Biology
Lag phase
"flat" period of adjustment, enlargement; little growth
Cell theory
1. All live is made of cells 2. Cells are the basic unit of life 3. Cells come from other cells 4. Cells carry genetic data in DNA, pass it along
What extra role does mitochondria have for the cell?
Apoptosis Kills cell via release of ETC enzymes. Programmed cell death
Archaea diff with eukaryota
Archaea have a single, circular chromosome, and divide by binary fission.
Conjugation
Bacterial mating/sexual reproduction Two cells form a conjugation bridge, and transfer genetic material. From the donor (male) + to female -, unidirectional. Bridge is made of sex pili on the donor male. Sex factor exists as a plasmid until transformed into genome
Chemotaxis
Cell movement that occurs in response to chemical stimulus
Basement membrane
Cells at the base of an epithelial layer are attached to this.
How are mitochondria different from the rest of the cell?
Code their own genes, replicate independently via binary fission. Example of an extranuclear inheritance
9 + 2 structure
Common structure of cilia and flagella. Seen only in eukaryotic organelles of motility, bacterial have a different one
Where does transcription take place in the prokaryotic cell?
Cytoplasm, since it has no nucleus
Nuclear envelope
Double membrane membranes that surrounds the nucleus of a cell Contains pores
What do connective tissues produce to form the ECM?
Elastin and collagen
Eukaryotic vs prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, such as the nucleus, while prokaryotic cells do not.
Archaea- how are they similar to eukaryota?
Extremophiles, phospholipid monolayer Many are chemosynthetic and generate energy from sulfur and nitrogenous compounds Like euk, they start translation with Met, have similiar RNA pol, and have histones in DNA
Prok vs euk differences
Flagella are different enough to be targetted by antibiotics that don't hurt us Ribosomes are also different
Transposons
Genetic elements that can insert and remove self from genome
What features do eukaryotes have tht prokaryotes do not?
Golgi, ER, mitochondria, most membrane bound organelles Prok DO have vacuoles
Do antibiotics work better on gram negative or positive bacteria?
Gram positive Gram negatives have an impermeable cell wall/membrane
Does penicillin work better on gram positive or gram negative bacteria?
Gram positive- it doesn't have to go through an outer membrane
Cilia
Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for moving things on a cell's surface
gram positive and negative
If envelope absorbs the crystal violet stain and turns blue-purple, it is Gram positive If it absorbs the safranin counterstain, it is pink-red and is gram negative
Fibroblasts
In connective tissue, cells that secrete the proteins of the fibers.
lipoteichoic acid
LTA may set off human immune system
Do archaea have a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles?
No
What is the prokaryote nucleus?
Nucleoid region
Transduction
Only process that requires a vector Virus carries genetic material from one bac to another. Bacteriophages release original host DNA into new host and it can integrate into genome
Mitochondria
Outer and inner membrane Out membrane is a barrier against cytosol, relatively permeable. Inner is restrictive
Bacilli
Rod shaped (like e coli)
Lipopolysaccharides of gram negatives
Set off a strong immune response in humans
Sex pilus and sex factor
Sex pilus is the bridge, sex factors are the plasmids that contain the needed genes
Squamos, Cuboidal, Columnar
Shapes of Epithelial Tissue Columnar: long and thin Squamos: flat and scale-like
Smooth vs rough ER function
Smooth lacks ribsomes and synthesizes lipids Rough uses ribosomes to make membrane-bound proteins for secretion
Nucleolus
Subsection where rRNA is made by RNA pol I 25% of nucleus
How do prokaryotes' ETC work?
The cell membrane is used
What happens when a genome contains a sex factor?
The entire genome replicates, and the cell attempts to transfer the whole genome to the female Bridge usually breaks off first Cells like this are called Hfr or high frequency of replication
Why are Gram-negative bacteria relatively more resistant to antibiotics?
Their outer membrane makes them harder to attack
How do bacteria produce ATP?
They have a version of ATP synthase Mitochondria is like a bacterium, so this makes sense
How do bacteria make ATP?
They have their own ATP synthase, utilizing a proton gradient in their membrane
How does the smooth ER help the rough ER's function?
Transports proteins from rough ER to the Golgi for processing
Flagella
Variable number Composed of flagellin Filament, basal body, hook Used for chemotaxis
Virus to prokaryote size comp
Virus: 20 to 300 nm prok: 10 um euk: 100 um
What type of organism poses a problem for cell theory?
Viruses- unable to reproduce on their own, do not have DNA but RNA Viruses are not considered life
Do prokaryotes have a cytoskeleton?
Yes, but it is primitive
Fertility factor
a bacterial episome whose presence confers donor ability (maleness) F+ cells
Pseudostratified epithelia
appear to have many layers, but are just one big layer.
Bacteria vs archaea., histones
archaea have true histones, bacteria have histone-like proteins
Binary fission
asexual reproduction Circular chromosome attaches to cell wall and replicates while the celll keeps growing in size. Eventually the membrane and cel wall grow inward and vaginate/divide cell in two Different from mitosis, much faster
Mutalistic symbiotes
beneficial bacterial relationships- ex, some bacteria make vitamin K and biotin
Osteoblasts
bone forming cells
Pathogens
can live inside or outside cells
faculative anaerobes
can use oxygen if present, but have other methods as well
aerotolerant anaerobes
cannot use oxygen but are not harmed by its presence
What do all bacteria have? What do some have?
cell membrane and cytoplasm Flagella and fimbriae.
Endothelial cells
cells lining the blood vessels. Secret NO
Genes
coding regions of DNA
Basal body
complex structure that anchors flagellum to membrane of cytoplasm, and is the motor of flagella
Hook
connects filament to basal body, exerts torque on the filament, spinning it forward
Peroxisomes
contain hydrogen peroxide. Break down very long chain fatty acids via Beta-oxidation Synthesize phospholipids and contain PPP enzymes
Epithelial tissue
cover and line the body, protect organs. Joined by the basement membrane.
inner membrane of mitochondria
cristae foldings contains proteins for ETC
How did we get mitochondria?
eukaryote ancestor engulfed an aerobic proteobacterium, created a symbiote
Plasmids
extragenomic DNA can carry virulence factors
Intermediate filaments
filamentous proteins like keratin, desmin, lamin, vimentin Cell-cell adhesion and integrity of cytoskeleton. Withstand tremendous tension, anchor organelles
Flagella filament is made of...
flagellin. It is hollow and helical
Parenchyma
functional parts of organ, often made of epithelial cells. Ex: nephrons
Cytoskeleton
gives a cell structure and support. Help transport materials around cell Three components: microfilaments, microtubules, intermeditate filaments MMI
transformationn
integration of foreign genetic material into the genome Often from lysed bacteria spilling their DNA out Often by gram-negative rods (bacilli)
ER
membrane continuous with the nuclear envelope. Highly folded. Smooth and rough
Lysosomes
membrane-bound organelles that contain enzymes to digest things engulfed by cell or for new synthesis work with endosomes
Flagella
move cell itself
Bacterial ribosome
much smaller than ours targetted by AB
Gram negative cell walls
much thinner, less peptidoglycan separated from cell membrane by the periplasmic space Negatives are like the minus sign, thinner
Stratified epithelia
multiple layers of cells
Simple epithelia
one layer of cells
Obligate anaerobes
organisms that cannot live where molecular oxygen is present
Centrioles
organizing center of microtubules, structured as nine triplets of microtubules with a hollow center Migrate to opposite poles of dividing cells and organize mitotic spindle, attaching at kinetochores
Gram negative bacteria also have...
outer membranes of phospholipids and lipopolysaccharide (lipocarbs)
Bacteria vs human cells
outnumber our cells 10:1
exponential phase
period of rapid growth, also called log phase
Episomes
plasmids that can integrate into the host genome
Microfilaments
polymerized rods of actin, organized into bundles and networks, resist compression and fracture also use ATP to generate movement by interacting with myosin Play a role in cytokinesis during cell div, forming cleavage furrow by forming a circle at the site of connection and contracting
How is the proton gradient set up?
protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space flow back via ATPsynthase
Autolysis
release of lysosomic enzymes, destroying cell via apoptosis
Obligate aerobic bacteria
require oxygen
stationary phase
resource deplation slows reproduction
alpha-cells
secrete glucagon
Plasmids
small circular DNA molecules that replicate separately from the bacterial chromosome Not essential for survival, but confer advantages typically
Cocci
spherical bacteria like strep
Spirilli
spirally s shaped syphillis is very few pathogens are spirilli
Golgi apparatus
stacked membrane sacs. Materials arrive in vesicles to be modified via prosthetic groups in the Golgi. Also attaches signal sequences to direct them to a destination secretes products in a vesicle, some bound for release
Connective tissue
supports body, provides framework for epithelial function Main contributors to the stroma Takes form of bone, caritlage, tendons, blood, adipose tissue, etc
intermembrane space
the fluid filled space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes
stroma
the supporting tissue of an organ (as opposed to parenchyma)
Gram positive cell walls
thick layer of peptidoglycan, a polymer of amino acids and sugars. Tight against the membrane also contains lipoteichoic acid, which may set off our immune system
Cell wall (bacteria)
together with cell membrane, forms envelope gram positive or negative
Virulence factors
traits that increase pathogenicity, perhaps toxins or projections
Microtubules
unlike microfilaments, they're hollow tubulin polymers Radiate out from the cell as the pathway for motor proteins kinesin and dynein to carry vesicles Also compose cilia and flagella
Anaerobes
use fermentation or other non-O2 involving metabolism
Endosomes
vesicles that carry endocytosed material around, often to lysosomes. Things in endosomes will generally be also to the trans-golgi, membrane, or membrane
linear DNA organization
wrapped around histones, further wound into chromosomes