Biology Chapter 11B & 12

Human Genome Project (HGP)

(1) - a world-wide $3 billion collaborative effort to ... - determine the entire base sequence of all of the chromosomal DNA (genome) in human cells - identify the specific location (chromosome & postion) & base sequence of every human gene - initiated in 1990, completed in 2003, lasting 13 years - involved scientists in the U.S., the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, China, and India. (2) an internatinoal collaborative effort to map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome. The project was begun in 1990 and completed in 2004.

DNA technology

(1) a set of methods for the study & manipulation of an organisms DNA (2) methods used to study and/or manipulate DNA, including recombinant DNA technology

genetic engineering

(1) involves the modification or transfer of genetic material (genes) from one organisms to another to modify or improve that organism. (2) the direct manupulation of genes for practical purposes

clone

(1) latin for twig or branch (2) as a verb, to produce genetically identical copies of a cell, organism, or DNA molecule. As a noun, the collection of cells, organisms, or molecules resulting from cloning; colloquially, a single organism that is genetically identical to another because it arose from the cloning of a somatic cell

DNA profiling

(1) the analysis of DNA fragments to determine whether they come from the same individual (aka "DNA fingerprinting") - compares known genetic markers from noncoding regions of repetitive DNA - repetitive regions are "Short Tandem Repeats" - show a continuum variations between related vs. unrelated individuals - often involves amplifying (copying) of markers for analysis using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) - DNA profiles (finger prints) are represented by a series of DNA bands that have been separated by electrophoresis (2) a procedure that analyzes DNA samples to determine if they came from the same individual

genomics

(1) the study of the complete genetic makeup, including the entire DNA base sequences, of organisms. - represents a major change in approach to DNA science - prompted by the Human Genome Project (initiated in 1990) (2) the study of complete sets of genes and their interactions

biotechnology

(1) the use of living organisms, or products from living organisms, to modify or produce new products, processes or organisms. i.e. "Putting living organisms to work for the benefit of mankind." (2) the manipulation of living organisms or their components to make useful products

gene therapy

(1) the use of normal genes to treat or prevent genetic diseases or disorders in humans (2) a treatment for a disease in which the patient's defective gene is supplemented or altered

Bacillus thuringensis

- a soil born bacterium naturally present in the environment - produces insecticidal proteins (Bt toxins) that are toxic to larva of some insects when ingested (mammals, birds, fish are not affected) - used for over 40 years as a "bio-control" agent for insects - genes for Bt toxin have been transferred to many crops that are now insect resistant (cotton, corn, potato, soybean, rice, tobacco, tomato)

glyphosate ("roundup")

- an herbicide that kills all plants - blocks enzyme involved in aromatic amino acid biosynthesis in plants - plants can not live without amino acids - enzyme from Agrobacterium tumefaciens is resistant to _____ - gene from A. tumefaciens has been transferred to crop plants

Agrobacterium tumefaciens

- an important pathogen of plants - promotes cancerous growth by transforming plant cells - derives nourishment by forcing plant growth

Bt toxin

Bacillus thuringensis is a soil born bacterium naturally present in the environment. It produces insecticidal proteins ______ that are toxic to larva of some insects when ingested (mammals, birds, fish are not infected). It has been used for over 40 years as a "bio-control" agent for insects. Genes for _______ have been transferred to many crops that are now insect resistant (cotton, corn, potato, soybean, rice, tobacco, tomato).

totipotent

Embryonic Stem Cells are ______ - i.e. they can form all the cell types in a body, plus the extraembryonic, or placental cells.

complementary DNA (cDNA)

a DNA molecule made in vitro using mRNA as a template and the enzyme reverse transcriptase. A cDNA molecule therefore corresponds to a gene but lacks the introns present in the DNA of the genome.

recombinant DNA

a DNA molecule that has been manipulated in the laboratory to carry nucleotide sequences derived from two sources, often different species.

restriction enzyme

a bacterial enzyme that cuts up foreign DNA (at specific DNA sequences called restriction sites), thus protecting bacteria against intruding DNA from phages and other organisms. Restriction enzymes are used in DNA technology to cut DNA molecules in reproducible ways. The pieces of cut DNA are called restriction fragments.

genomic library

a collection of cloned DNA fragments that includes an organism's entire genome. Each segment is usually carried by a plasmid or phage.

vaccine

a harmless variant or derivative of a pathogen used to stimulate a host organism's immune system to mount a long-term adaptive response against the pathogen.

whole-genome shotgun method

a method for determining the DNA sequence of an entire genome. After a genome is cut into small fragments, each fragment is sequenced and then placed in the proper order.

single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)

a one-nucleotide variation in DNA sequence found within the genomes of at least 1% of a population

short tandem repeat (STR)

a series of short DNA sequences that are repeated many times in a row in the genome

cytochrome c

a single-ring nitrogenous base found in DNA and RNA

plasmid

a small ring of independently replicating DNA separate from the main chromosome(s). _____ are found in prokaryotes and yeasts.

restriction site

a specific sequence on a DNA strand that is recognized as a "cut site" by a restriction enzyme

gel electrophoresis

a technique for separating and purifying macromolecules, either DNA or proteins. A mixture of the macromolecules is placed on a gel between a positively charged electrode and a negatively charged one. Negative charges on the molecules are attracted to the positive electrode, and the molecules migrate toward that electrode. The molecules separate in the gel according to their rates of migration, which is mostly determined by their size: Smaller molecules generally move faster through the gel, while larger molecules generally move more slowly.

polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

a technique used to obtain many copies of a DNA molecule or a specific part of a DNA molecule. In the procedure, the starting DNA is mixed with a heat-resistant DNA polymerase, DNA nucleotides, and a few other ingredients. Specific nucleotide primers flanking the region to be copied ensure that it, and not other regions of the DNA, is replicated during the PCR procedure.

transposable element

a transposable genetic element, or "jumping gene"; a segment of DNA that can move from one site to another within a cell and serve as an agent of genetic change.

reverse transcriptase

an enzyme encoded and used by retroviruses that catalyzes the synthesis of DNA on an RNA template

DNA ligase

an enzyme, essential for DNA replication, that catalyzes the covalent bonding of adjacent DNA polynucleotide strands. _____ is used in genetic engineering to paste a specific piece of DNA containing a gene of interest into a bacterial plasmid or other vector

transgenic organism

an organism that contains genes from another species

genetically modified (GM) organism

an organism that ha acquired one or more genes by artificial means. If the gene is from another species, the organism is also known as a transgenic organism.

laurical

gene for fatty acid termination (short chain thioesterase) transferred from California Bay Laurel to canola. Lauric acid (12:0; normally from Palm oil) is the main component of all detergents.

golden rice

gene(s) for beta-carotene (i.e. "pro-vitamin A") synthesis were transferred from corn to rice. Pro-vitamin A is converted to retinol, which is required not only vision, but overall growth & proper development.

nucleic acid probe

in DNA technology, a radioactively or fluorescently labeled single-stranded nucleic acid molecule used to find a specific gene or other nucleotide sequence within a mass of DNA. The probe hydrogen-bonds to the complementary sequence in the targeted DNA.

vector

in molecular biology, a piece of DNA, usually a plasmid or a viral genome, that is used to move genes from one cell to another.

green fluorescent protein

is a structure of Aequorea victoria and is a unique in vivo reporter for montoring dynamic processes in cells or organisms. As a fusion tag GFP can be used to localize proteins, to follow their movement or to study the dynamics of the subcellular compartments to which these proteins are targeted.

artificial chromosome

is a synthetic chromosome consisting of fragments of DNA integrated into a host chromosome

biopharming

is the process of using transgenic animals to produce pharmaceuticals in their milk

restriction fragments

molecules of DNA produced from a longer DNA molecule cut up by a restriction enzyme. _______ are used in genome mapping and other applications.

repetitive DNA

nucleotide sequences that are present in many copies in the DNA of a genome. The repeated sequence may be long or short and may be located next to each other (tandomly) or dispersed in the DNA.

somatic cell nuclear transfer

one method biologist can use to clone animals, first successfully performed with an adult somatic cell nucleus in sheep (1997) to produce "Dolly the Sheep"

STR analysis

short tandem repeat analysis; a method of DNA profiling that compares the lengths of short tandem repeats (STRs) selected from specific sites within the genome

primers

short, artificially created, single-stranded DNA molecules that bind to each end of a target sequence during a PCR procedure

gene cloning

the production of multiple copies of a gene

telomeres

the repetitive DNA at each end of a eukaryotic chromosome

forensics

the scientific analysis of evidence for crime scene and other legal proceedings.

proteomics

the study of whole sets of proteins and their interactions

Ti plasmid

this is where scientist insert the DNA of interest in order to engineer plants

restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)

variation in the length of a restriction fragment. RFLPs are produced when homologous DNA sequences containing SNPs are cut up with restriction enzymes.