?

Couple neural cells

5 big mass extinctions

Between Proterozoic and Paleozoic, During Paleozoic, Between Paleo and Meso (Biggest)(Called Permo-triassic), During Meso, Between Meso and Ceno (Called Cretaceous-Tertiary).

Semelparity

Big bang reproduction Salmon Century plant

Identify the role(s) of ATP in muscle contraction. -Binds to myosin to break an actin-myosin cross-bridge - Binds to the troponin complex to expose myosin-binding sites - Provides the energy to convert myosin to a form that forms a cross-bridge with actin

Binds to myosin to break an actin-myosin cross-bridge Provides the energy to convert myosin to a form that forms a cross-bridge with actin

What evolved first bipedality or brain to body size?

Bipedality. (You have to be able to carry a bigger brain before the brain can grow.)

What is the pigmented epithelium?

Block cells and protect the sensitive rods/cones

Closed circulatory system

Blood is confined to vessels and distinct from interstitial fluid

Circulatory fluid

Blood or hemolymph

What are bee's ommatidia set to detect?

Blue/Green/UV

Ligaments

Bones joined to cartilage

Tendons

Bones joined to muscles

monogamy

Both sexes mate and reproduce with one individual, not strict in nature. There are some frequencies.

What is the flow of urine through the kidney starting with the Bowman's capsule?

Bowman's capsule, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, descending loop, ascending loop, distal tubule, collecting duct, renal pelvis

How do invertebrates perceive and react to light?

Brain orients the animal by comparing light to the two ocelli until the number of action potentials is the same coming from each eye. The animal than moves directly away from the light.

Tiktaalik

Bridge between lobe finned fishes and tetrapods. Gills, scales fins, flattened head, eyes and nostrils on top with a neck. Limb bones with wrist. Intermediate between (Eusthenopteron and Acanthostega)

aposematic coloration

Bright warning colors in animals with a chemical defense

Neurotransmitter binds to and activates a receptor that is not directly _________ with an ion channel.

Coupled

Hadrocodium wui/Mammaliaform

Derived ear structure-separation if middle ear bones from the jaw

What is the equation for cardiac output?

CO= Heart rate X stroke volume

What are oticonia?

Calcium Carbinate crystals that are subject to gravity. This gives mass for a sense of direction

What can shared, derived morphological characters do?

Can map characters not eh phylogeny

Stenohaline

Can tolerate only narrow changes in external osmolarity

Each villus contains extensive __________.

Capillaries

What tastes do we recognize?

Carbohydrates, salty, umami

Arteries

Carry blood away from heart

Veins

Carry blood to the heart

Motor Neurons

Carry output of CNS to the effector cells that produce the appropriate response

What is the purpose of mucus membranes with smell?

Catches volatile particulates and moves them to olfactory cells

What is an example of range expansions or contractions?

Cattle egrets originally in Africa, spread throughout the world

Postsynaptic Cell

Cell that receives the neurotransmitter from the synapse

Presynaptic Cell

Cell that releases neurotrasmitter into the synapse

What is synaptic transmission?

Cell to cell communication in the nervous system

What helps make learning later in life harder?

Cells destroyed at a younger age

What role does the hippocampus play in long term memories?

Central role in formation and retrieval of long term memories

How do vertebrate eyes focus images?

Change the thickness of the eyes using muscles

What stimulates the opening of closing of voltage-gated ion channels?

Changes in Vm

What stimulates the opening or closing of stretch-gated ion channels?

Changes in the tension of the membrane

Adsorption of light does what to retinal?

Changes its shape from cis to trans

How do hydrostatic skeleton organisms move?

Changing shape of fluid filled compartments with muscles/contractile cells

What are ligands?

Channels that are activated by chemicals. These open or close when specific chemicals, like neurotransmitters, bind to a channel

Which are more common: Chemical or Electrical Synapses?

Chemical Synapses

What is 'Noxious Simuli'?

Chemicals released when cells are damaged or destroyed

Animals without structured nervous system use what to locate food and mates?

Chemoreception

What do bacteria use to sense their environment?

Chemoreception

What is one of the oldest senses evolutionarily?

Chemoreception

What is the lens held in place by?

Ciliary muscles

The statoliths distort the membranes of the _________ ________ ________ causing depolarization, this gives the animal an indication of their orientation in space.

Ciliated receptor cells

How much water is reabsorbed in the ____________ _______________ is highly regulated.

Collecting duct

Cryptic Coloration

Coloring to blend into surroundings

What are the categories of interspecific interactions effects on population densities?

Competition (-,-) Consumer-victim (+,-) Mutualism (+,+) Commenalism (+,0) Amensalism (-,0)

Biotic environment components

Competitors, predators, parasites, prey, host of an environment.

Stone age genomics

Complete genome sequences from neanderthals have been found From 600,000 sample is 99.5% similar Occasional hybridization between Neanderthals and AMH outside of Africa. Europeans and Asians now show 2-5% neanderthal nuclear DNA May have provided adaptive and non adaptive alleles. Hybridization happened between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago.

High water permeability.....

Concentrated urine

The 30:1 ____________ gradient favors the outward movement of potassium

Concentration

What are the two factors that affect the movement of ions?

Concentration gradient and charge

Detect color

Cones

High acuity: concentrated in fovea

Cones

High temporal integration; fast response, short integration time

Cones

More sensitive to direct axial rays

Cones

3

Cones have how many different photopigments?

What are tonic receptors?

Constant response receptors.

What interaction causes +,-?

Consumer-victim

Echinoderms

Contain ossicles of calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate bound with proteins

Leaky replacement model

Current consensus. Modern humans and neanderthals overlapped for 3,000-5,000 years and interbred which allowed hybridization and neanderthals went extinct.

The Nernst Equation

Describes the equilibrium potential for any ion based upon charge and concentration gradients

Sensory Neurons

Detect important internal and external stimuli

What are ommatidia highly adapted for?

Detecting motion

What does vasopressin do?

Decreases in blood pressure/blood volume carotid/ aortic baroreceptors/ atrial stretch receptors

Marine environment is _____________, so they tend to lose water from body by osmosis. How do you counteract this?

Dehydrating; counteract this by drinking large volumes of water

Generally correlated with increased activity

Depolarization

Taste stimulus results in what?

Depolarization

P wave

Depolarization of atria

QRS complex

Depolarization of ventricles

There are two forces affecting the movement of ions.

Electrical and concentration

What fueled the exponential growth of the human population?

Drop in death rates and increase in birth rates.

Why does stenosis happen?

Due to calcium deposits or scarring

Which mutation is the most able to give rise to new "gene families?"

Duplication

What organisms use the entire skin surface?

Earthworms; subset of amphibians

Respiratory pigments

Easily bind to CO and binds to O2 because air isnt water soluble and these pigments bind to the gas and make it easier to get into the blood stream

Ingestion

Eating

Contain ossicles of calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate bound with proteins

Echinoderms

The _________ attraction of the positive ions draws K+ to the negative interior.

Electrical

Chemical Synapse

Electrical activity in one neuron is conveyed to another by the release of a chemical messenger between them.

True or false? Myofibrils are the alternating light-dark units that produce the banded appearance of muscle fibers.

False

role reversals

Female female competition and male selection Mormon cricket, accepted females were bigger. He is maximizing his fitness by picking the female that can hold the most offspring.

Reverse sexual dimorphism

Females are more brightly colored/flashier/bigger than males (phalaropes)

Female choice is an indicator of male genetic quality

Females pick desireable traits which happen to correlate with better genes. Better plummage > fewer parasites.

What is a motor unit?

Fibers that are innervated by a single motor neuron

Steps to excretion

Filtration, reabsorption, secretion, excretion

By 40,000 years ago...

Fire, hearths, clothing, cave paintings, sculpture Graves, burials, beads, jewelry (30,000) evidence of religion

Examples of single circulation

Fishes

Protonephridia are a type of ___________.

Flatworm

What is Planaria?

Flatworm

Is the end of the basilar membrane stiff or flexible?

Flexible

Hydrostatic

Fluid held under pressure in a closed compartment, organism moves by changing shape of fluid-filled compartments with muscles/contractile cells

Neanderthals

Found from 400,000 to 40,000 in Europe and w. Asia. Fleshed out face Prominent browbridgr, bulbous nose, sloping for head, stocky build Occipital bun. Lived in Europe 40,000 years ago. 3000-5000 year overlap with AMH

Where are open circulatory systems found?

Found in insects, many arthropods, mulloscs

Birds have multiple ________.

Fovea

Tonotopic Map

Frequency map of hearing

Intensity of a stimulation is coded for in terms of what?

Frequency of action potentials generated Number of receptors activated Duration of stimulus

Human evolution time-line

From 6MYA to less than 100,000. Especially in Rift Valley of Africa

What taste bud looks like an onion?

Fungiform Papillae

How can gene flow interfere with natural selection?

Gene flow usually interferes with natural selection. When natural selection is acting locally, like if in two neighboring populations an "a" allele is good in one but bad in the other, gene flow acts antagonistically against natural selection, maintaining a mix of that allele in both populations instead of letting it become more/less common in a certain population. Example: only spraying 1/4 fields with a certain pesticide

Microevolution

Generation-to-generation changes--processes observed today --What are the causes of evolution? Why don't populations and species stay just as they are?

The population of the northern elephant seal declined to <20 individuals in the 1890's due to hunting, but the population was protected and recovered to >120,000 individuals. However, there is still no genetic variation at 24 enzyme genes. The southern populations, which didn't experience this population decrease, have the genetic variation one would expect from such a population. What is this an example of?

Genetic drift

What is a major short-term cause of changes in allele frequencies?

Genetic drift

Evolutionary change absolutely requires

Genetic variation

What kind of biologic diversity do we study?

Genetic, Species, Ecosystem

Alleles influence ________________, which influence _______________.

Genotypes, phenotypes

"Supporting cells" in the nervous system that fulfill a variety of important roles

Glial cells

Formation of blood-brain barrier

Glial cells

Insulate neurons electrically

Glial cells

Secretion of compounds for neuronal maintenance

Glial cells

Structural support

Glial cells

What is the Mylelin sheath made of?

Glial cells

What makes the blood/brain barrier?

Glial cells

Glia vs Neuron. Which is more numerous?

Glial cells are about 50x more numerous

The Bowman's capsule surrounds the ____________.

Glomerulus

What is an example of a stenohaline organism?

Goldfish

All action potentials are proceeded by what?

Graded potentials

What do the sensory systems respond to?

Graded potentials - also called receptor potentials

Thick myosin filaments only

H zone

Species of Genus Homo

H. Habilis 2-2.3 not fully bipedal H. Ergaster 1.5-2 H. Erectus .4-1.2 H. Neanderthalensis. 04-.4 H. Sapiens present to-.15 H. Naledi recently described but unknown age

Multi regional model

H. Sapiens dispersed throughout the old world and simultaneously evolved to modern form with abundant gene flow.

"Beijing man"

H. erectus in China 0.7 mya

What are macula?

Hair cells that are in an elliptical pattern

Vibrations in the basilar membrane cause what?

Hair cells to push against the tectorial membrane causing the hair cells to bend.

Exoskeleton

Hard covering of the body surface including shells or cuticles that attach to underlying muscles

Sinoatrial (SA) node

Has fastest rhythm, sets heart rhythm

Atrioventricular (AV) node

Has slower rhythm

Delete

Head position

Steps to the open circulatory system.

Heart pumps hemolymph to sinuses, which surround organs Heart relaxes and hemolymph is drawn back through ostia (one way pores)

Saliva helps do what in a taste bud?

Helps the chemical go down the taste bud

Reticulum

Here and in the rumen, prokaryotes and protists begin the process of breaking down the cellulose and release ratty acids as a by-product

Sharks maintain ___________ internal solute concentration.

High

Examples of Peramorphosis

High brain to body ratio

Respiration in terrestrial organisms

High concentration of oxygen available, oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse much faster in air than water, air is much easier to move than water, hard to maintain moisture over entire surface of respiratory tissues, air is delivered directly to body cells, larger air sacs deliver oxygen to larger organs, small insects do not require ventilation

Why bother to filter 180L of fluid per day if >99% of it will be reabsorbed?

High filtration rate clears foreign substances, filtering ions and water into the tubule simplifies their regulation

What frequencies are registered by the base of the basilar membrane?

High frequencies

More pressure is going to generally do what to sensory receptors?

High frequency of action potentials per receptor

Stronger stimuli generate ___________ frequency of action potentials.

Higher

Oxygen will move from areas of __________ partial pressure for oxygen to areas of _______ PO2.

Higher; lower

The ______________ plays a central role in the formation and retrieval of long-term memories

Hippocampus

What is the oldest part of the brain?

Hippocampus

What is the pupil?

Hole in the center that allows light.

Orangutan

Hominoid. not social, fruit eaters, differences in culture.

gorilla

Hominoiid. dominated by silverback male. male to male competition. males are twice the size of females.

What genus homo was recently discovered?

Homo Naledi

The Tasmanian Wolf is an example of what?

Homoplasy

The same pattern of bones, same genes turned on and off to produce same pattern of bones with modifications, is an example of what?

Homoplasy

Atavisms Examples

Horses with toes, whales with femur. Chick's with teeth. Human tails

we don't know, but about 2.3 million have been described by specialist.

How many species exist on earth?

doubling times

How you can tell if a population is growing exponentially. The time it takes for a population to double.

Compare ommatidia's ability to see flashes of light to that of human's.

Humans - 50/s Ommatidia - 330/s

Most commonly, tissues are ______________ compared to sea water.

Hypoosmolar

Thin filaments of actin

I-band

The opening and closing of _______ __________ alters the membrane's permeability to various ions.

Ion channels

The receptors for taste operate how? (two ways)

Ion channels or G-Protein Coupled Receptors

Diversity in the olfaction system allows what?

Identification of a huge variety of different chemical structures

Example of how gene flow speeds up global adaptation

If all farmers in an area are spraying their fields with the same pesticide but only some populations have alleles for resistance, gene flow can cause all populations to become resistant.

Example of how gene flow prevents local adaptation

If only one region of a field is sprayed with a certain insecticide, gene flow keeps bringing in the "wrong" (susceptible) allele, preventing these insects from adapting to the pesticide

Boyle's law

If the volume of a container of gas changes, the pressure of the gas will change in an inverse manner

Where are taste receptor cells also found?

In the soft palate, esophagus, epiglottis, and larynx

What is marasmus?

Inadequate caloric intake

What can also produce an effect like genetic drift?

Inbreeding

Higher stimulus will do what to Action Potential generation?

Increase the frequency

Characteristics of Homo

Increasing brain:body Making tools

IPSP

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential

What is the action for ANP?

Inhibits Na+ reabsorption in distal tubules, inhibits release of renin from juxtaglomerular cells

The number and complexity of dendrites is correlated with the amount of ________ the neuron receives

Input

What are Arthropods?

Insects and Crustaceans

Malphighian tubules are a types of ______________.

Insects and terrestrial arthropods

Is the [K+] higher inside or outside of the cell?

Inside

What does the Myelin Sheath provide?

Insulation

Information processing

Integrate data -> decide on an appropriate response

What is the role of the nervous system?

Integrate information

What is the charge relative to?

Interior to the outside

The vast majority of cells in the nervous system are _________.

Interneurons

What type of cell are the vast majority of cells in the nervous system?

Interneurons

Taste stimuli cause a membrane depolarization and a rise in ____________ Ca2+

Intracellular

Sexual Selection: 2 types

Intrasexual selection and Intersexual selection

Contains several 1000 ommatidia- each capable of detecting light in a particular visual space

Invertebrates

Simplest eyes only detect light intensity and direction it is coming from.

Invertebrates

What type of retina do vertebrates have?

Inverted Structure

How does cardiac muscle differ from the other types of muscle? - It contains unbranched cells. - It contains multinucleated cells. - It contains branched cells. - It is organized into thin sheets.

It contains branched cells.

What is a reason that medicine tastes bad?

It interferes with the body's physiological processes

Exponential growth model

J type curve. dn/dt=rN.

What is the word Umami?

Japanese word for delicious

What was one of the first life tables?

John Graunt calculated population in london in 1662

What are the two inhibitory channels?

K+ Cl- channel

What channel is taste similar to?

Kidneys

What is the communication of neurons?

Language of Electrical Impulses

Respiratory surfaces tend to be ____________ and ________ to maximize gas exchange.

Large and thin

What are non-gated channels?

Leak channels - they are always open

What is the importance of plasticity?

Learning Long Term Depression

If the graph is shifted to the left.....

Less O2 is released per give Po2

History of Life on Earth

Life at 3.7 BYA. 3.5 Stromatolites 2.1 Single Cell Eukaryotic 1.2 Multicellular Eukaryotic 535-525MYA Cambrian Explosion 500 MYA colonization of land by fungi, plants and animals

Type III

Life table curve shows large amount of births but few survive and the ones that do live long.

Type I

Life table curve that shows low amount of births and good long survival rate for offspring.

In TEM what is dark and what is light?

Light - Thin Filaments Dark - Thick Filaments

Abiotic environment components

Light, Water, Wind, PH, Temp of an environment.

Assortative mating

Like phenotypes only mate with each other, NOT with unlike phenotypes (big beetles mate with big beetles, small beetles mate with small beetles)

What is the largest disadvantage of the electrical synapses?

Limited flexibility

Is genetic drift adaptive change?

No, it's non-adaptive change due solely to sampling error.

As humans spread across the globe minor genetic changes arose from ______ and _____ to allow variance inn height, lactose digestion, cold tolerance, skin color, malaria resistance?

Local Selection and genetic drift.

What is myosin?

Long coiled tail + globular head

Long lasting changes in how the synapse responds

Long term potentiation

Macroevolution

Long-term changes above the species level--reconstructs historical patterns over long time scales --What has been the history of life on Earth? When did certain groups evolve or grow extinct?

Presbyopia

Loss of lens accommodation with aging - causes farsightedness

What frequencies are registered at the apex of the basiler membrane?

Low frequencies

Solutes move selectively across the transporting epithelium to/from the blood to the _________ of the tubule.

Lumen

Attachment site for thick filaments

M line

The ultimate source of ALL genetic variation is . . .

MUTATION

aurignacian tools

Made by H. Sapiens

Z-Line

Made of proteins that attach to actin Defines the basic unit of contraction - The sarcomere

John Graunt

Made on of he first life tables (London)

Sphygmomanometry

Measurement of blood pressure

Identify the correct statement(s) about sensory receptors. - Mechanoreceptors detect sound. - Electromagnetic receptors detect pheromones. - Foods taste spicy when they activate the same sensory receptors that high temperatures activate.

Mechanoreceptors detect sound. Foods taste spicy when they activate the same sensory receptors that high temperatures activate.

How do hair cells figure out which way the fluid is moving?

Mechanoreceptors. If the fluid is moving the preferred direction the cell releases many action potentials. If the fluid moves the other way, the cell releases fewer action potentials than the resting state.

What are the classes of sensory receptors?

Mechanosensitive Receptors Thermoreceptors Chemoreceptors Electromagnetic Receptors Nociceptors

This activates _________________ ______________ in the hair cells, depolarizing them

Mechanosensitive channels

Respond to mechanical energy

Mechanosensitive receptors

Taste stimuli cause a ____________ _____________ and a rise in intracellular Ca2+

Membrane depolarization

The plasma membrane of a neuron has voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels. What is the effect of membrane depolarization on these channels? --------------------------------------- Membrane depolarization opens sodium and potassium channels at the same time. Membrane depolarization first opens sodium channels and then opens potassium channels. Membrane depolarization opens sodium channels but closes potassium channels.

Membrane depolarization first opens sodium channels and then opens potassium channels.

All neurons have a potential difference across their plasma membrane called....

Membrane potential

iridium

Metal that is rare in rocks at Earth's surface but is relatively common in meteorites and asteroids.

Two overlapping and artificial categories of evolution

Microevolution Macroevolution Overlapping subject: speciation

Where are the ossicles found?

Middle Ear

Action Potential Threshold

Minimum depolarization necessary to generate an action potential

In what way do molecules stimulate the taste receptors?

Molecules dissolved in a solution

What are some examples of creatures that evolved single lens eyes independently?

Molluscs Jellies Spiders

If the graph is shifted to the right.....

More O2 is released per given Po2

What is the difference between one and many receptors activating?

More action potentials are generated

Carry the output of the CNS to the effector cells that produce the appropriate response

Motor neurons

The olfaction cells sit in what?

Mucus

What is found in a taste bud?

Mucus

Syncytium

Multinucleate mass of cytoplasm resulting from fusion of cells.

Each motor neuron can innervate how many muscle fibers?

Multiple muscle fibers

Why are antagonistic pairs necessary?

Muscles contract to move a load and relax passively

Explain positive pressure breathing

Muscles lower the floor of the oral cavity, air flows in through the nostrils, nostrils and mouth close, floor of the mouth rises, forces air down the trachea, lung recoil and body movements force air back out of the lungs during expiration

Osmoregulators

Must control its internal osmolarity (all freshwater and terrestrial animals)

Osmoregulators, if it lives in a hypoosmotic environment it.....

Must get rid of excess water

Osmoregulators, it if lives in a hyperosmotic environment it.......

Must take in water (marine life)

UVR

Mutagen, destroys folale and is correlated with skin pigmentation.

What process creates new alleles?

Mutation

In many vertebrate neurons the axons are covered with what?

Myelin Sheath

Focal point falls in front of retina

Myopia

Long coiled tail, globular head

Myosin

Which of the following interactions is the molecular basis of muscle contraction? ------------------------------------------------ Sarcomeres and T tubules. Troponin and tropomyosin. Myosin and thin filaments. Myosin and thick filaments.

Myosin and thin filaments.

Which molecules form the thick filaments of sarcomeres? ------------------------------------------------ Myosin. T tubules. Actin Myofibrils.

Myosin.

neanderthals did or did not evolve as a group into modern Europeans?

NOT

What are the three excitatory channels?

Na+ Ca2+ Cation-selective channel

What are involved with the production of the action potential?

Na+/K+ channels

What does it mean for natural selection to act globally?

Natural selection is affecting the entire population

What does it mean for natural selection to act locally?

Natural selection is only affecting a portion of the entire population

Myopia

Nearsightedness Focal point falls in front of the retina

The 3 conditions of natural selection are both _____________ and ____________

Necessary (all 3 must be satisfied); sufficient (natural selection will only occur if all 3 are satisfied)

In many areas, blood flow to specific organs is determined according to what?

Need

At normal intracellular pH what is the charge inside the cell?

Negative

What are some examples of a hydrostatic skeleton?

Nematodes Annelids

What is the functional unit of the kidney?

Nephron

What plays a role in maintaining homeostasis?

Nervous System

The functional unit of the nervous system

Neurons

What are 2nd messenger pathways?

Neurotransmitter binds to and activates a receptor that is not directly coupled with an ion channel

What are some things that taste bitter?

Nightshade Venoms Medicines

Are rods present in fovea?

No

Are we good at smelling?

No

Do all sensory receptors fire action potentials?

No

Do birds have blood vessels in the back of their eyes?

No

Does the CNS regenerate?

No

Is the human population still growing exponentially?

No

Is the taste system a sensitive one?

No

Is there such a thing as a tongue map?

No

non-evolving population

No net mutations occur • Population large (actually, infinite): no genetic drift • Population isolated from others - no gene flow • Mating is random - e.g., no inbreeding or assortative mating (inbreeding increases homozygotes) • No natural selection (the Hardy Wineburg conditions)

Why do photoreceptors not fire action potentials?

No voltage-gated Na2+ channels

Paleobiology

Offers insight to earth history through fossil record

Cercopithecoids

Old world monkeys

What is the only sense that makes its first connection in the brain?

Olfaction

What are some examples of phasic receptors?

Olfactory receptors and photoreceptors

How does the membrane change its permeability to various ions?

Opening and Closing of Ion Channels

As pressure waves travel through the cochlea, membranes within the __________ vibrate at the same frequency as the incoming sound

Organ of corti

Delete

Organisms retain genes for making structures no longer found in their lineage

Eryhaline

Organisms that can tolerate large fluctuations in external osmoslarity

Most invertebrates are ______________.

Osmoconformers

Protonephridia do what type of osmosis?

Osmoregulation

Malpighian tubules do what type of osmosis?

Osmoregulation and excretion of N2 wastes

Metanephridia do what type of osmosis?

Osmoregulation and secretion

Most vertebrates are ______________.

Osmoregulators

Secretion

Other unwanted compounds are actively extracted from the body fluids and added to the filtrate for excretion

On and in the otolithic membrane are millions of calcium carbonate crystals that are subject to gravity

Otoconia

Sense linear acceleration and head position.

Otolith organs

Gills

Outfoldings of the body that are suspended in water

Is the [Na+] higher inside or outside of the cell?

Outside

Vibrations from the stapes go where?

Oval Window

What does each Otolith organ contain?

Ovoid sac of gelatinous membrane

If a large population has two alleles at the "A" gene, allele A at frequency p=0.5 and allele a at frequency q=0.5, what is the probability of losing an allele (A or a) if two individuals are chosen at random (4 copies of the gene)?

P(0A4a)=0.0625 P(4A0a)=0.0625 P(0A4a∪4A0a)=2(0.0625)=0.125=12.5%

The phanerozoic Eon is composed of what eras?

Paelozoic, mesozoic, and cenozoic

When was the biggest mass extinction?

Paleozoic and Mesozoic

Diastole

Period when specific chambers of the heart relax after a contraction

The post synaptic effect depends upon the _____________ of the channel activated.

Permeability

What does the post synaptic effect depend on?

Permeability of the channel activated

K+ ions are most ___________.

Permeable

NDMA

Permeable to Na, k and Ca; active only when both glutamate is bound and the cell is depolarized

What is a sensory receptor that does not fire an action potential?

Photoreceptors

There are many specific mechanisms of dispersal and gene flow, including

Pine pollen clouds, seeds with pappi, blue jays carrying acorns, animal migration, etc

Acts as a reflector to capture sound efficiently and focus it toward the ear canal

Pinna

What is another name for the outer ear?

Pinna

Anthropoidea (Simiiformes)

Platyrhines and Catarrhines

Distal tubule

Plays key role in regulation of NaCl and K+ in body fluids by varying their absorption and secretion, respectively; also in pH regulation

Collecting duct

Plays role in how much NaCl is reclaimed in the filtrate by altering its active transport; as it passes through the medulla, more water is reabsorbed, concentrating the urine

What is Spatial Summation?

Post synaptic neurons sum up all their inputs in space

What is Temporal Summation?

Post synaptic neurons sum up all their inputs in time

What is synaptic integration?

Postsynaptic neurons sum up all their inputs in both time and space

What is the membrane potential?

Potential difference across the plasma membranes of cells

What control whether blood flows through the capillary beds or not?

Precapillary sphincters

What releases glutamate?

Presynaptic terminal

Examples of Paedomormorphosis

Retention of juvenile gills in mature axolotl. Human skulls. Can be induced by thyroxine injection

What is summation?

Process of combining individual twitches, largely due to the arrival of additional nerve impulses before the previous contraction has subsided

Sarcopterygians showed development of which characteristic?

Proximal osseous elements (Stylopod)

What are the three distinct parts to circulation?

Pulmonary, cardiac and systemic

What were some of the transitional steps in fossil records?

Quadrupedal paddling pelvic undulation caudal undulation caudal oscillation

Stochastic

Randomly determined

Bottom heavy pyramid indicates what kind of growth?

Rapid

What do neurons do?

Receive and transmit information

What do the neurons do?

Receive and transmit information

Respond ot stimuli with graded potentials

Receptor potentials

What is the purpose of our umami sense?

Recognition of amino acids

What does sweet function as?

Recognition of carbohydrates

What does salty function as?

Recognition of minerals

A short-term source of genetic variation in a sexual population

Recombination

What processes create new genotypes?

Recombination and sex

Active retinal is reduced to inactive form in pigment epithelium when?

Recovery

Inactive retinal returns to rod and combines with opsin when?

Recovery

Tension generated gets greater the more fibers that are stimulated, stronger input activates more motor units

Recruitment

The _________ stores the feces until their elimination through the ___________.

Rectum; anus

Tapetum

Reflective layer behind the rods and cones. This is what dogs and cats have that reflect creepily in the dark

Tip link proteins are what in inhibition?

Relaxed

Vasopressin

Released from posterior pituitary

Diuresis

Removal of excess water from the body in urine

Birds don't have a problem with ___________ _____________.

Residual volume (Air inhaled, but not exhaled)

Respiration in aquatic organisms

Respiratory membranes always moist, relative oxygen in water much lower than in air, countercurrent exchange ensures that the concentration gradient for oxygen movement always favors the flow of oxygen into the blood

Animals transport oxygen to their tissue using ____________ _________.

Respiratory pigments

Thermoreceptors

Respond to changes in temperature

Mechanosensitive Receptors

Respond to mechanical energy

What are phasic receptors?

Response adapts rapidly after initial burst of activity

When neurons are not actively signaling, the membrane potential is referred to as....

Resting potential

When neurons are not actively signaling, the membrane potential is referred to as.....

Resting potential

Diarrhea

Results when the colon becomes irritated and is less able to reabsorb water

Constipation

Results when the feces pass too slowly through the colon and additional water is reabsorbed

Vertical movements

Saccule

Delete

Sagittal crests Massive jaw Muscle and teeth Small brains

The myelin sheath and clustering of ion channels cause the action potential to jump from node to node, greatly increasing conduction velocity

Saltatory conduction

Proximal tubule

Salts, especially NaCl, water and nutrients are absorbed primarily in the proximal tubule

Osmotic pressure is roughly the _____________ along the length of the capillaries, but the blood pressure _________ sharply.

Same; drops

Example of Echinoderm

Sand Dollar

What is the purpose of the Aqueous Humor?

Scatter light?

What is the purpose of sour?

Scientists are not sure. Gilbertson just things it is a byproduct.

Rods and cones have a synaptic terminal. Where does it terminate?

Second Order Bipolar Cells

Bipolar cells are what?

Second order cells

African Finches, Disruptive selection

Selection to the extremes. Small or Large beaks are most adaptive. Intermediate are not.

What were some characteristics of the ambulocetus?

Semi-aquatic, full hind limbs

The ___________ __________ lie in three distinct planes to detect angular head movements.

Semicircular canals

What are Otolith Organs

Sense linear acceleration and head position - help provide balance

Response adapts rapidly after initial burst of activity

Sensory adaptation

Detect important internal and external stimuli

Sensory neurons

Photoreceptors are basically what?

Sensory neurons that do not fire action potentials

What is a statocyst?

Sensory organ that contains ciliated receptor cells that respond to mechanical deformation

Conformational change of retinal does what to the retinal - opsin complex?

Seperates it

What are the subconscious senses highlighted in class?

Somatic Stimuli Visceral Stimuli

Commensalism.

Some species benefits from the other, but the other gets nothing, no benifit or harm to other species. (+,0)

What drives the cardiac cycle?

Specific collections of cells, produce electrical signals intrinsically that cause the precisely timed contractions of the atria then the ventricles

Population structure

Specific to a species: The species' subdivision in space and its fluctuations over time Graph in text: Number of individuals/time

Whale evolution: Pakicrtus

Spent some of its time submerged, transitional species of whales

What evidence is there of the extraterrestrial cause of the mass extinction at the end of the mesozoic?

Spike in iridium, impact debris, right age and size, shocked quartz, oil company

Supported by hard particles of inorganic material, called spicules

Sponges

What are the types of endoskeleton?

Sponges Echinoderms Chordates

Vibrations transmitted from the _________ to the __________ __________ cause fluid movements within the chambers in the ____________.

Stapes, oval window, cochlea

As the animal moves, the particle within the statocyst, called ___________, move and settle to the lowest point by gravity.

Statoliths

Most organisms are said to be ___________.

Stenohaline

Two students studying physiology taste a known "bitter" substance, and both report sensing bitterness. They then sample another substance. Student A reports sensing both a bitter taste and a salty taste, but student B reports only a salty taste. What is the most logical explanation? ------------------------------------------------ Student A has normal "bitter" taste buds; student B has defective "bitter" taste buds that result in lower sensitivity to bitterness. Student A has normal saliva, whereas student B's saliva is more alkaline than normal. Student A has a protein receptor capable of detecting a bitter molecule found in that substance, whereas student B lacks that particular protein receptor. Student A had an allergic reaction to the food, causing him to perceive the food as being bitter.

Student A has a protein receptor capable of detecting a bitter molecule found in that substance, whereas student B lacks that particular protein receptor.

Biodiversity Ecology

Study of extinction.

Ecology

Study of interactions between organisms and their environments, both abiotic and biotic components. Understanding the dynamics of invasive or endangered species.

Community Ecology

Study of multiple species.

Tetrapod Limb

Stylopod (humerus/femur), zeugopod (radius/ulna,tibia/fibula),autopod (phalanges)

Graded responses occur because of what?

Summation

Purpose of a skeleton

Support Protection Movement

Sponges

Supported by hard particles of inorganic material called spicules

Glia are what?

Supporting cells that fulfill a variety of functions

Ampulla

Swelling parts of the semilunar canals that contain hair cells

Evolution of Synapsids

Synapsid->Therapsids->cynodont->mammals

Where did mammals come from?

Synapsids

Temporal Fenestra

Synapsids (300MYA) Therapsids (280) Early Cynodont (260)

Postsynaptic neurons sum up all their inputs in both time and in space

Synaptic integration

TCR

T cell receptor - takes part in stimulating cytokine release

What led to the theory of muscle contraction?

TEM of muscle fiber

the job of sensory systems

TRANSDUCE incoming stimuli into electrical signal

there is genomic evidence of occasional hybridization between Neanderthals and AMH outside of africa?

TRUE

Nocturnal animals have a reflective layer called?

Tapetum

Tarsiiformes

Tarsiers

Dissolved in the saliva

Taste

Where do anhydrobiosis live?

Temporary ponds

What is the cenozoic era composed of?

Tertiary

If contraction become sustained without any relaxations it is called?

Tetanus

What is a possible reason that smell is linked strongly with memories?

That the olfaction system makes its first connection with the brain

Visual Acuity

The ability to form/see sharp images

The number and complexity of dendrites is correlated with what?

The amount of input the neuron receives

What differs between offspring and parent generations in natural selection?

The amount of variation in/average value of a trait

A person able to hear only high-frequency sounds would probably have which of the following structural problems in the ear? - The basilar membrane is stiffened along its entire length. - The tympanum is damaged because of chronic ear infections. - The ear ossicles are abnormally thickened. - All of these problems could result in inability to detect low-frequency sound.

The basilar membrane is stiffened along its entire length.

Stabilizing selection on a gall size in a fly

The birth weight of babies, the median or the highest rate of survival comes from 7lbs, the mortality rate goes if the 9+lbs and the mortality rate skyrockets if the baby is 4 or less pounds

Where does the olfactory system make its first connection?

The brain

What does the Nernst Equation describe?

The equilibrium potential for any ion based upon their charge and concentration gradients

Filtration

The excretory tubule collects a filtrate from the blood. Blood pressure forces water and solutes across the selectively permeable membrane into the tubule

What is a neuron?

The functional unit of the nervous system

How does gene flow prevent local adaptation?

The gene which would ordinarily be selected against and decrease in proportion is continually brought into the population, so it can never be removed by selection.

How do Molluscs/Jellies/Spiders focus their lenses?

The iris changes the diameter of the pupil to let in more or less light by moving it forward and backward

What is the origin?

The less moveable bone

What does it mean when a chemical defense is induced?

The levels are increased when the plant sense danger

How do insects hear?

The majority of insects have body surfaces ccovered with hairs of varying length and thickness that vibrate at different frequencies. This activates mechanosensitive channels at their base

What is a carrying capacity?

The maximum population size that can be supported by available resources

Stabilizing selection

The mean doesn't change, but the variance shrinks. The phenotypes of the population converge toward intermediate variants

Disruptive selection

The mean remains constant, but the distribution is now bimodal. This is the opposite of stabilizing selection. The population shifts towards both ends of the phenotypic range.

Directional selection

The mean shifts right/left, but the variance remains constant The population shifts towards one end of the phenotypic range

What is the insertion point?

The more moveable bone

How do the statoliths create the sense of gravity?

The move and settle to the lowest point by gravity. They distort the membranes of the ciliated receptor cells causing depolarization.

Archaeopteryx lithographica

an extinct bird which shows an evolutionary transition between ancestral dinosaurs and modern birds. -150 mya

What is proprioception?

The perception of body in 3D space

Why is the resting potential of cells at -70 mV?

The permeability of the membrane to multiple different ions.

Which step constitutes the power stroke of muscle contraction? ------------------------------------------------ The phosphate ion is released, and the myosin head moves back to its original position. ATP binds myosin, causing the myosin head to be released from actin. ADP is released. ATP is hydrolyzed, causing myosin to bind another actin subunit.

The phosphate ion is released, and the myosin head moves back to its original position.

Membrane Potential

The potential difference across their plasma membrane of all neurons; Language of cell communication

What is accomodation?

The process by which the lens changes shape to keep images in focus.

Allele frequencies

The proportion of all the copies of the "A" gene that are 'A' versus the proportion that are 'a' in a population

Vm is closer to Ek; what does this imply?

The resting membrane is more permeable to K than it is to Na

What is the general olfactory transduction pathway?

The system opens up a Ca2+ Ca2+ opens up Ca2+/Cl- channel Cell very quickly depolarizes

What causes the channels to open when the hair cells move?

The tip link protein change in conformation as the hairs move

Taste receptor cells reside primarily in what?

The tongue

Reabsorption

The transport epithelium reclaims needed substances from the filtrate where they return to the body fluids

What is the key to reabsorption and secretion/

The transporting epithelium

How do semilunar canals provide balance?

There are three canals that go in different directions. The stereocilia of the hair cells project into a gel matrix. As the head moves, the gel presses on the stereocilia.

Respond to changes in temperature

Thermoreceptors

What do the blood vessels do?

They act as a blood/nutrient supply to the retina

Why do hair cells have a more positive resting membrane potential?

They are always releasing action potentials

Which of these examples is not an atavism? chick tissue developing tooth enamel a dolphin with an external hind limb a platypus laying an egg a newborn human with a post-anal tail a horse with side toes

a platypus laying an egg

Vessels

Through which the circulatory fluic moves

Salivary amylase

To begin breakdown of carbohydrates; hydrolyzes starch and glycogen

Pump

To provide the pressure for fluid movement

Where do the fluid waves go?

To the end and back through the round window

Where does the graph shift to if there is an increased temperature and Pco2 and decreased pH?

To the right

Pressure-sensitive baroreceptors, nociceptors, and some tactile and proprioceptors are what?

Tonic receptors

We recognize and reject those things which could potentially harm us

Toxin avoidance

What is the job of the sensory systems?

Transduce incoming stimuli into an electrical signal

Activated opsin activates G protein

Transducin

What is the purpose of the inner ear?

Transform fluid pressure into electrical signals

What is the mesozoic era composed of?

Triassic, jurassic, and cretaceous

Rod-shaped, closely associated with actin

Tropomyosin

3-protein complex that associates with tropomyosin to form a barrier to formation of cross-bridges between actin and myosin

Troponin

True or false: life has been on earth between 3.5-4 billion years

True

True or false: there are trade-offs between current reproduction and survival or future reproduction

True

Competition can be post-copulatory. True or False?

True; Example: sperm competition

Secretory systems in different organisms all share...

Tubular-like structure, large surface area and ability to transport water solutes and nitrogenous wastes

What is a contraction of an individual muscle fiber?

Twitch

What is homoplasy

Two or more organisms share a character not by common ancestry but by independent evolution

Pakicetus and Ambulocetus

Two supposed whale ancestors that are now known to have been land animals

What is another name for the eardrum?

Tympanic Membrane

In the middle ear, what is the order of movement of pressure waves?

Tympanic Membrane -> Ossicles -> Oval Window

Where do osmoconformers live?

Typically osmoticall stable environments

neutral mutation

UAU-tyrosine UAC- Tyrosine. Even if you change the C it stays the same. UAG- stop codon UAA- stop codon.

juvenilization

barking, fawning, face-licking, etc. PLUS juvenile-wolf skull proportions

What organisms use the entire surface area of the body for respiration?

Unicellular organisms; sponges, flatworms

What is a bad source of sour?

Unripened berries that have fewer nutrients

How do invertebrates have a sense of balance?

Using a statocyst

Horizontal movements

Utricle

Recombination and sex greatly increase

Variation in how genes are "packaged" into individuals

Driving force for blood flow is the pressure created by _____________ _________________.

Ventricular contraction

Heart contracts again before all the pressure in the elastic walls of the arteries is relieved during?

Ventricular diastole

Blood pressure is greatest in the arteries during?

Ventricular systole

Where are closed circulatory systems found?

Vertebrates; earthworms, squid and octopus

Is the sense of smell sensitive?

Very

What are the advantages to the electrical synapses?

Very Fast Very Reliable -> Not much to go wrong

Capillaries

Very small vessels where chemicals/gases are exchanged within organs

Where is the oval window attached?

Vestibular canal

Waves of fluid movements travel through the cochlea in the ___________ _______ and back through the ________ ______ where the pressure is dissipated at the _________ __________.

Vestibular canal, tympanic canal, round windo

two types of natural selection

Viability selection Sexual selection

Microvilli cover the _________.

Villi

What are some general cone characteristics?

Visual Acuity Highly concentrated in the fovea Not sensitive to low light levels

Which of the following is a direct result of depolarizing the presynaptic membrane of an axon terminal? --------------------------------------- Voltage-gated calcium channels in the membrane open. Ligand-gated channels open, allowing neurotransmitters to enter the synaptic cleft. Synaptic vesicles fuse with the membrane. The postsynaptic cell produces an action potential.

Voltage-gated calcium channels in the membrane open.

Descending limb

Water reabsorption continues; the descending limb is water permeable but not very permeable to solutes; osmolarity of the filtrate increases

What is 'Toxin Avoidance"?

We recognize and reject those things which could potentially harm us - things that interfere with processes

What is nutrient recognition?

We respond to those things we need in our diet to survive

Strepsirhines

Wet nosed Lorises Galagos Lemurs

Ultimate causation

Why something exists the way it does in the first place, and not some other way (evolutionarily speaking) "Why is the male cardinal red and not the female?" "How and when did mitochondria originate? (endosymbiosis)"

Ultimate Causation

Why something exists the way it does, why are these dice cubed shaped? Because it was poured into a cube shape, the dice wouldn't function the way it's supposed to.

How do oticonia move?

With changes in head positions

Size Dimorphism

Within a certain group, males are bigger than females, females are bigger than males, males are twice the size of females.

Are olfaction cells constantly being turned over to make new connections?

Yes

What is the advantage of phasic receptors?

You can filter out background noise/signals

What is the consequence for Long Term Potentiation?

You increase the number of receptors and you have a larger postsynaptic response after Long Term Potentiation

If it is kin selection, what must it be?

a costly behavior

What are life tables

a counting of births or deaths

Thrinaxodon

a cynodont from the early triassic

Exponential growth of the global human population has been mostly caused by: - a lengthening of generation times - an increase in doubling times - an increase in birth rates - a drop in death rates - the 888 progeny of Moulay Ismail Ibn Sharif, Emperor of Morocco

a drop in death rates

cupula

a gel matrix which the stereocilia of the hair cells projects into

Epistasis

a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus

cohort

a group of people from a given time period

natural selection

a nonrandom process that depends on fitness differences among the different phenotypes

batesian mimicry

a palatable or harmless species mimics an unpalatable or harmful model

Microtektites represent: - evidence of life over three billion years ago - a group that went extinct at the end of the Mesozoic - part of the debris associated with an asteroid impact - a common element within comets and asteroids - a cult of IT specialists that worship extremely small computers

a part of the debris associated with an asteroid impact

Sensory adaptation is apparent when _____. ------------------------------------------------ your initial dive into a cold swimming pool gives your skin "goose bumps" sitting in a hot room causes you to sweat individuals who live in cold climates have fewer cold receptors in their skin water above a certain temperature stimulates pain receptors rather than temperature receptors a person is no longer aware of a heavy necklace that was put on earlier in the day

a person is no longer aware of a heavy necklace that was put on earlier in the day

Which of these traits is most strongly associated with the evolution of bipedal locomotion? having an opposable big toe free rotation at the shoulder a repositioning of the foramen magnum shortening of the hindlimbs relative to the forelimbs an increase in depth perception

a repositioning of the foramen magnum

depolarization (the action potential)

a stimulus opens some sodium channels - Na+ inflow through those channels depolarizes the membrane - if the depolarization reaches the threshold, it triggers an action potential

functions of glia

a. structural support b. maintenance of ionic compositions c. remove "extra" chemicals (neurotransmitters,...) following their release from neurons d. insulate neurons electrically e. formation of blood-brain barrier (astrocytes) f. provide a path for developing neurons g. secretion of compounds for neuronal maintenance h. participate in information flow in the nervous system

What are two components of ecology?

abiotic and biotic

In the equation, H^2 = Vg/Vp, a value of 0.5 means what?

about half of the variation in the trait is due to genetic variation, the other half is caused by variation in the environment

apical microvilli

absorptive area in receptor cells where most receptors/channels are located

Life Tables

accounting of births and deaths. used to calculate life expectancies, rates of increase. Type I,II,III curves.

The thin filaments of sarcomeres are mostly composed of _____. ------------------------------------------------ myofibrils actin motor neurons myosin Z lines

actin

indirect synaptic transmission

activation of 2nd messenger pathways - neurotransmitter binds to and activates a receptor that is not directly coupled with an ion channel

direct synaptic transmission

activation of ligand-gated ion channels - the postsynaptic effet (depolariazation/hyperpolarization) depends upon the permeability of the channel activated > comes in two basic types: 1. Excitatory (depolarization): Na+ channel & Ca2+ channel & cation-selective channel ==> moves the cell closer to threshold 2. Inhibatory (hyperpolarization): K+ channel & Cl- channel (most cells) ==> moves the cell further from threshold

cornea

acts as an initial fixed lens

A factor that regulates a population is generally one that: - interferes with mating success affects juvenile stages most strongly - causes proportionally more deaths when population density is low - causes a population to overshoot its carrying capacity - acts in a positively density-dependent way

acts in a positively density-dependent way

Natural selection is

adaptation: the process where a character is improved for a specific function. Morphological, physiological, behavioral, and life-history traits can all show adaptation

Neandertals may have been a source of both ________ & ________ for non-African environments

adaptive & non-adaptive alleles

Many processes can cause evolutionary change in populations, but there is only one process (natural selection), which produces

adaptive change

What does amine do?

affects brain chemistry?

Monoamine Oxidase genes affect the levels of what in humans?

aggression

The middle ear converts _____. ------------------------------------------------ air pressure waves to fluid pressure waves fluid pressure waves to nerve impulses fluid pressure waves to air pressure waves air pressure waves to nerve impulses

air pressure waves to fluid pressure waves

contraction of an individual muscle fiber is?

all-or-none event ("twitch")

action potentials

all-or-none, brief, regenerative changes in Vm - once generated, the magnitude of an action potential is the same - stronger stimuli generate higher frequency (#) of action potentials

Which of these causes the release of neurotransmitter molecules? --------------------------------------- the receipt of a signal from the postsynaptic neuron the opening of voltage-regulated calcium channels and the diffusion of calcium ions out of the neuron an action potential reaching the end of the cell body an action potential reaching the end of the axon an action potential reaching the end of the dendrite

an action potential reaching the end of the axon

middle ear

an air-filled pouch extending from the pharynx - to which it is connected by the eustachian tube - begins at the eardrum, or tympanic membrane - contains three bones called the ossicles: malleus, incus, and stapes -tympanic membrane ==> [ malleus ==> incus ==> stapes ] ==> oval window

gynandromorph

an individual organism that is part male and part female -results from incorrect division of sex chromosomes early in development

cation-selective channel

an ion channel that is permeable to BOTH Na+ and K+ equally

Delete

analysis of the fossil record

rheumatoid arthritis

antibodies against connective tissue in joints

autoantibodies

antibodies against own antigens

diabetes mellitus

antibodies against pancreatic ß cells

rheumatic fever

antibodies against pathogen attack antigen in the heart ==> heart damage

Grave's disease

antibodies against thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor (activation!)

humoral response

antibodies defend against infection in body fluids

plasma cells

antibody-producing cells that secrete antibodies during an active infection

complement proteins

antimicrobial protein -activated by pathogens to eventually lyse microbes or activate acquired immune responses

lysozyme

antimicrobial protein -digests cell walls of bacteria

interferons (α or β)

antimicrobial protein -produced by virus-infected cells that activate other defenses related to inhibition of viral reproduction

interferon (γ)

antimicrobial protein -secreted by lymphocytes that leads to macrophage activation

defensins

antimicrobial protein -secreted by macrophages - damage pathogens, leading to their destruction

What is an example of mutualistic interaction

ants tending a treehopper cow

What are hominoids?

apes including humans

How do distasteful or dangerous prey warn predators?

aposematic coloration

You should know the rough sequence of human evolution, what comes before what?

ardipeithecus came before australopithecus, etc.

What is the first taxon that is clearly on the branch that led to humans?

ardipithecus ramidus

Which list is in a correct chronological order, from earliest (oldest) to latest (youngest)? Dr. Messina is born, Cro-Magnon people, Australopithecus afarensis, Homo habilis, Dr. Gilbertson is born Ardipithecus ramidus, "Lucy", Neanderthals, Homo habilis, Homo sapiens none of these sequences is in a correct chronological order Ardipithecus ramidus, Australopithecus afarensis, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Cro-Magnon people Australopithecus afarensis, Homo ergaster, Homo habilis, Java man, Neanderthals

ardipithecus ramidus, australopithecus afarensis, homo habilis, homo erectus, cro-magnon people

virtually all species that have existed on earth...

are extinct

What is classical conditioning?

associate or pair one usually neutral stimulus with another, non-neutral stimulus

What was the most recent mass extinction?

asteroid hitting the earth

The biggest known mass extinction occurred: at the boundary between the Paleozoic and Mesozoic after the first Biol 1610 exam from Drs. Mott and Podgorski about 10,000 years ago at the boundary between the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic around 550 million years ago

at the boundary between the paleozoic and mesozoic

M line

attachment site for thick filaments

natural killer cells

attack virus-infected and cancerous cells by recognizing certain protein signatures on these cells and triggering apoptosis (cell death)

Where was the first large modern human migration from africa to?

australasia

failure of self-tolerance leads to...

autoimmune diseases

allopolyploidy is more common than autopolyploidy because...

autopolyploids often produce QUADRIVALENTS that mess up chromosomal segregation at meiosis

Generation time.

average time between birth of a female and the birth of her offspring.

What is an example of paedomorphosis?

axolot: retention of juvenile gills in adult

Why do Na+ ions enter the cell when voltage-gated Na+ channels are opened in neurons? --------------------------------------- because the Na+ concentration is much lower outside the cell than it is inside because the Na+ concentration is much higher outside the cell than it is inside, and the Na+ ions are actively transported by the sodium-potassium pump into the cell because the Na+ ions are actively transported by the sodium-potassium pump into the cell because the Na+ concentration is much higher outside the cell than it is inside, and the Na+ ions are attracted to the negatively charged interior

because the Na+ concentration is much higher outside the cell than it is inside, and the Na+ ions are attracted to the negatively charged interior

gene flow keeps populations from...

becoming different from each other genetically

What is organismal ecology?

behavioral; Focusing on particular organism and specific physiology/behaviors

Crossing over

between homologous chromosomes, this process mixing things up even more, the crossing over during meiosis.

class 1 MHC

bind peptides derived from foreign antigens (cells that have become cancerous/infected) - class 1 MHC are recognized by cytotoxic T cells, which kill the cell

What does furanocoumarin do?

binds to dna in cells

What is ecosystem ecology?

biogeochemistry, nutrient cycling, input of social energy

Are crocodilians more closely related to birds or reptiles?

birds

Are lizards and snakes are more closely related to turtles or birds?

birds

One sign that the Reptilia is a paraphyletic group is that crocodilians are more closely related to _______________ than they are to other reptiles. turtles fish birds politicians lizards

birds

birth rates

births/females in each age group

rods

black and white -high sensitivity to light; night vision; more numerous (20:1) -more photopigment; captures more light -low temporal resolution: slow response, long integration time -more sensitive to scattered light

rod system

black and white -low acuity: not present in central fovea -achromatic: one type of rod pigment

What is an example of animal behavior?

bleach-headed gulls removing egg shells from the nest

autoimmune disease

body makes antibodies against its own cells through T cell-activated B lymphocytes

fever production

body will respond to certain infections by setting the body's thermostat higher

osteichthyes

bony fish with paired lateral fins without bones

What is the Kill deers behaviorial defense against predators attacking its eggs?

broken wing display

How can interspecific interactions be classified

by their effects on population densities

what are secondary compounds?

by-products of major biochemical pathways

The release of _____ ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum is required for skeletal muscle contraction. ------------------------------------------------ sodium phosphate potassium chloride calcium

calcium

What are life tables used for?

calculate life expectancies of increase

density dependent population

can lead to population cycles. rises and drops in prey and predator.

mouse mesenchyme

can make birds grow teeth.

K

carrying capacity

What is an example of cryptic coloration?

caterpillar, leaf-tailed gecko

Evolution is continuous because of the

ceaseless replication of nucleic acids

synaptic transmission

cell-to-cell communication in the nervous system

Suppose a particular neurotransmitter causes an IPSP in postsynaptic cell X and an EPSP in postsynaptic cell Y. A likely explanation is that __________. --------------------------------------- only cell Y produces an enzyme that terminates the activity of the neurotransmitter cells X and Y express different receptor molecules for this particular neurotransmitter the threshold value in the postsynaptic membrane is different for cell X and cell Y the axon of cell X is myelinated, but that of cell Y is not

cells X and Y express different receptor molecules for this particular neurotransmitter

Mutation and recombination do not

change allele frequencies much over short time scales by themselves.

changes in Vm reflect...

changes in cell activity

macromutations

changes in chromosome or gene number 1. deletions 2. duplications 3. translocations 4. inversions 5. fusions

steroscopic color vision, bony orbits protect eyes, large brain size relative to body size, largely tree dwelling and tropical, opposable thumb and digits with independent mobility.

characteristics of primates

Which type of receptor would you expect to be most abundant in the antennae of a moth? ------------------------------------------------ thermoreceptors mechanoreceptors electroreceptors chemoreceptors

chemoreceptors

What is an example of animal cognition?

chimps in the wild learn to crack nuts by watching

autopolyploidy

chromosome duplication in a single species

taste buds

clustered in organelles containing ~100 taste receptor cells

unencapsulated lymphoid tissues

collection of immune cells in various tissues -include: tonsils, gut-associated lymphoid tissues, Peyer's patches

Certain mite species feed on nectar and are transported from flower to flower via the nostrils of hummingbirds. Because mites neither harm nor benefit hummingbirds, this interaction is described as: -Competition - Mutualism - Amensalism -Parasitism -Commensalism

commensalism

What interaction causes +,0?

commensalism

What interaction causes -,-?

competition

What is animal cognition?

complex form of learning that involves reasoning, problem solving, judgment

When an action potential from a motor neuron arrives at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), a series of events occurs that leads to muscle contraction. Which of the following events will occur last (that is, after all of the others)? ------------------------------------------------ acetylcholine (ACh) release depolarization of the muscle cell conformational change in troponin release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum

conformational change in troponin

lymph nodes

contains immune cells to trap pathogens

transduction

conversion of energy from one form to another

What is an example of detoxification?

converting nicotine to nornicotine

Evolutionary Biology

core, unifying concept for biology, understanding the four forces and how they work. Evolutionary perspective is needed for a complete perspective and a deep understanding.

What is an example of evolution in predation?

cryptic coloration

What can cause major changes in human behavior over short time-scales?

culture

What is trenching?

cutting into a plant to relieve pressure and feed

cell-mediated response

cytotoxic cells defend against infection in body cells

What is the equation if a population grows exponentially?

dN/dt = bN - dN

What is the equation for a carrying capacity?

dN/dt = r*N * [(K-N)/K]

death rates

deaths/ population in each age group

Wat is altruistic behavior

decrease the fitness of individual expressing the behavior but benefit other individuals

What does alkaloid do?

defense against malaria

What is a factor that keeps a population regulated?

density of population

rising phase of the action potential (the action potential)

depolarization opens most sodium channels, while the potassium channels remain closed - Na+ influx makes the inside of the membrane positive with respect to the outside

T lymphocytes (T cells)

derived from lymphocytes that have migrated to the thymus gland from the bone marrow -participate in cell-mediated immunity

What is paedomorphosis?

descendant is less developed for a character than the ancestor was because of a slowing down of the expression of regulatory genes

Evolution

descent with modification, The change in allele and genotype frequencies between generations; changes in the genetic composition of populations Cumulative changes in traits, can lead to new species, diversification

the nernst equation

describes the equilibrium potential for any ion (Ex) based upon charge and concentration gradients

What do chemical defense do?

deter feeding, interfere with digestion, act as a toxin

How does the golden poison frog get its toxins?

diet

sexual dimorphism

differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species - males have the trait in question

Anisogamy

different sizes (investment) per gamete (big eggs, small sperm)

In a species that experiences gene flow, if the rate of migration is low, then

differentiation will occur.

What adaptations to boreal and complex social life do primates have?

digits with mobility, opposable thumbs, flat nails, no claws, sensitive fingers, complex facia musculature, half-turn rotation at elbow, free rotation of shoulder

Intrasexual selection

direct competition for mates between members of the same sex, usually male-male competition

three modes of selection

directional (====>), stabilizing (==> <==), disruptive (<== ==>)

Three modes of selection

directional, stabilizing, disruptive

antimicrobial proteins

directly attack pathogens or interfere with their reproduction

Acanthostega and Icthyostega showed the development of which characteristics?

distal element (autopod) and polydactyly

the fossil record indicates major periods of...

diversification and extinction

What is an example of classical conditioning?

dog salivated at the ring of a bell

What were some characteristics of cynodont

dog teeth

Genotypes leaving more offspring will

dominate future populations

What was human exponential growth fueled by?

drop in death rates: better nutrition and medical care, lower infant mortality

haplorhines

dry nosed- tarsiiformes and anthropoldea.

why are ion distriubutions across the cell unequal?

due to the activity of the Na-K pump

chemical synapses

electrical activity in one neuron (the presynaptic cell) is conveyed to another (the postsynaptic cell) by release of a chemical messenger between them - more common

What are some traits of the australopithecine africanus?

endocranial volume getting bigger, foramen magnum moved under head

chordates

endoskeleton of calcified bones or cartilage often joined together by ligaments or to muscles by tendons

Mitochondria originated from

endosymbiosis of an aerobic heterotrophic prokaryote

What is landscape and global ecology?

environmental sciences, climate models

acheulean tools were used by which homo species?

erectus

systematics

establishes genealogical relationships among organisms by reconstructing phylogenies

everything in biology is the product of...

evolution

what is the single unifying concept for biology?

evolution

we rely on the fossil record for...

evolution in the lineage that led to H. sapiens

what kind of perspective is needed for a complete understanding of any biological phenomenon?

evolutionary perspective

Character Displacement

evolve to compete less, create less overlap, so that they use different resources. an evolutionary response to chronic competition.

What were some characteristics of the basilosaurus?

external hind limbs

What are some characteristics of ardipithecus ramidus?

facultatively bipedal, good tree climber, grasping big toe, woodland omnivore, reduced canines

All primates have stereoscopic, trichromatic color vision. True False

false

True or false: amensalism is one form of competition

false

True or false: if something is paedomorphosis, it does not have to be a type of heterchrony too

false

True or false: imprinting is reversible

false

True or false: mammals did not coexist with dinosaurs

false

true or false: species interactions don't affect local species diversity

false

Of three major characteristics of modern mammals - hair, mammary glands, and live births - mammary glands evolved last. True False

false, live birth evolved last

An iteroparous organism is defined as an organism that lives for more than one year. True False

false; Breeds multiple times in a lifetime

Plants and fungi are more closely related to each other than either one is to animals. True False

false; Fungi is more closely related to animals than to plants

A population will grow as long as its net replacement rate, R0, is greater than zero. True False

false; must be greater than 1

stabilizing selection

favors intermediate variants and acts against extreme phenotypes

What characteristics did the Archaeipteryx lithographica have?

feathers like birds, bones tail.

What are some characteristics of the robust australopithecines?

fed on rough material, large jaw muscles, sagittal crests, small brains

postzygotic isolating mechanism

fertilization occurs, but hybrids are inviable or infertile or breakdown after only a few generations

What are some density-dependent factors?

food and water resources predation vector-transmitted diseases territorial behavior toxic wastes

Examples of positively dependent factors

food and water, predation, disease, territorial behavior, toxic waste.

Net Replacement rate

for every age class multiply proportion(Ix) and offspring(Mx) and then add up total (SUM(I*M))How you know whether a population is growing (>1), shrinking (<1) or staying the same (=1)

Why do organisms retain genes

for making structures no longer found in their lineage - pseudogenes

Deliberately shaped or flaked stone tools have been made by various Homo species: - since about 40,000 years ago - for over 2 million years - since about the time Dr. Gilbertson took his first high-school shop class - for the last 10,000 years since about 500,000 years ago

for over 2 million years

electrical synapses (gap junctions)

formed by proteins called connexons present in both cells - provide a direct connection between cells allowing electrical signals to pass between them > very fast > very reliable > limited flexibility

what tells us the sequence of evolutionary events that led to the tetrapod limb?

fossil record and gene action

The _____ is the region of the eye where photoreceptors are most highly concentrated. ------------------------------------------------ lens fovea optic nerve pupil sclera

fovea

What are some characteristics of orangutan?

fruit eaters, not as social, on forest floor occasionally, lengthened palm,

How did mammals evolve?

fur mammary glands live birth

pseudogenes

genes for making structures no longer found in an organisms lineage

What are regulatory genes?

genes that produce transcription factors and expression

In a species that experiences gene flow, if the rate of migration is high, then

genetics will converge

allopatric speciation

geographical separation; occurs in many ways: glaciation, drying out, other climate, island colonization

Golden Poison frog

gets toxins from diet, enough alkaloid to kill 10,000 mice.

What are examples of tiktaalik?

gills, scales, and fins like a fish -- but flattened head, eyes and nostrils on top, and a neck

If natural selection is acting ____________, gene flow speeds up natural selection

globally

G-actin

globular, units form helical structure F-actin (filamentous)

Which of these is not a plant secondary compound? these are all plant secondary compounds alkaloid furanocoumarin cardenolide glucose

glucose

AMPA

glutamate receptor: cation-selective channel (Na, K)

NMDA

glutamate receptor: permeable to Na, K, & Ca; active only when BOTH glutamate is bound and the cell is depolarized (by AMPA receptors)

sour

good and bad

biological species

group of populations which can interbreed but are reproductively isolated from other such groups

taxonomy is...

groups within groups

oldowan tools

habilis

Which of the following sensory receptors is correctly paired with its category? ------------------------------------------------ hair cell - mechanoreceptor rod - chemoreceptor muscle spindle - electromagnetic receptor taste receptor - mechanoreceptor

hair cell - mechanoreceptor

During an auditory transduction, ion flow varies across the _____. - basilar membrane - round-window membrane - tectorial membrane -hair cell membrane

hair cell membrane

About how many of the 800 olfactory receptor gene isn humans are turned off?

half

Brachiation

hand over hand swinging motion

social complex facial muculaturee

happy and sad face. showing emotions through facial expressions.

endoskeleton

hard, supporting structures (i.e. bones) encased in the soft tissues of an animal

sex that invests more per offspring...

has fewer reproductive opportunities -1. is expected to be "choosier" -2. becomes a limiting resource for the opposite sex

Keystone Species

have dramatic effect on whole ecological community, when present or extinct. allow predator-mediated coexistince.

What are some clear adaptations of modern humans

heigh, lactose digestion, cold tolerance, malaria resistance, skin color,

sexual selection arises from...

heritable differences in the ability to find and mate with members of the opposite sex

An evolutionary change in the timing or rate of development is called: -isogamy -anisogamy -heterochrony -homoplasy -allopatry

heterochrony

What is an example of peramorphosis?

high brain/body size ration in humans

type 3 survivorship curve

high death rates for the young and a lower death rate for survivors (clams)

unlike most neurons, olfactory receptor neurons have...

high intracellular [Cl-] - this makes ECl more positive than Vm ==> opening a Cl- channels depolarizes the cell

inhalation of antigens can trigger...

histamine release ==> stuffy nose, etc...

Evolutionary biology differs from other areas of biology because of the central role of

history--historical pathways that led to characteristics of modern organisms

pupil

hole in the center that allows light in - diamter determined by iris

Gibbons

hominoid. 12 species, eat fruit and are social.

What genus homo was the first to leave africa?

homo erectus

Characters that are shared because of convergent evolution represent: atavisms homoplasy allopatry homology heterochrony

homoplasy

inbreeding increases

homozygotes

pitch or frequency

human ear: sensitive from 20-20,000 Hz -most acute 1000-3000 Hz

Stylopod

humerus and femur.

stylopod

humerus/femur

types of skeletons

hydrostatic, exoskeleton, endoskeleton, sponges, echinoderms, chordates

Rods exposed to light will _____. ------------------------------------------------ hyperpolarize due to the closing of sodium channels hyperpolarize due to the closing of potassium channels depolarize due to the opening of potassium channels depolarize due to the opening of sodium channels

hyperpolarize due to the closing of sodium channels

How can truly altruistic behaviors spread?

if recipients of benefits are close relatives, who also carry copies of altruism gene

developmental biology

important tool for reconstructing paths of change and for understanding how a genetic change leads to a change in the phenotype. early developmental stages are conserved. tells us about homologous characters.

A survivorship curve that first rises steeply and then drops at later ages is: - impossible - a Type III curve - a Type II curve - a Type I curve - a sure sign of an impending apocalypse

impossible. Survivorship must start at the top and can only go down from there (As a general rule).

oldest skeletal material suggests the earliest evolution of AMH was...

in Africa > 200,000 years ago

A graded hyperpolarization of a membrane can be induced by _____. - increasing its membrane's permeability to Ca++ - decreasing its membrane's permeability to Cl- - increasing its membrane's permeability to Na+ - increasing its membrane's permeability to K+

increasing its membrane's permeability to K+

shared, derived characters (morphological or molecular)

indicate genealogical relationships

The two sexes can be determined by

individual sex chromosomes, sets of chromosomes, individual genes, the environment, etc.

the two sexes can be determined by...

individual sex chromosomes, sets of chromosomes, individual genes, the environment, etc.

allergy

inflammatory immune system response to a nonpathogenic antigen

antigen-presenting cells

ingest molecular and cellular antigen and express parts on their cell surface

spatial summation

input from multiple other cells adding together

sympatric speciation

interruption of gene flow without geographic separation

helper T cells

involved in most antigenic responses

One of the fundamental processes by which memories are stored and learning takes place _____. is related to changes in the degree of myelination of axons results in an increase in the diameter of axons involves two types of glutamate receptors results in a shift from aerobic to anaerobic respiration in neurons

involves two types of glutamate receptors

the receptors for taste are...

ion channels or g-protein coupled receptors

Stabilizing graph

is the as you get it away it doesn't go up, fitness rises slowly as is get bigger and comes down rapidly, doesn't have to be symmetrical

Which is not true of the logistic model of population growth? it includes the concept of a carrying capacity it assumes that r is constant it produces an s-shaped curve it assumes that K decreases as population size becomes larger it predicts an equilibrium population size

it assumes that K decreases as population size becomes larger

If natural selection is acting ____________, gene flow interferes with natural selection

locally

long term potentiation (LTP)

long lasting changes in how the synapse responds (lasts hours ==> days ==> weeks ==> ...)

What are some characteristics of australopithecus afarensis?

lacked cranial material, strong adaptation to partially bipedality, vertebral column in between ape and human, lack of splayed big toe

The FOXP2 gene is an important transcription factor for:

language develoment

What are some charactetistics of mammaliaform?

large brain to body size, jaw bones in back of jaw

The dopamine D2 Receptor gene leads to variation among humans in the ability to:

learn from mistakes

What is a type 1 survivorship curve?

little juvenile mortality, and then a big drop off

sarcopterygians

lobe-finned fishes with proximal osseous elements (stylopod)

gene flow prevents...

local adaptation

class 2 MHC

made by antigen-presenting cells (dendritic cells, B cells, macrophages), which are capable of ingesting and presenting foreign antigens - these class 2 MHC are recognized by helper T cells, which activate other immune cells

myelin sheath

made of oligodendrocytes and schwann cells, insulate the axon

Z line

made of proteins that attach to actin, defines the basic unit of contraction, the sacromere

retina

made up of cells involved in phototransduction -ganglion cell layers -interneuron layer -photoreceptors

loudness

measured in decibels -conversation: 60 dB - >80 dB sustained ==> damage - =120 dB: jet engine, concert

hearing and balance

mechanoreception: produce receptor potentials in response to membrane fluid distortion

A sensory transduction in the auditory system is much like transduction of _____. - odorant molecules binding to receptor proteins on olfactory neurons - hormones binding to receptor proteins - visual stimuli by rods in the retina mechanosensory stimuli - sweet-tasting molecules binding to receptor proteins on the tongue

mechanosensory stimuli

natural selection does not lead to...

optimal design, it acts on only what is available right now

tikktalik

morphological bridge between fin and limb.

What is tiktaalik?

morphological bridge between lobe-finned fishes and tetrapods

What is a type 3 survivorship curve?

mortality especially concentrated in early stages

neutrophils

most abundant of the white blood cells (50-70%) -are phagocytic, ingesting 5-20 bacteria during their 1-2 day lifespan -release a number of cytokines, including pyrogens and those involved in the inflammatory response

falling phase of the action potential (the action potential)

most sodium channels become inactivated, blocking Na+ inflow - most potassium channels open, permitting K+ outflow, which makes the inside of the cell negative again

The thick filaments of sarcomeres are composed of _____. ------------------------------------------------ myofibrils actin motor neurons myosin Z lines

myosin

The contraction of skeletal muscles is based on _____. ------------------------------------------------ myosin filaments coiling up to become shorter myosin cross-bridges binding to actin and transitioning from a high-energy to a low-energy state actin cross-bridges binding to myosin and transitioning from a high-energy to a low-energy state actin and myosin filaments both coiling up to become shorter

myosin cross-bridges binding to actin and transitioning from a high-energy to a low-energy state

The only process able to produce adaptive change is

natural selection

The only process that produces adaptive change is

natural selection

the only process that produces adaptive change is

natural selection

Mousterian stone tools are associated with: Homo erectus Homo habilis Neanderthals Black & Decker Homo sapiens

neanderthals

What are platyrrhines?

new world monkeys

platyrhines

new world monkeys (an anthropoid) -dichromatic color vision -prehensile tail -2.1.3.3 (3 premolars)

What are some characteristics of catarrhines?

no prehensile tail, 2 premolars, narrow nasal septum

age structure

no. of individuals at each age

Why do we need biosynthetic materials?

organic raw materials (carbon skeletons; nitrogen) to synthesize own molecules

the fossil record is biased toward...

organisms that fossilize well, but provides the major patterns of evolution in increasing detail

natural selection can sometimes cause...

non-adaptive change (indirectly)

A population in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is defined as being a

non-evolving population; allele and genotype frequencies will remain constant between generations

What is an example of batesian mimicry?

non-stinging flies

What could happen if you reproduce too much?

offspring could die, and you could die as well because there is too much invested

What are cercopithecoids?

old world monkeys

What are catarrhines?

old world monkeys and apes

Most of the chemosensory neurons arising in the nasal cavity have axonal projections that terminate in the _____. - gustatory complex - posterior pituitary gland - olfactory bulb - occipital lobe

olfactory bulb

The "motor unit" in vertebrate skeletal muscle refers to _____. ------------------------------------------------ one motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers on which it has synapses one myofibril and all of its sarcomeres one actin binding site and its myosin partner one sarcomere and all of its actin and myosin filaments

one motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers on which it has synapses

What is combined culture?

one shows logistic growth and the other goes extinct

Which of the following will increase the speed of an action potential moving down an axon? I) Action potentials move faster in larger diameter axons. II) Action potentials move faster in axons lacking potassium ion channels. III) Action potentials move faster in myelinated axons.

only I and III

The cochlea _____. I) amplifies sound vibrations II) collects sound pressure waves III) detects the frequency of sounds

only II and III

how does a cation-selective channel lead to cell depolarization?

opening a cation-selective ion channel from rest ==> drives the membrane potential (Vm) toward 0 mV (depolarization above threshold!) ==> cell activation!

What are two kinds of heterchrony?

paedomoprhosis and peramorphosis

the axolotl is an example of?

paedomorphosis

The geologic era between 550 and 250 million years is called the: Cenozoic Hoglezooic Phanerozoic Mesozoic Paleozoic

paleozoic

Gas exchange occurs across the _____________ in birds.

parabronchi

Why can behaviors be modified by natural selection?

partial genetic basis

spatial subdivision examples

patchy food and nesting sites

Spacial subdivision

patchy foods, nesting sites or other habitat features. How much gene flow is occurring

What are "bee guides"

patterns on the flower under UV light to direct bee to where the pollen is

high brain/body size ratio in humans is an example of?

peramorphosis

internal defenses

phagocytic cells, natural killer cells, antimicrobial proteins, inflammatory response 1. phagocytosis 2. fever production 3. antimicrobial proteins 4. inflammatory response 5. natural killer cells

how hangingflies (female) choose their mate

pick males by the amount of food the male is bringing her. It will also depend on how long they will stay together by how much food he brings, she will eat while the copulation occurs. The longer you copulate the more sperm that will be transferred Also looks at the size and quality of the food he brings

What is an example of aposematic coloration?

poison dart frog

allopolyploidy

polyploidy resulting from contribution of chromosomes from two or more species

Delete

population is increasing

What is population ecology?

population level

synaptic integration (summation)

postsynaptic neurons sum up all their inputs in both time (temporal summation) and in space (spatial summation)

predation

powerful agent for the evolution of prey defenses.

What is a key stone species

presence greatly affects other local species

innate immunity

present before pathogenic invasion; effective before birth; non-specific; rapid response

adaptation

process where a character is improved for specific function

What is pleiotropy?

production of a single gene of two or more apparently unrelated effects

What is heritability?

proportion of total phenotypic variation caused by underlying genetic variation

Which taxon is paraphyletic? birds hominoids crocodiles mammals protists

protists

Later amphibians showed the development of what characteristics?

proximal autopod elements (carpals)

What are the two types of behavior?

proximate vs. ultimate causation

What name is given to the opening that allows light into the interior of the eye? ------------------------------------------------ sclera pupil ligament optic nerve retina

pupil

unami

recognition of amino acids (protein)

sweet

recognition of carbohydrates

salty

recognition of minerals

lymphocytes

recognize specific antigens -have membrane receptors that react to only one type of pathogen

What is developmental biology an important tool for?

reconstructing paths of change and for understanding how a genetic change leads to a change in the phenotype. Understanding developmental pathways and how they change, particularly with respect to regulatory genes

A nerve poison that blocks acetylcholine receptors on dendrites would _____. - inhibit the regeneration of acetylcholine for use by the presynaptic terminals - inactivate acetylcholinesterase, allowing acetylcholine to persist in the synapse - reduce the binding of acetylcholine to its receptors on the postsynpatic membrane - cause continued stimulation of the postsynaptic membrane cause an immediate and enduring depolarization

reduce the binding of acetylcholine to its receptors on the postsynpatic membrane

Rods and cones are similar in that they both _____. ------------------------------------------------ respond to all wavelengths of light release glutamate as the primary neurotransmitter use photopsins as the visual pigments in both rods and cones fire action potentials when exposed to light depolarize when exposed to light

release glutamate as the primary neurotransmitter

spleen

removes damaged red blood cells via phagocytosis and contains immune cells to trap pathogens

semelparity

reproduction in which an organism produces all of its offspring in a single event

What was the archaeopteryx lithographic a mixture of?

reptilian and bird

You can't predict which genotype will have optimal fitness without

research

thermoreceptors

respond to changes in temperature (hot or cold)

chemoreceptors

respond to chemicals -taste -smell -osmoreceptors -carotid body receptors

electromagnetic receptors

respond to light or electromagnetic fields -vision -electromagnetic fields

nociceptors

respond to noxious stimuli -pain (tissue damage)

adaptive immunity

responds after exposure to pathogen; very specific to the pathogen; slower response

transitional species can be only identified...

retrospectively

photopigment in rods

rhodopsin

What is a type 2 survivorship curve?

same chance of dying in every age class

The sense described as umami is one of _____. ------------------------------------------------ flavors of oak barrels in wine incoming nutrients at the level of the small intestine savory and delicious sensation on the tongue olfactory essence of chocolate a burning sensation associated with chili peppers

savory and delicious sensation on the tongue

COMT, G72 among many genes that influence the risk of what?

schizophrenia

taxonomy

scientific naming and classifying of organisms

What name is given to the tough layer that forms the "white" of the eye? ------------------------------------------------ blind spot choroid fovea sclera aqueous humor

sclera

What is a chemical defense for plant?

secondary compounds

chemical herbivore defense

secondary compounds (by-products of major biochemical pathways) deter predation. Deter feeding, interfere with digestion, or are toxic. Examples: alkaloids, latex, waxes, toxins.

clonal expansion

selective proliferation and differentiation of lymphocytes that occurs the first time the body is exposed to a particular antigen (primary immune response)

statocyst

sensory organ that contains ciliated receptor cells that respond to mechanical deformation (invertebrates)

A thermosensory neuron in the skin converts heat energy to nerve impulses via a conversion called _____. - reception - sensory transduction - perception - integration - sensation

sensory transduction

What is a fundamental niche

set of environment conditions and resources within which the population can sustain a positive growth rate

Fundamental Niche

set of environmental conditions and resources within which the population can sustain a positive growth rate.

Homology

shared characters representing common ancestry. Ex: limbs on humans, cats, whales.

contraction

shortens the muscle, placing force on the tendons, pulling the more movable bone inward

What is a decent summary of "lucy" and other afarnesis:

shorter than humans, more sexually dimorphic, ape like protecting jaw, more muscular, mixed bipedal, curved phalanges, made stone tools, brain size relative to body size

What is separate cultures?

show logistic growth to maybe half of what they would grow to if growing alone

What are fixed-action patterns triggered by?

sign stimulus or releaser

Which combination of characters best describes the genus Paranthropus: small brain, makes far too many lame jokes, enjoys teaching Biol 1620 small brain, small teeth, obligate bipedalism small brain, small teeth, quadrupedalism small brain, very large teeth, facultative bipedalism large brain, small teeth, obligate bipedalism

small brain, very large teeth, facultative bipedalism

taste receptor cells reside primarily in the tongue, but are also in the...

soft palate, esophagus, epiglottis, and larynx in significant numbers

Detoxification enzymes

some insects are able to convert nicotine to nornicotine is an example. organism takes a toxin and converts it to a nontoxin.

Brassica oleracea

source of distinct cultivars in Europe All these vegetables have arrived from the same branch You can show genetically that all this genetic variation came from one wild species

Fire Salamander

sprays neurotoxin at 300 cm/sec. irritates mucus membranes and can cause convulsions.

What are some characteristics of primates?

stereoscopic color vision, large brain relative to body size, largely tree-dwelling and tropicall

toxic or distasteful prey

stick out with colors, use aposematic colors as warning.

The correct sequence of sensory processing is _____. ------------------------------------------------ sensory adaptation → stimulus reception → sensory transduction sensory perception sensory perception → stimulus reception → sensory transduction sensory adaptation stimulus reception → sensory transduction → sensory perception sensory adaptation stimulus reception → sensory perception → sensory adaptation sensory transduction

stimulus reception → sensory transduction → sensory perception sensory adaptation

Postively density dependent factor

stronger effects on mortality as population size increases, therefore can regulate population, keeping it in upper and lower bounds.

recruitment

stronger input activates more "motor units"

Organismal ecology

study of individuals in a species.

What is ecology?

study of interactions between organisms and their environment

Population Ecology

study of species as a whole. How can we describe a population? is it growing or shrinking and why?

Demography

study of the vital statistics of a population. (age structure, birth rates, death rates, genration time per age class).

What order did the tetrapod limb evolve in? stylopid, autopod, zuegopod zeugopod, stylopod, autopod stylopid, zeugopod, autopod autopod, zeugopod, stylopid

stylopod zeugopod autopod

Ecological niches

sum total of the organisms use of biotic and abiotic components. what resources are needed and how.

role of the skeleton

support, protection, and movement

sponges

supported by hard particles of inorganic material, called spicules

CD4

surface protein - takes part in stimulating cytokine release

The "undershoot" phase of after-hyperpolarization is due to _____. --------------------------------------- slow restorative actions of the sodium-potassium ATPase slow opening of voltage-gated sodium channels sustained opening of voltage-gated potassium channels rapid opening of voltage-gated calcium channels

sustained opening of voltage-gated potassium channels

The space between an axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron is called a(n) _____. --------------------------------------- synaptic cleft node of Ranvier internodes synapse synaptic terminal

synaptic cleft

Neurons store neurotransmitter molecules in vesicles located within _____. the cell body myelin the synaptic cleft dendrites synaptic terminals

synaptic terminals

Primate phylogeny indicates that the sister group to the anthropoids is the group that contains the: platyrhines strepsirhines tarsiers catarrhines cercopithecoids

tarsiers

trenching

technique to use mandibles to cut stem and drain out resin canals

When two excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) occur at a single synapse so rapidly in succession that the postsynaptic neuron's membrane potential has not returned to the resting potential before the second EPSP arrives, the EPSPs add together producing _____. --------------------------------------- tetanus spatial summation temporal summation the refractory state

temporal summation

stylopod, zeugopod, autopod.

tetrapod limbs

What is considered exponential growth?

the a population doubles in shorter amounts of time

Selection can change either _______________, ______________, or both

the average value of a character; the amount of variation in the character

If all 3 conditions of natural selection are satisfied, then

the average value of the trait, or the amount of variation in the trait, will be different among the offspring than it was among the parent generation

how are different frequencies (pitch) detected?

the basilar membrane. Narrow at base and wide at end to detect different frequencies.

The example of character displacement discussed in class involved: the locations of two barnacle species in the intertidal protection of acacia trees by associated ants the bill sizes of Galapagos finches the population growth of two Paramecium species the interaction between egrets and large ungulates

the bill sizes of galapagos finches

acquired (adaptive) immune responses are those in which...

the body recognizes a specific foreign substance and selectively reacts to it; mediated by lymphocytes

changes at the synapse

the cellular basis for learning & memory

nodes of ranvier

the clustered location of ion channels that contribute to the generation of action potentials

neuronal plasticity

the connections between neurons can be either strengthened or weakened due to activity of the the synapse

natural selection depends on...

the current environmental challenges and the type and amount of genetic variation that is available to respond to current environments

Statistics comparing relative replacement rates of different genotypes are comparing

the fitness differences between the genotypes

speciation requires...

the formation of mechanisms of reproductive isolation

neurons

the functional unit of the nervous system - recieve and transmit information

resting state (the action potential)

the gated Na+ and K+ channels are closed - ungated channels maintain the resting potential

Which taxonomic group does not contain humans? Hominoids Catarrhines Haplorhines Anthropoids the human species is included in all of these groups

the human species is included in all of these groups

proximate causation

the immediate or short-term cause of something -"how" questions

Independent segregation

the random division of maternal and paternal chromosomes into gametes during meiosis

insect hearing

the majority of insects have body surfaces covered with hairs of varying length & thickness that vibrate frequencies -specific stimuli activate specific types of hairs that are coupled to activation of mechanosensitive channels at their base -tympanic membrane

Hair cells in the vertebrate ear are responsible for transducing sound pressure waves. Ion channels in the hair cell membrane open when _____. - a chemical ligand binds to the ion channel - light is absorbed by a molecule in the membrane - the cell membrane reaches a threshold voltage -the membrane is distorted mechanically

the membrane is distorted mechanically

ciliated receptor cells

the membranes causing depolarization - this gives the animal an indication of their orientation is space

saltatory conducion

the myelin sheath and clustering of ion channels causes the action potential to "jump" from node to node - unmyelinated vertebrate axons: ~1 m/s - myelinated vertabrate axons: up to 120 m/s

During the course of muscle contraction the potential energy stored in ATP is transferred to potential energy stored in _____. - the myosin head - the myosin tail - the thin filament - actin - the Z line

the myosin head

After the depolarization phase of an action potential, the resting potential is restored by _____. - a brief inhibition of the sodium-potassium pump - the opening of voltage-gated potassium channels and the closing of sodium channels - a decrease in the membrane's permeability to potassium and chloride ions - the opening of more voltage-gated sodium channels

the opening of voltage-gated potassium channels and the closing of sodium channels

epitope

the part of an antigen molecule where the lymphocyte is (and eventually the antibody binds)

statoliths

the particles within the statocyst that move and settle to the lowest point - they distort membranes leading to depolarization

Many features of organisms, including humans, reflect . . .

the particular history of their lineages

the basis for all electrical signaling in the nervous system lies in the fact that...

the permeability of the cell membrane to various ions can change and with it, there are changes in Vm - the membrane potential!

The single-gene mutation rate is very low, but

the probability that a mutation occurs somewhere in the genome (the genome-wide rate) is not so low: If Drosophilia has 10^4 functioning genes, and the average rate of a mutation which affects the phenotype is 10^-5 per gene, then the probability of a mutation somewhere in the genome is 10^4 x 10^-5 = 0.1, or 10%

accommodation

the process by which the lens changes shape to keep images in focus - contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscles alters the shape of the lens (rounder for close objects)

summation

the process of combining individual twitches, which is due largely to the arrival of additional nerve impulses before the previous contraction has subsided, and the resulting inability of the SR to keep up with increases in [Ca2+]

Of these events, the first to occur when a motor neuron stops sending an impulse to a muscle is _____. the pumping of calcium ions out of the cytoplasm and back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum the release of myosin heads from the thin filament thin filaments slide back to their relaxed positions proteins on the thin filaments block actin's myosin-binding sites all of these events occur simultaneously

the pumping of calcium ions out of the cytoplasm and back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum

For a population in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, allele and genotype frequencies will remain constant between generations, despite

the reshuffling of genes during the formation of gametes (meiosis) and during sexual reproduction

there is more genetic diversity from mtDNA in African than...

the rest of the world combined

paedomorphosis

the retention in an adult organism of the juvenile features of its evolutionary ancestors

What is a realized niche

the set of environments that a population actually occupies

Realized niche

the set of environments that a population actually occupies. can be smaller than normal if population is excluded by competitors or natural enemies.

speed of conduction

the size (diameter) of an axon influences how fast the action potentials can spread

undershoot (the action potential)

the sodium channels close, but some potassium channels are still open - as these potassium channels close and the sodium channels become unblocked (though still closed), the membrane returns to its resting state

The net replacement rate, R0, is calculated as: the sum of the instantaneous rate of increase plus the carrying capacity none of these answers is correct the sum of lx values divided by mx values for each age class all age-specific survival values plus all age-specific fecundity values the sum of age-specific survival times age-specific fecundity for each age class

the sum of age-specific survival times age-specific fecundity for each age class

Pisaster sea stars were called a keystone species because: they were the most ecologically abundant species they formed a mutualistic interaction with mussels they were the top predator in the community their removal greatly reduced species diversity they fed on both herbivores and other carnivores

their removal greatly reduced species diversity

sliding filament theory

theory on the mechanism for muscle contraction

1° lymphoid tissues

thymus gland & bone marrow (long bones) ==> produce immune cells

Convergent evolution

traits in two or more organisms appear to be similar, but evolved independently. Ex: tasmanian tiger. happens because of homoplasmy.

Life History Traits

traits that affect a populations schedule of births & deaths. Ex: life span, litter size, age of first reproduction, number of reproductive bouts.

Stimuli alter the activity of excitable sensory cells and generate action potentials via _____. ------------------------------------------------ transmission transduction amplification integration

transduction

What is an example of a herbivore showing counter-adaptation?

trenching

What type of vision do catarrhines have?

trichromatic color vision

True or false: animals and fungi are more closely related

true

True or false: hominoids have very sophisticated locomotion through trees

true

True or false: prey and predator populations are linked to each other

true

True or false: the Australiopithecus sediba shared more derived features with early homo species than any other australopithecine?

true

True or false: the Australopithecus sediba lived fairly recently in south africa

true

macroevolutionary studies

try to reconstruct the actual history of life on earth

The major migration from Siberia caused what?

two different genetic groups as they were isolated from each other

Competitive exclusion

two species compete so much for same resources that they can't co-exist.

cell-mediated immunity

type of immunity produced by T cells that attack infected or abnormal body cells

What causes range expansions or contractions?

understanding the dynamics of invasive species or endangered species

inner ear

vibrations transmitted from the stapes to the oval window cause fluid movements within the chambers in the COCHLEA -waves of fluid movements travel through the COCHLEA in the VESTIBULAR CANAL and back through the TYMPANIC CANAL where the pressure is dissipated at the ROUND WINDOW -as these pressure waves travel through the cochlea membranes within the ORGAN OF CORTI vibrate at the same frequency as the incoming sound

Phanerozoic Eon

virtually all fossils of multicellular organisms from the last 550 million years -the last of the 4 eons

To understand why a population is growing or not, we need to know its

vital statistics

vulcanism

volcanic activity

What was the biggest mass extinction caused by?

vulcanism

we call transitional species "transitional" because...

we know how the lineage later evolved

toxic avoidance

we recognize and reject those things which could potentially harm us

nutrient recognition

we respond to those things we need in our diet to survive

Strepirhines

wet nosed- lorises, galagos, lemurs.

embryonic tail

what do all hominods have as an embryo and lose as they develop?

siberia migration wave.

what single migration wave went to americas 23,000 years ago?

passive immunity

when a person is given anitbodies (Abs) made by another organism -considered passive because own cells do not produce antibodies against the pathogen

stromatolites

when bacteria die and leave successive generations of decomposed bacteria that form columns of mass

sexual selection

when individuals select mates based on heritable traits

resting potential

when neurons are not actively signaling (-60mV to -80mV)

axon hillock

where info from the dendrites accumulates

The chance a mutation will occur is not affected by . . .

whether or not it is advantageous to the organism (mutations arise stochastically)

ultimate causation

why something exists the way it does in the first place - and not some other way -"why" questions

How do foraging worker honeybees know where to look for pollen and nectar?

will dance at the degree from the sun, using that angle to direct waggle dance to food

Are pheromones usually apart of the olfactory system?

yes, although they don't have to be

Most cells have a Ecl where?

~ -83 mV


Conjuntos de estudio relacionados

TestOut Chapter 14 - Network Hardening

View Set

Tinker v. Des Moines and Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier

View Set

ATI Standard Quiz- Medical-surgical: Cardiovascular and hematology

View Set

Life and Health Insurance Chapter 4: Life policy provisions and options

View Set

Titanic Nouns for ESOL Level 1 (Pronombres sobre Titanic)

View Set

Chapter 13: Altered Hormonal and Metabolic Regulation

View Set

Chapter 8- Agencies, Associations, and Organizations Associated with Health Education Promotion

View Set