BMGT 364 Final exam

Personal factors

National surveys consistently show people hold their families dear. Family issues, even good ones, can cause stress that significantly impacts individuals. Family issues are often closely related to work-life conflict. The personal economic problems of overextended financial resources create stress and siphon attention away from work. Regardless of income level, some people are poor money managers or have wants and needs that exceed their earning capacity. People who make $100,000 per year seem to have as much trouble handling their finances as those who earn $20,000, although recent research indicates that those who make under $50,000 per year do experience more stress

Intergroup development

OD efforts to change the attitudes, stereotypes, and perceptions that groups have of each other Here, training sessions closely resemble diversity training, except rather than focusing on demographic differences, they focus on differences among occupations, departments, or divisions within an organization.

Adequate resources

Teams are part of a larger organization system; every work team relies on resources outside the group to sustain it. -A scarcity of resources directly reduces the ability of a team to perform its job effectively and achieve its goals. -Important resources include timely information, proper equipment, adequate staffing, encouragement, and administrative assistance.

Substitutes

attributes, such as experience and training, that can replace the need for a leader's support or ability to create structure

Task structure

the degree to which job assignments are procedurized

Three key components of effective teams

1. Context 2. Composition 3. Process

Bargaining Strategies

1. Distributive Bargaining 2. Integrative Bargaining

Resources

things within an individual's control that can be used to resolve demands

The negotiation process

(1) preparation and planning (2) definition of ground rules (3) clarification and justification (4) bargaining and problem solving (5) closure and implementation

Feedback

-Communication creates feedback by clarifying to employees what they must do, how well they are doing it, and how they can improve their performance. -We saw this operating in goal-setting theory. Formation of goals, feedback on progress, and reward for desired behavior all require communication and stimulate motivation.

Does power corrupt?

- Power leads people to place their own interests ahead of others. - Powerful people react, especially negatively, to any threats to their competence. - Power leads to overconfident decision making. - Power doesn't affect everyone in the same way, and there are even positive effects of power.

Organizational factors

- Task demands related to the job - Role demands of functioning in an organization - Interpersonal demands created by other employees

Personality of members

--Conscientiousness is especially important to teams. Conscientious people are good at backing up other team members and sensing when their support is truly needed. Conscientious teams also have other advantages—one study found that behavioral tendencies such as organization, achievement orientation, and endurance were all related to higher levels of team performance. -Team composition can be based on individual personalities to good effect. -performance across the teams will be higher if the organization forms 10 highly conscientious teams and 10 teams low in conscientiousness. The reason is that a team with varying conscientiousness levels will not work to the peak performance of its highly conscientious members. -Instead, a group normalization dynamic (or simple resentment) will complicate interactions and force the highly conscientious members to lower their expectations, thus reducing the group's performance. -What about the other traits? Teams with a high level of openness to experience tend to perform better, and research indicates that constructive task conflict enhances the effect. Open team members communicate better with one another and throw out more ideas, which makes teams with open people more creative and innovative. -Task conflict also enhances performance for teams with high levels of emotional stability. It's not so much that the conflict itself improves performance for these teams, but that teams characterized by openness and emotional stability are able to handle conflict and leverage it to improve performance. -The minimum level of team member agreeableness matters, too: teams do worse when they have one or more highly disagreeable members, and a wide span in individual levels of agreeableness can lower productivity. -Research is not clear on the outcomes of extraversion, but one study indicated that a high mean level of extraversion in a team can increase the level of helping behaviors, particularly in a climate of cooperation.33 Thus, the personality traits of individuals are as important to teams as the overall personality characteristics of the team.

Formal power

-Formal power is based on an individual's position in an organization. It can come from the ability to coerce or reward, or from formal authority. -coercive power -reward power -legitimate power

How Do People Respond to Organizational Politics?

--For most people who have modest political skills or who are unwilling to play the politics game, outcomes tend to be predominantly negative in terms of decreased job satisfaction, increased anxiety and stress, increased turnover, and reduced performance -However, very strong evidence indicates perceptions of organizational politics are negatively related to job satisfaction. -Politics may lead to self-reported declines in employee performance, perhaps because employees perceive political environments to be unfair, which demotivates them.54 Not surprisingly, when politicking becomes too much to handle, it can lead employees to quit.

Moods/emotions in negotiations

-A negotiator who shows anger can induce concessions, for instance, because the other negotiator believes no further concessions from the angry party are possible. One factor that governs this outcome, however, is power—you should show anger in negotiations only if you have at least as much power as your counterpart. If you have less, showing anger actually seems to provoke "hardball" reactions from the other side -Having a history of showing anger, rather than sowing the seeds of revenge, actually induces more concessions because the other party perceives the negotiator as "tough -Anger has a cultural context. For instance, one study found that when East Asian participants showed anger, it induced more concessions than when the negotiator expressing anger was from the United States or Europe, perhaps because of the stereotype of East Asians as refusing to show anger. -Another relevant emotion is disappointment. Generally, a negotiator who perceives disappointment from his or her counterpart concedes more. Anxiety also may impact negotiation. For example, one study found that individuals who experienced more anxiety about a negotiation used more deceptions in dealing with others. -Another study found that anxious negotiators expect lower outcomes, respond to offers more quickly, and exit the bargaining process more quickly, leading them to obtain worse outcomes.44 Even emotional unpredictability affects outcomes; researchers have found that negotiators who express positive and negative emotions in an unpredictable way extract more concessions because this behavior makes the other party feel less in control

Oral communication

-A primary means of conveying messages is oral communication. Speeches, formal one-on-one and group discussions, and the informal rumor mill or grapevine are popular forms of oral communication. Advantages: -speed: quicker -feedback: If the receiver is unsure of the message, rapid feedback allows the sender to quickly detect and correct it. -exchange: The exchange given through oral communication has social, cultural, and emotional components.Cultural social exchange, in which we purposefully share exchanges that transcend cultural boundaries, can build trust, cooperation, and agreement between individuals and teams. Disadvantages: -One major disadvantage of oral communication surfaces whenever a message has to pass through a number of people: the more people, the greater the potential distortion. If you've ever played "Telephone," you know the problem.

Team identity

-A team's affinity for and sense of belongingness to his or her team -When people connect emotionally with the groups they're in, they are more likely to invest in their relationship with those groups. It's the same with teams. -By recognizing individuals' specific skills and abilities, as well as creating a climate of respect and inclusion, leaders and members can foster positive team identity and realize improved team outcomes. -Organizational identity is important, too. Rarely do teams operate in a vacuum—more often teams interact with other teams, requiring interteam coordination. Individuals with a positive team identity but without a positive organizational identity can become fixed to their teams and unwilling to coordinate with other teams within the organization

Abilities of members

-A team's performance depends in part on the knowledge, skills, and abilities of individual members. -Abilities set limits on what members can do and how effectively they will perform on a team. -Research revealed insights into team composition and performance. First, when solving a complex problem such as reengineering an assembly line, high-ability teams—composed of mostly intelligent members—do better than lower-ability teams. High-ability teams are also more adaptable to changing situations; they can more effectively apply existing knowledge to new problems. -Finally, the ability of the team's leader matters. Smart team leaders help less intelligent team members when they struggle with a task. A less intelligent leader can, conversely, neutralize the effect of a high-ability team.

Rewarding: Providing Incentives to Be a Good Team Player

-A traditional organization's reward system must be reworked to encourage cooperative efforts rather than competitive ones. - Hallmark Cards Inc. added to its basic individual-incentive system an annual bonus based on the achievement of team goals. -Whole Foods directs most of its performance-based rewards toward team performance. -As a result, teams select new members carefully so they will contribute to team effectiveness (and, thus, team bonuses). -It is usually best to set a cooperative tone as soon as possible in the life of a team. As we already noted, teams that switch from competitive to cooperative do not immediately share information, and they still tend to make rushed, poor-quality decisions. - The low trust typical of the competitive group will not be readily replaced by high trust with a quick change in reward systems. -Promotions, pay raises, and other forms of recognition should be given to individuals who work effectively as team members by training new colleagues, sharing information, helping resolve team conflicts, and mastering needed new skills. -This doesn't mean individual contributions should be ignored; rather, they should be balanced with selfless contributions to the team. -Finally, don't forget the intrinsic rewards, such as camaraderie, that employees can receive from teamwork. It's exciting to be part of a successful team. The opportunity for personal development of self and teammates can be a very satisfying and rewarding experience.

The Ethics of Behaving Politically

-Although there are no clear-cut ways to differentiate ethical from unethical politicking, there are some questions you should consider. For example, what is the utility of engaging in politicking? -One thing to keep in mind is whether it's worth the risk. Another question is this: How does the utility of engaging in the political behavior balance out harm (or potential harm) it will do to others? -Finally, does the political activity conform to standards of equity and justice? Sometimes it is difficult to weigh the costs and benefits of a political action, but the ethicality is clear. -Unfortunately, powerful people can become very good at explaining self-serving behaviors in terms of the organization's best interests. They can persuasively argue that unfair actions are really fair and just. Those who are powerful, articulate, and persuasive are most vulnerable to ethical lapses because they are more likely to get away with them.

Organizational factors

-Although we acknowledge the role individual differences can play, the evidence more strongly suggests that certain situations and cultures promote politics. -Specifically, when an organization's resources are declining, when the existing pattern of resources is changing, and when there is opportunity for promotions, politicking is more likely to surface. -Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems, win-lose reward allocation practices, democratic decision making, high pressure for performance, and self-serving senior managers will create breeding grounds for politicking.

Communication Apprehension

-An estimated 5 to 20 percent of the population suffers debilitating communication apprehension, or social anxiety. -These people experience undue tension and anxiety in oral communication, written communication, or both. -They may find it extremely difficult to talk with others face to face or become extremely anxious when they have to use the phone, relying on memos or e-mails when a phone call would be faster and more appropriate.

Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Leadership

-Another trait that may indicate effective leadership is emotional intelligence (EI). -Empathetic leaders can sense others' needs, listen to what followers say (and don't say), and read the reactions of others. A leader who effectively displays and manages emotions will find it easier to influence the feelings of followers by expressing genuine sympathy and enthusiasm for good performance, and by showing irritation when employees fail to perform.

Individual factors

-At the individual level, researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other factors likely to be related to political behavior. -In terms of traits, we find that employees who are high self-monitors, possess an internal locus of control, and have a high need for power (nPow; see Chapter 7) are more likely to engage in political behavior. Not surprisingly, the Machiavellian personality (see Chapter 5)—characterized by the will to manipulate and the desire for power—is consistent with using politics as a means to further personal interests. -An individual's investment in the organization and perceived alternatives influence the degree to which he or she will pursue illegitimate means of political action.46 The more a person expects increased future benefits from the organization, and the more that person has to lose if forced out, the less likely he or she is to use illegitimate means. -Finally, some individuals engage in political behavior simply because they are better at it. Such individuals read interpersonal interactions well, fit their behavior to situational needs, and excel at networking.47 These people are often indirectly rewarded for their political efforts.

Responsible Leadership

-Authentic leadership -Ethical leadership -Servant leadership

Authentic leadership

-Authentic leadership focuses on the moral aspects of being a leader. Authentic leaders: know who they are, know what they believe in, and act on those values and beliefs openly and candidly. -Their followers consider them ethical people. The primary quality produced by authentic leadership is trust. Authentic leaders share information, encourage open communication, and stick to their ideals.

An Ethical Culture

-Be a visible role model. -Communicate ethical expectations. -Provide ethical training. -Visibly reward ethical acts and punish unethical ones. -Provide protective mechanisms.

Personality traits in negotiations

-Because personality and negotiation outcomes are related but only weakly, the answer is, at best, "sort of." -Self-efficacy is one individual-difference variable that consistently seems to relate to negotiation outcomes (those who believe they will be more successful in negotiation situations tend to perform more effectively)

Are charismatic leaders born or made?

-Both -Individuals are born with traits that make them charismatic. -Research indicates that charismatic leadership is not only the province of world leaders—all of us can develop, within our own limitations, a more charismatic leadership style.

Organizational Designs and Employee Behavior

-Can't generalize -So, any discussion of the effect of organizational design on employee behavior has to address individual differences. To do so, let's consider employee preferences for work specialization, span of control, centralization, and predictability versus autonomy, as well as preferences specific to certain cultures

Stressors

-Challenge stressors -Hindrance stressors

Transformational vs charismatic leadership

-Charismatic leadership places somewhat more emphasis on the way leaders communicate (are they passionate and dynamic?), while transformational leadership focuses more on what they are communicating (is it a compelling vision?). -Still, the theories are more alike than different. At their heart, both focus on the leader's ability to inspire followers, and sometimes they do so in the same way.

Cultural influences

-Collectivistic cultures see people as deeply embedded in social situations, whereas individualistic cultures see them as autonomous. As a result, collectivists are more likely to seek to preserve relationships and promote the good of the group as a whole, and they prefer indirect methods for resolving differences of opinion.

Communication

-Communication can be a source of conflict.6 There are opposing forces that arise from semantic difficulties, misunderstandings, and "noise" in the communication channel (see Chapter 11). These factors, along with jargon and insufficient information, can be barriers to communication and potential antecedent conditions to conflict. The potential for conflict has also been found to increase with too little or too much communication. Communication is functional up to a point, after which it is possible to overcommunicate, increasing the potential for conflict.

Direction of communication

-Communication can flow vertically or laterally, through formal small-group networks or the informal grapevine. -We subdivide the vertical dimension into downward and upward directions

Downward communication

-Communication that flows from one level of a group or organization to a lower level -Group leaders and managers use it to assign goals, provide job instructions, explain policies and procedures, point out problems that need attention, and offer feedback. Job performance reviews: -In general, employees subjected to less direct, personalized communication are less likely to understand the intentions of the message correctly. The best communicators explain the reasons behind their downward communications but also solicit communication from the employees they supervise.

Functional outcomes

-Conflict is constructive when it improves the quality of decisions, stimulates creativity and innovation, encourages interest and curiosity among group members, provides the medium for problems to be aired and tensions released, and fosters self-evaluation and change -Conflict is an antidote for groupthink (see Chapter 9). Conflict doesn't allow the group to passively rubber-stamp decisions that may be based on weak assumptions, inadequate consideration of relevant alternatives, or other debilities. Conflict challenges the status quo and furthers the creation of new ideas, promotes reassessment of group goals and activities, and increases the probability that the group will respond to change.

How transformational leadership works

-Creativity - theirs and others. -Decentralization of responsibility. -Propensity to take risks. -Compensation is geared toward long-term results. -Greater agreement among top managers about the organization's goals. -Increase follower self-efficacy, giving the group a "can do" spirit.

Culture in negotiations

-Do people from different cultures negotiate differently? The simple answer is the obvious one: Yes, they do. In general, people negotiate more effectively within cultures than between them. -It appears that for successful cross-cultural negotiations, it is especially important that the negotiators be high in openness. This suggests a good strategy is to choose cross-cultural negotiators who are high on openness, and it helps to avoid factors such as time pressure that tend to inhibit learning about the other party Second, because emotions are culturally sensitive, negotiators need to be especially aware of the emotional dynamics in cross-cultural negotiation. For example, individuals from East Asian cultures may feel that using anger to get their way in a negotiation is not a legitimate tactic, so they refuse to cooperate when their opponents become upset

Personality

-Do you always read at least five reviews of a movie before deciding whether to see it? Perhaps you even research films by the same stars and director. If so, you are probably high in need for cognition, a personality trait of individuals who are most likely to be persuaded by evidence and facts. -Those who are lower in their need for cognition are more likely to use automatic processing strategies, relying on intuition and emotion to guide their evaluation of persuasive messages.

Common plan and purpose

-Effective teams begin by analyzing the team's mission, developing goals to achieve that mission, and creating strategies for achieving the goals. Teams that consistently perform better have a clear sense of what needs to be done and how.48 This sounds obvious, but many teams ignore this fundamental process. -Effective teams show reflexivity, meaning they reflect on and adjust their purpose when necessary. A team must have a good plan, but it needs to be willing and able to adapt when conditions call for it.49 Interestingly, some evidence suggests that teams high in reflexivity are better able to adapt to conflicting plans and goals among team members

Ethical leadership

-Ethical top leadership influences not only direct followers, but all the way down the command structure as well, because top leaders create an ethical culture and expect lower-level leaders to behave along ethical guidelines. -Leaders rated as highly ethical tend to have followers who engage in more organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs; see Chapter 1) and who are more willing to bring problems to the leaders' attention -Transformational leadership has ethical implications since these leaders change the way followers think. Charisma, too, has an ethical component. Unethical leaders use their charisma to enhance power over followers, directed toward self-serving ends.

Language

-Even when we're communicating in the same language, words mean different things to different people. Age and context are two of the biggest factors that influence such differences. -Those new to corporate lingo may find acronyms such as ARA, words such as deliverables (verifiable outcomes of a project), and phrases such as get the low-hanging fruit (deal with the easiest parts first) bewildering, in the same way parents may be mystified by teen slang.

Cultural differences

-Evidence indicates cultural diversity interferes with team processes, at least in the short term -Though it's debatable, people with higher cultural status are usually in the majority or ruling race group of their nations -Researchers in the United Kingdom, for example, found that cultural status differences affected team performance, noting that teams with more high cultural-status members than low cultural-status members realized improved performance... for every member on the team. -This suggests not that diverse teams should be filled with individuals who have high cultural status in their countries, but that we should be aware of how people identify with their cultural status even in diverse group settings. -In general, cultural diversity seems to be an asset for tasks that call for a variety of viewpoints. But culturally heterogeneous teams have more difficulty learning to work with each other and solving problems. The good news is that these difficulties seem to dissipate with time.

Power Variables: It doesn't affect everyone in the same way

-First, the toxic effects of power depend on the wielder's personality. Research suggests that if you have an anxious personality, power does not corrupt you because you are less likely to think that using power benefits yourself -Second, the corrosive effect of power can be contained by organizational systems. For example, one study found that while power made people behave in a self-serving manner, the self-serving behavior stopped when accountability for the behavior was initiated. -Third, we have the means to blunt the negative effects of power. One study showed that simply expressing gratitude toward powerful others makes them less likely to act aggressively against us -There seems to be some truth to this in that the people most likely to abuse power are those who start low in status and gain power. Why is this the case? It appears that having low status is threatening, and the fear this creates is used in negative ways if power is given later

Trust and culture

-However, in the work context, trust in an employment relationship may be built on very different perceptions from culture to culture. For example, a recent study in Taiwan indicated that employees responded to paternalistic leadership, when it was benevolent and ethical, with increased trust.90 This positive response to paternalism may be unique to the collectivistic context of Taiwan, where the Confucian values of hierarchy and relationship predominate. -In individualistic societies (see Chapter 4), we might expect that paternalistic leadership will rankle many employees who prefer not to see themselves as part of a hierarchical family work group.

Big five traits

-In examining personality traits, researchers have consistently found extraversion to be the most predictive trait of effective leadership. -However, extraversion sometimes relates more to the way leaders emerge than to their effectiveness. Sociable and dominant people are more likely to assert themselves in group situations, which can help extraverts be identified as leaders, but effective leaders are not domineering. -Do not predict leadership: agreeableness and emotional stability -Predict leadership: extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience -Predict leadership and leadership effectiveness: conscientiousness and openness to experience -Conscientiousness and extraversion are positively related to leaders' self-efficacy

Barriers caused by tone differences

-In some cultures, language is formal; in others, it's informal. In some cultures, the tone changes depending on the context: People speak differently at home, in social situations, and at work. Using a personal, informal style when a more formal style is expected can be inappropriate.

Performance evaluations and IM

-In terms of performance evaluations, the picture is quite different. Ingratiation is positively related to performance ratings, meaning those who ingratiate with their supervisors get higher performance evaluations. -However, self-promotion appears to backfire: Those who self-promote actually may receive lower performance ratings -It appears that individuals high in political skill are able to translate IM into higher performance appraisals, whereas those lower in political skill are more likely to be hurt by their IM attempts

Performance evaluation and reward system

-Individual performance evaluations and incentives may interfere with the development of high-performance teams. So, in addition to evaluating and rewarding employees for their individual contributions, management should utilize hybrid performance systems that incorporate an individual member component to recognize individual contributions, and a group reward to recognize positive team outcomes. -Group-based appraisals, profit sharing, small-group incentives, and other system modifications can reinforce team effort and commitment.

Interest level

-Interest levels reflect the impact a decision is going to have on your life. When people are very interested in the outcome of a decision, they're more likely to process information carefully. That's probably why people look for so much more information when deciding about something important (like where to live) than something relatively unimportant (like which soda to drink).

The Reality of Politics

-Interviews with experienced managers show most believe political behavior is a major part of organizational life. -Many managers report some use of political behavior is ethical, as long as it doesn't directly harm anyone else. They describe politics as necessary and believe someone who never uses political behavior will have a hard time getting things done. Most also indicate they have never been trained to use political behavior effectively -Isn't it possible for an organization to be politics-free? It's possible—if all members of that organization hold the same goals and interests, if organizational resources are not scarce, and if performance outcomes are completely clear and objective. But that doesn't describe the organizational world in which most of us live. -Maybe the most important factor leading to politics within organizations is the realization that most of the "facts" used to allocate limited resources are open to interpretation. When allocating pay based on performance, for instance, what is good performance? What's an adequate improvement? What constitutes an unsatisfactory job? -But what if you have to choose between players who hit .280 and .290? Then less objective factors come into play: fielding expertise, attitude, potential, ability to perform in a clutch, loyalty to the team, and so on. -It is in this large and ambiguous middle ground of organizational life—where the facts don't speak for themselves—that politics flourish. -Finally, because most decisions have to be made in a climate of ambiguity—where facts are rarely objective and thus open to interpretation—people within organizations will use whatever influence they can to support their goals and interests. -That, of course, creates the activities we call politicking. One person's "selfless effort to benefit the organization" is seen by another as a "blatant attempt to further his or her interest."

Span of control

-It is probably safe to say no evidence supports a relationship between span of control and employee satisfaction or performance. -Some people like to be left alone; others prefer the security of a boss who is quickly available at all times.

Gender in negotiations

-It seems fairly clear that men and women negotiate differently, that men and women are treated differently by negotiation partners, and that these differences affect outcomes. -A popular stereotype is that women are more cooperative and pleasant in negotiations than men. Though this is controversial, there is some merit to it. Men tend to place a higher value on status, power, and recognition, whereas women tend to place a higher value on compassion and altruism. Moreover, women tend to value relationship outcomes more than men, and men tend to value economic outcomes more than women -These differences affect both negotiation behavior and negotiation outcomes. Compared to men, women tend to behave in a less assertive, less self-interested, and more accommodating manner. -In other words, everyone is better at advocating for others than they are at advocating for themselves. -When the range of negotiation settlements was well defined, men and women were more equal in outcomes. When more experienced negotiators were at the table, men and women were also nearly equivalent. The study authors proposed that when situations are more ambiguous, with less well-defined terms and less experienced negotiators, stereotypes may have stronger effects, leading to larger gender differences in outcomes.

Silence

-It's easy to ignore silence or lack of communication because it is defined by the absence of information. -This is often a mistake—silence itself can be the message to communicate non-interest or inability to deal with a topic. Silence can also be a simple outcome of information overload, or a delaying period for considering a response. -For whatever reasons, research suggests using silence and withholding communication are common and problematic -One survey found that more than 85 percent of managers reported remaining silent about at least one issue of significant concern. The impact of silence can be organizationally detrimental. Employee silence can mean managers lack information about ongoing operational problems; management silence can leave employees bewildered. Silence regarding discrimination, harassment, corruption, and misconduct means top management cannot take action to eliminate problematic behavior.

Choosing nonverbal communication

-It's important to be alert to nonverbal aspects of communication; look for these cues as well as the literal meaning of a sender's words. You should particularly be aware of contradictions between the messages. For example, someone who frequently glances at her wristwatch is giving the message that she would prefer to terminate the conversation no matter what she actually says. -We misinform others when we express one message verbally, such as trust, but nonverbally communicate a contradictory message that reads, "I don't have confidence in you."

Contemporary Theories of Leadership

-Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory -Charismatic Leadership -Transactional and Transformational Leadership

Mentoring

-Leaders often take responsibility for developing future leaders. -Mentor: a senior employee who sponsors and supports a less-experienced employee, a protégé. -Successful mentors are good teachers. They present ideas clearly, listen well, and empathize with protégés' problems. Mentoring relationships serve career and psychosocial functions. -Are all employees in an organization likely to participate in a mentoring relationship? Unfortunately, no. However, research continues to indicate that employers should establish mentoring programs because they benefit both mentors and protégés. -You might assume mentoring is valuable for objective outcomes like compensation and job performance, but research suggests the gains are primarily psychological. Thus, while mentoring can have an impact on career success, it is not as much of a contributing factor as ability and personality. It may feel nice to have a mentor, but it doesn't appear that having a good mentor, or any mentor, is critical to your career. Rather, mentorship is a boost to your confidence.

Persuasion

-Like emotional sharing, persuasion can be good or bad depending on if, say, a leader is trying to persuade a workgroup to commit to the organization's corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives or to, conversely, persuade the workgroup to break the law to meet an organizational goal. -These may be extreme examples, but it's important to remember that persuasion can benefit or harm an organization.

Regaining trust

-Managers who break the psychological contract with workers, demonstrating they aren't trustworthy leaders, will find employees are less satisfied and less committed, have a higher intent toward turnover, engage in less OCB, and have lower levels of task performance. -Once it has been violated, trust can be regained, but only in certain situations and depending on the type of violation.95 If the cause is lack of ability, it's usually best to apologize and recognize you should have done better. When lack of integrity is the problem, apologies don't do much good. Regardless of the violation, saying nothing or refusing to confirm or deny guilt is never an effective strategy for regaining trust. Trust can be restored when we observe a consistent pattern of trustworthy behavior by the transgressor. However, if the transgressor used deception, trust never fully returns, not even after apologies, promises, or a consistent pattern of trustworthy actions.

Message characteristics

-Messages provided through relatively lean communication channels, with little opportunity for users to interact with the content of the message, encourage automatic processing -Conversely, messages provided through richer communication channels encourage more deliberative processing

Size of teams

-Most experts agree that keeping teams small is key to improving group effectiveness.40 Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos uses the "two-pizza" rule, saying, "If it takes more than two pizzas to feed the team, the team is too big. -Generally speaking, the most effective teams have five to nine members. Experts suggest using the smallest number of people who can do the task. -Unfortunately, managers often err by making teams too large. It may require only four or five members to develop an array of views and skills, while coordination problems can increase as others are added -When teams have excess members, cohesiveness and mutual accountability decline, social loafing increases, and people communicate less. Members of large teams have trouble coordinating with one another, especially under time pressure. -When a natural working unit is larger and you want a team effort, consider breaking the group into subteams

Factors Contributing to Political Behavior

-Not all groups or organizations are equally political. In some organizations, politicking is overt and rampant, while in others politics play a small role in influencing outcomes. -Research and observation have identified a number of factors that appear to encourage political behavior. Some are individual characteristics, derived from the qualities of the people the organization employs; others are a result of the organization's culture or internal environment.

Member preferences

-Not every employee is a team player. Given the option, many employees will select themselves out of team participation. When people who prefer to work alone are required to team up, there is a direct threat to the team's morale and to individual member satisfaction. -This suggests that, when selecting team members, managers should consider individual preferences along with abilities, personalities, and skills. High-performing teams are likely to be composed of people who prefer working as part of a group.

Which Bases of Power Are Most Effective?

-Of the three bases of formal power (coercive, reward, legitimate) and two bases of personal power (expert, referent), which are most important? -Research suggests the personal sources of power are most effective. -Both expert and referent power are positively related to employees' satisfaction with supervision, their organizational commitment, and their performance, whereas reward and legitimate power seem to be unrelated to these outcomes. -One source of formal power, coercive power, can be damaging.

Does Effective Charismatic Leadership Depend on the Situation?

-One factor that enhances charismatic leadership is stress. People are especially receptive to charismatic leadership when they sense a crisis, when they are under stress, or when they fear for their lives. We may be more receptive to charismatic leadership under crises because we think bold leadership is needed. -Some personalities are especially susceptible to charismatic leadership. For instance, an individual who lacks self-esteem and questions his or her self-worth is more likely to absorb a leader's direction rather than establish an individual way of leading or thinking.

Managing conflict

-One of the keys to minimizing counterproductive conflicts is recognizing when there really is a disagreement. Many apparent conflicts are due to people using different verbiage to discuss the same general course of action. -Another approach is to have opposing groups pick parts of the solution that are most important to them and then focus on how each side can get its top needs satisfied. Neither side may get exactly what it wants, but each side will achieve the most important parts of its agenda -Third, groups that resolve conflicts successfully discuss differences of opinion openly and are prepared to manage conflict when it arises.24 An open discussion makes it much easier to develop a shared perception of the problems at hand; it also allows groups to work toward a mutually acceptable solution. -Fourth, managers need to emphasize shared interests in resolving conflicts, so groups that disagree with one another don't become too entrenched in their points of view and start to take the conflicts personally.

IM by culture

-One study of managers in the U.S. culture and three Chinese cultures (People's Republic of China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan) found that U.S. managers evaluated "gentle persuasion" tactics such as consultation and inspirational appeal as more effective than did their Chinese counterparts.69 This finding may have implications for the effectiveness of impression management techniques in individualistic and collectivistic countries. -Other research suggests effective U.S. leaders achieve influence by focusing on the personal goals of group members and the tasks at hand (an analytical approach), whereas influential East Asian leaders focus on relationships among group members and meeting the demands of people around them (a holistic approach). Further research is needed in this area.70

Some factors that make smaller, more traditional teams effective do not necessarily apply to multiteam systems and can even hinder their performance.

-One study showed that multiteam systems performed better when they had "boundary spanners" whose jobs were to coordinate efforts with all constituents. This reduced the need for some team member communication, which was helpful because it reduced coordination demands. -Leadership of multiteam systems is also much different than for stand-alone teams. While leadership of all teams affects team performance, a multiteam leader must both facilitate coordination between teams and lead them. Research indicated teams that received more attention and engagement from the organization's leaders felt more empowered, which made them more effective as they sought to solve their own problems

Social Network Analysis: A Tool for Assessing Resources

-One tool to assess the exchange of resources and dependencies within an organization is social network analysis -This method examines patterns of communication among organizational members to identify how information flows between them. -Within a social network, or connections between people who share professional interests, each individual or group is called a node, and the links between nodes are called ties. -When nodes communicate or exchange resources frequently, they are said to have very strong ties. Other nodes that are not engaged in direct communication with one another achieve resource flows through intermediary nodes. -In other words, some nodes act as brokers between otherwise unconnected nodes. -A graphical illustration of the associations among individuals in a social network is called a sociogram, which functions like an informal version of an organization chart. -The difference is that a formal organization chart shows how authority is supposed to flow, whereas a sociogram shows how resources really flow in an organization -Networks can create substantial power dynamics. Those in the position of brokers tend to have more power because they can leverage the unique resources they can acquire from different groups. In other words, many people are dependent upon brokers, which gives the brokers more power. -There are many ways to implement a social network analysis in an organization.12 Some organizations keep track of the flow of e-mail communications or document sharing across departments. These big data tools are an easy way to gather objective information about how individuals exchange information. Other organizations look at data from human resources (HR) information systems, analyzing how supervisors and subordinates interact with one another. These data sources can produce sociograms showing how resources and power flow. Leaders can then identify powerful brokers who exert the strongest influence on many groups, and address these key individuals.

Differences in tolerance for conflict and methods for resolving conflicts

-People from individualist cultures tend to be more comfortable with direct conflict and will make the source of their disagreements overt. -Collectivists are more likely to acknowledge conflict only implicitly and avoid emotionally charged disputes. -They may attribute conflicts to the situation more than to the individuals and therefore may not require explicit apologies to repair relationships, whereas individualists prefer explicit statements, accepting responsibility for conflicts and public apologies to restore relationships.

Prior knowledge

-People who are well informed about a subject area are more likely to use controlled processing strategies. They have already thought through various arguments for or against a specific course of action, and therefore won't readily change their position unless very good, thoughtful reasons are provided. -On the other hand, people who are poorly informed about a topic can change their minds more readily, even in the face of fairly superficial arguments presented without a great deal of evidence. A better-informed audience is likely to be much harder to persuade.

Cultural Preferences for Power Tactics

-Preference for power tactics varies across cultures.22 Those from individualistic countries tend to see power in personalized terms and as a legitimate means of advancing their personal ends, whereas those in collectivistic countries see power in social terms and as a legitimate means of helping others -Managers in the United States seem to prefer rational appeal, whereas Chinese managers may prefer coalition tactics. -Reason-based tactics are consistent with the U.S. preference for direct confrontation, and rational persuasion to influence others and resolve differences, while coalition tactics align with the Chinese preference for meeting difficult or controversial requests with indirect approaches.

Process and customer departmentalization

-Process departmentalization works for processing customers as well as products. -If you've ever been to a state motor vehicle office to get a driver's license, you probably went through several departments before receiving your license. - In one typical state, applicants go through three steps, each handled by a separate department: (1) validation by the motor vehicles division, (2) processing by the licensing department, and (3) payment collection by the treasury department. -A final category of departmentalization uses the particular type of customer the organization seeks to reach.

Types of conflict

-Relationship conflict -Task conflict -Process conflict

Information security

-Security is a huge concern for nearly all organizations with private or proprietary information about clients, customers, and employees. Organizations worry about the security of the electronic information they need to protect such as hospital patient data, physical information they still keep in file cabinets, and information they entrust their employees with knowing. -Most companies actively monitor employee Internet use and e-mail records, and some even use video surveillance and record phone conversations. Necessary though they may be, such practices can seem invasive to employees. An organization can relieve employee concerns by engaging them in the creation of information-security policies and giving them some control over how their personal information is used.

Selective Perception

-Selective perception is important because the receivers in the communication process selectively see and hear based on their needs, motivations, experience, background, and other personal characteristics. -Receivers also project their interests and expectations into communications as they decode them. -For example, an employment interviewer who expects a female job applicant to put her family ahead of her career is likely to see that characteristic in all female applicants, regardless of whether any of the women actually feel that way.

Selection: Hiring Team Players

-Some people already possess the interpersonal skills to be effective team players. Therefore, managers, when hiring team members, can make certain that candidates can fulfill their team roles as well as technical requirements. -Creating teams often means resisting the urge to hire the best talent no matter what. For example, the New York Knicks professional basketball team pays Carmelo Anthony well because he scores a lot of points for his team; but statistics show he takes more shots than other highly paid players in the league, which means fewer shots for his teammates. -Personal traits appear to make some people better candidates for working in diverse teams. Teams made of members who like to work through difficult mental puzzles also seem more effective and able to capitalize on the multiple points of view that arise from diversity in age and education.

Using Power Tactics

-Some tactics are more effective than others. Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation tend to be the most effective, especially when the audience is highly interested in the outcomes of a decision process. -The pressure tactic tends to backfire and is typically the least effective of the nine. -You can increase your chance of success by using two or more tactics together or sequentially, as long as your choices are compatible. -Let's consider the most effective way of getting a raise. You can start with a rational approach—figure out how your pay compares to that of your organizational peers, land a competing job offer, gather data that testify to your performance, or use salary calculators like Salary.com to compare your pay with others in your occupation—then share your findings with your manager. The results can be impressive. Kitty Dunning, a vice president at Don Jagoda Associates, landed a 16 percent raise when she e-mailed her boss numbers showing she had increased sales. -As Exhibit 13-2 shows, rational persuasion is the only tactic effective across organizational levels. Inspirational appeals work best as a downward-influencing tactic with subordinates. When pressure works, it's generally downward only. Personal appeals and coalitions are most effective as lateral influence. Other factors relating to the effectiveness of influence include the sequencing of tactics, a person's skill in using the tactic, and the organizational culture. -In general, you're more likely to be effective if you begin with "softer" tactics that rely on personal power, such as personal and inspirational appeals, rational persuasion, and consultation. If these fail, you can move to "harder" tactics, such as exchange, coalitions, and pressure, which emphasize formal power and incur greater costs and risks -As we mentioned, the effectiveness of tactics depends on the audience.21 People especially likely to comply with soft power tactics tend to be more reflective and intrinsically motivated; they have high self-esteem and a greater desire for control. Those likely to comply with hard power tactics are more action-oriented and extrinsically motivated, and are more focused on getting along with others than on getting their own way.

Personality traits

-Stress symptoms expressed on the job may originate from the person's personality.73 Perhaps the most widely studied personality trait in research on stress is neuroticism -As you might expect, neurotic individuals are more prone to experience psychological strain.74 Evidence suggests that neurotic individuals are more likely to find stressors in their work environments, so they believe their environments are more threatening. They also tend to select less adaptive coping mechanisms, relying on avoidance as a way of dealing with problems rather than attempting to resolve them

Specific goals

-Successful teams translate their common purpose into specific, measurable, and realistic performance goals. -Specific goals facilitate clear communication. They help teams maintain their focus on getting results. Consistent with the research on individual goals, team goals should be challenging. -Difficult but achievable goals raise team performance on those criteria for which they're set. So, for instance, goals for quantity tend to increase quantity, goals for accuracy increase accuracy, and so on.

Leadership and structure

-Teams can't function if they can't agree on who is to do what and ensure all members share the workload. Agreeing on the specifics of work and how they fit together to integrate individual skills requires leadership and structure, either from management or from team members themselves. -In self-managed teams, members absorb many of the duties typically assumed by managers. A manager's job then becomes managing outside (rather than inside) the team. -As mentioned before, leadership is especially important in multiteam systems. Here, leaders need to delegate responsibility to teams and play the role of facilitator, making sure the teams work together rather than against one another.

Allocation of roles

-Teams have different needs, and members should be selected to ensure all the various roles are filled. -Put your most able, experienced, and conscientious workers in the most central roles in a team. -We can identify nine potential team member roles Successful work teams have selected people to play all these roles based on their skills and preferences. (On many teams, individuals will play multiple roles.) To increase the likelihood team members will work well together, managers need to understand the individual strengths each person can bring to a team, select members with their strengths in mind, and allocate work assignments that fit with members' preferred styles. 9 Potential Team member roles: 1. Linker (coordinates and integrates) 2. Creator (initiates creative ideas) 3. Promoter (champions ideas after they're initiated) 4. Assessor (offers insightful analysis of opinions) 5. Organizer (provides structure) 6. Producer (provides direction and follow-through) 7. Controller (examines details and enforces rules) 8. Maintainer (fights external battles) 9. Adviser (encourages the search for more information)

The effectiveness of each network is determined by the dependent variable that concerns you

-The structure of the wheel facilitates the emergence of a leader, the all-channel network is best if you desire high member satisfaction, and the chain is best if accuracy is most important. -no single network will be best for all occasions.

Beware! Teams Aren't Always the Answer

-Teamwork takes more time and often more resources than individual work. Teams have increased communication demands, conflicts to manage, and meetings to run. So, the benefits of using teams have to exceed the costs, and that's not always possible -How do you know whether the work of your group would be better done in teams? You can apply three tests. 1. First, can the work be done better by more than one person? -Good indicators are the complexity of the work and the need for different perspectives. Simple tasks that don't require diverse inputs are probably better left to individuals 2. Second, does the work create a common purpose or set of goals for the people in the group that is more than the aggregate of individual goals? -Many service departments of new vehicle dealers have introduced teams that link customer-service people, mechanics, parts specialists, and sales representatives. Such teams can better manage collective responsibility for ensuring customer needs are properly met. 3. determine whether the members of the group are interdependent. -Using teams makes sense when there is interdependence among tasks—the success of the whole depends on the success of each one, and the success of each one depends on the success of the others. -Soccer, for instance, is an obvious team sport. Success requires a great deal of coordination among interdependent players. Conversely, except possibly for relays, swim teams are not really teams. They're groups of individuals performing individually, whose total performance is merely the aggregate summation of their individual performances.

Choosing Communication Methods

-The choice of channel depends on whether the message is routine. -Routine messages tend to be straightforward and have minimal ambiguity; channels low in richness can carry them efficiently. -Nonroutine communications are likely to be complicated and have the potential for misunderstanding. Managers can communicate them effectively only by selecting rich channels.

Bargaining and problem solving

-The essence of the negotiation process is the actual give-and-take in trying to hash out an agreement. This is where both parties need to make concessions. Relationships change as a result of negotiation, so take that into consideration. If you could "win" a negotiation but push the other side into resentment or animosity, it might be wiser to pursue a more compromising style. If preserving the relationship will make you seem easily exploited, you may consider a more aggressive style. As an example of how the tone of a relationship in negotiations matters, people who feel good about the process of a job offer negotiation are more satisfied with their jobs and less likely to turn over a year later regardless of their actual outcomes from these negotiations

work specilization

-The evidence generally indicates that work specialization contributes to higher employee productivity—but at the price of job satisfaction. -However, work specialization is not an unending source of higher productivity. -Problems start to surface, and productivity begins to suffer, when the human diseconomies of doing repetitive and narrow tasks overtake the economies of specialization. -As the workforce has become more highly educated and desirous of jobs that are intrinsically rewarding, we seem to reach the point at which productivity begins to decline as a function of specialization more quickly than in the past. -While decreased productivity often prompts companies to add oversight and inspection roles, the better answer may be to reorganize work functions and accountability.

Interview success and IM

-The evidence indicates most job applicants use IM techniques in interviews and that it works. -appearance-oriented efforts (efforts toward looking professional), explicit tactics (such as flattering the interviewer or talking up your own accomplishments), and verbal cues (such as using positive terms and showing general enthusiasm).63 Across all the dimensions, it was quite clear that IM was a powerful predictor of how well people did. -However, there was a twist. When interviews were highly structured, meaning the interviewer's questions were written out in advance and focused on applicant qualifications, the effects of IM were substantially weaker. Manipulative behaviors like IM are more likely to have an effect in ambiguous and unstructured interviews.

Lying

-The final barrier to effective communication is outright misrepresentation of information, or lying. People differ in their definition of a lie. For example, is deliberately withholding information about a mistake a lie, or do you have to actively deny your role in the mistake to pass the threshold?

Information exchange

-The final function of communication is information exchange to facilitate decision making. -Communication provides the information individuals and groups need to make decisions by transmitting the data needed to identify and evaluate choices.

Grapevine

-The informal communication network in a group or organization -Although rumors and gossip transmitted through the grapevine may be informal, it's still an important source of information for employees and candidates. Grapevine or word-of-mouth information from peers about a company has important effects on whether job applicants join an organization, even over and above informal ratings on websites like Glassdoor. -The grapevine is an important part of any group or organization communication network. It serves employees' needs: small talk creates a sense of closeness and friendship among those who share information, although research suggests it often does so at the expense of those in the outgroup. -It also gives managers a feel for the morale of their organization, the issues employees consider important, and employee anxieties. -Evidence indicates that managers can study the gossip driven largely by employee social networks to learn more about how positive and negative information is flowing through the organization. - Furthermore, managers can identify influencers (highly networked people trusted by their coworkers) by noting which individuals are small talkers (those who regularly communicate about insignificant, unrelated issues). -Small talkers tend to be influencers. One study found that social talkers are so influential that they were significantly more likely to retain their jobs during layoffs. Thus, while the grapevine may not be sanctioned or controlled by the organization, it can be understood and leveraged a bit.

Tailoring the Message

-The most important implication is to match your persuasive message to the type of processing your audience is likely to use. -When the audience is not interested in a persuasive message topic, when they are poorly informed, when they are low in need for cognition, and when information is transmitted through relatively lean channels, they'll be more likely to use automatic processing. -In these cases, use messages that are more emotionally laden and associate positive images with your preferred outcome. -On the other hand, when the audience is interested in a topic, when they are high in need for cognition, or when the information is transmitted through rich channels, then it is a better idea to focus on rational arguments and evidence to make your case.

Structure

-The term structure in this context includes variables such as size of group, degree of specialization in tasks assigned to group members, jurisdictional clarity, member-goal compatibility, leadership styles, reward systems, and degree of dependence between groups. The larger the group and the more specialized its activities, the greater the likelihood of conflict. Tenure and conflict are inversely related, meaning that the longer a person stays with an organization, the less likely conflict becomes. Therefore, the potential for conflict is greatest when group members are newer to the organization and when turnover is high.

Emotional sharing

-The workgroup is a primary source of social interaction for many employees. Communication within the group is a fundamental mechanism by which members show satisfaction and frustration. -Communication, therefore, provides for the emotional sharing of feelings and fulfillment of social needs.

Inter-organizational factors

-There are also political forces at work in the relationships between organizations, where politics work differently depending on the organizational cultures. -One study showed that when two organizations with very political environments interacted with one another, the political interactions between them hurt performance in collaborative projects. -On the other hand, when companies with less internal political behavior interacted with one another, even political disputes between them did not lead to lower performance in collaborative projects.

Preparation and planning

-This may be the most important part of the process. Before you start negotiating, do your homework. What's the nature of the conflict? What's the history leading up to this negotiation? Who's involved and what are their perceptions of the conflict? Then consider your goals, in writing, with a range of outcomes from "most helpful" to "minimally acceptable." Once you've gathered your information, develop a strategy. You should determine your and the other side's best alternative to a negotiated agreement, or BATNA. Your BATNA determines the lowest value acceptable to you for a negotiated agreement. Any offer you receive that is higher than your BATNA is better than an impasse. Conversely, you shouldn't expect success in your negotiation effort unless you're able to make the other side an offer it finds more attractive than its BATNA. In nearly all cases, the party with superior alternatives will do better in a negotiation, so experts advise negotiators to solidify their BATNA prior to any interaction.34 Therefore, be equipped to counter arguments with facts and figures that support your position. There is an interesting exception to this general rule—negotiators with absolutely no alternative to a negotiated agreement sometimes "go for broke" since they don't even consider what would happen if the negotiation falls through.

Training: Creating Team Players

-Training specialists conduct exercises that allow employees to experience the satisfaction teamwork can provide. Workshops help employees improve their problem-solving, communication, negotiation, conflict-management, and coaching skills. -L'Oréal, for example, found that successful sales teams required much more than a staff of high-ability salespeople. "What we didn't account for was that many members of our top team in sales had been promoted because they had excellent technical and executional skills," said L'Oréal's senior VP David Waldock. As a result of introducing purposeful team training, Waldock said, "We are no longer a team just on paper, working independently. We have a real group dynamic now, and it's a good one." An effective team doesn't develop overnight—it takes time.

Evaluation of transformational leadership

-Transformational leadership has been supported at diverse job levels and occupations, but isn't equally effective in all situations. -It has a greater impact on the bottom line in smaller, privately held firms than in more complex organizations. *In general, organizations perform better when they have transformational leaders.

Positive leadership

-Trust -Mentoring

Climate of trust

-Trust is the foundation of leadership; it allows a team to accept and commit to the leader's goals and decisions. Members of effective teams exhibit trust in their leaders -They also trust each other. Interpersonal trust among team members facilitates cooperation, reduces the need to monitor each other's behavior, and bonds individuals through the belief that members won't take advantage of them. -Members are more likely to take risks and expose vulnerabilities when they can trust others on their team. The overall level of trust in a team is important, but the way trust is dispersed among team members also matters. -Trust levels that are asymmetric and imbalanced between team members can mitigate the performance advantages of a high overall level of trust—in such cases, coalitions form that often undermine the team as a whole -Trust is a perception that can be vulnerable to shifting conditions in a team environment. For instance, research in Singapore found that, in high-trust teams, individuals are less likely to claim and defend personal ownership of their ideas, but individuals who do still claim personal ownership are rated as lower contributors by team members.23 This "punishment" by the team may reflect resentments that create negative relationships, increased conflicts, and reduced performance.

Dysfunctional outcomes

-Uncontrolled opposition breeds discontent, which acts to dissolve common ties and eventually leads to the destruction of the group. -Among the undesirable consequences are poor communication, reductions in group cohesiveness, and subordination of group goals to the primacy of infighting among members.

The dark side of charismatic leadership

-Unfortunately, charismatic leaders who are larger than life don't necessarily act in the best interests of their organizations. -individuals who are narcissistic are higher in some behaviors associated with charismatic leadership. -Many charismatic—but corrupt—leaders have allowed their personal goals to override the goals of their organizations.

Upward communication

-Upward communication flows to a higher level in the group or organization. -It's used to provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them of progress toward goals, and relay current problems. -Upward communication keeps managers aware of how employees feel about their jobs, coworkers, and the organization in general. Managers also rely on upward communication for ideas on how conditions can be improved.

Product or service departmentalization

-We can also departmentalize jobs by the type of product or service the organization produces. -Procter & Gamble places each major product—such as Tide, Pampers, Charmin, and Pringles—under an executive who has complete global responsibility for it. -The major advantage here is increased accountability for performance because all activities related to a specific product or service are under the direction of a single manager.

Predictability versus Autonomy

-We can draw one obvious insight: people don't select employers randomly. They are attracted to, are selected by, and stay with organizations that suit their personal characteristics. -Job candidates who prefer predictability are likely to seek out and take employment in mechanistic structures, and those who want autonomy are more likely to end up in organic structures. -Thus, the effect of structure on employee behavior is undoubtedly reduced when the selection process facilitates proper matching of individual characteristics with organizational characteristics. Furthermore, companies should strive to establish, promote, and maintain the unique identity of their structures since skilled employees may quit as a result of dramatic changes

The role of time

-We come to trust people by observing their behavior over a period of time. To help, leaders need to demonstrate integrity, benevolence, and ability in situations where trust is important—say, where they could behave opportunistically or let employees down. -Second, trust can be won in the ability domain by demonstrating competence. -Third, research with 100 companies around the world suggested that leaders can build trust by shifting their communication style from top-down commands to ongoing organizational dialogue. -when leaders regularly create interpersonal conversations with their employees that are intimate, interactive, inclusive, and that intentionally follow an agenda, followers demonstrate trust with high levels of engagement.

Centralization

-We find fairly strong evidence linking centralization and job satisfaction. -In general, less centralized organizations have a greater amount of autonomy, and autonomy appears positively related to job satisfaction. -But again, while one employee may value freedom, another may find autonomous environments frustratingly ambiguous.

Online leadership

-We propose that online leaders have to think carefully about what actions they want their digital messages to initiate. -These leaders confront unique challenges, the greatest of which appears to be developing and maintaining trust.

Scarce

-We see the scarcity-dependence relationship in the power situation of employment. When the supply of labor is low relative to demand, workers can negotiate compensation and benefits packages that are far more attractive than those in occupations with an abundance of candidates. -For example, college administrators have no problem today finding English instructors since there is a high supply and low demand. The market for network systems analysts, in contrast, is comparatively tight, with demand high and supply limited. The resulting bargaining power of computer-engineering faculty allows them to negotiate higher salaries, lighter teaching loads, and other benefits.

Personality Traits and Leadership

-What constitutes a great leader? In general, individuals who like being around people and who are able to assert themselves (extraverted), disciplined and able to keep commitments they make (conscientious), and creative and flexible (open) have an apparent advantage when it comes to leadership. -Big five traits -dark side traits

Geographical departmentalization

-When a firm is departmentalized on the basis of geography (or territory); the sales function, for instance, may have western, southern, midwestern, and eastern regions which are each a department organized around geography -This form is valuable when an organization's customers are scattered over a large geographic area and have similar needs within their locations.

Lateral communications

-When communication occurs between members of the same workgroup, members at the same level in separate workgroups, or any other horizontally equivalent workers -Lateral communication saves time and facilitates coordination. Some lateral relationships are formally sanctioned. More often, they are informally created to short-circuit the vertical hierarchy and expedite action. -So from management's viewpoint, lateral communications can be good or bad. -Because strictly adhering to the formal vertical structure for all communications can be inefficient, lateral communication occurring with management's knowledge and support can be beneficial. -But dysfunctional conflict can result when formal vertical channels are breached, when members go above or around their superiors, or when bosses find actions have been taken or decisions made without their knowledge.

Transformational vs transactional leadership

-When comparing transformational leadership with transactional leadership, research indicates transformational leadership is more strongly correlated than transactional leadership with lower turnover rates, higher productivity, lower employee stress and burnout, and higher employee satisfaction -But transformational leadership is not perfect

Choosing oral communication

-Whenever you need to gauge the receiver's receptivity, oral communication is usually the better choice. The marketing plan for a new product, for instance, may need to be worked out with clients in person, so you can see their reactions to each idea you propose. -Also consider the receiver's preferred mode of communication; some individuals focus on content better in written form and others prefer discussion. -For example, if your manager requests a meeting with you, you may not want to ask for an e-mail exchange instead. The pace of your work environment matters too. A fast-paced workplace may thrive on pop-by meetings, while a deadline-heavy team project may progress faster with scheduled Skype videoconferences. -Much of what we communicate face-to-face is in the delivery, so also consider your speaking skills when choosing your communication method. Research indicates the sound of your voice is twice as important as what you are saying. -A good speaking voice, clear and moderated, can be a help to your career; while loud, questioning, irritating, immature, falsetto, breathy, or monotone voice tones can hinder you. -If your voice is problematic, your work teams can help you raise your awareness so you can make changes, or you may benefit from the help of a voice coach.

What key characteristics lead us to believe a leader is trust-worthy?

-integrity: honesty and truthfulness. -benevolence: the trusted person has your interests at heart, even if your interests aren't necessarily in line with theirs. -ability: encompasses an individual's technical and interpersonal knowledge and skills.

Written communication

-Written communication includes letters, e-mail, instant messaging, organizational periodicals, and any other method that conveys written words or symbols. -The advantages depend on what written mode is used. -Written business communication today is usually conducted via letters, PowerPoint®, e-mail, instant messaging, text messaging, social media, apps, and blogs. -Some of these create a digital or physical long-term record, while the advantage of others is quick, fleeting information exchange. The disadvantages are also specific to each written mode.

Choosing written communication

-Written communication is generally the most reliable mode for complex and lengthy communications, and it can be the most efficient method for short messages when, for instance, a two-sentence text can take the place of a 10-minute phone call. But keep in mind that written communication can be limited in its emotional expression. -Choose written communication when you want the information to be tangible, verifiable, and "on the record." Letters are used in business primarily for networking and record-keeping purposes, and when signatures need to be authentic. -Finally, curtail usage of blogs, posting, and commenting; both options are more public than you may think, and your words are easily found by your name via search engines like Google.

Emotions

-You may interpret the same message differently when you're angry or distraught than when you're happy. For example, individuals in positive moods are more confident about their opinions after reading a persuasive message, so well-designed arguments have a stronger impact on their opinions. -People in negative moods are more likely to scrutinize messages in greater detail, whereas those in positive moods tend to accept communications at face value. -Extreme emotions such as jubilation or depression are most likely to hinder effective communication. In such instances, we are most prone to disregard our rational and objective thinking processes and substitute emotional judgments.

Reputation

-Your reputation is the way other people think and talk about you. -When it comes to negotiation, having a reputation for being trustworthy matters. In short, trust in a negotiation process opens the door to many forms of integrative negotiation strategies that benefit both parties -The most effective way to build trust is to behave in an honest way across repeated interactions. Then, others feel more comfortable making open-ended offers with many different outcomes. This helps to achieve win-win outcomes, since both parties can work to achieve what is most important to themselves while still benefiting the other party. What characteristics help a person develop a trustworthy reputation? A combination of competence and integrity. -Negotiators higher in self-confidence and cognitive ability are seen as more competent by negotiation partners.55 They are also considered better able to accurately describe a situation and their own resources, and are more credible when they make suggestions for creative solutions to impasses. -Individuals who have a reputation for integrity can also be more effective in negotiations.56 They are seen as more likely to keep their promises and present information accurately, so others are more willing to accept their promises as part of a bargain. Finally, individuals who have higher reputations are better liked and have more friends and allies—in other words, they have more social resources, which may give them more understood power in negotiations.

Challenges to our Understanding of Leadership

-attribution theory of leadership -Substitutes for and Neutralizers of Leadership -online leadership

Cultural Barriers

-barriers caused by semantics -barriers caused by word connotations -barriers caused by tone differences -differences in tolerance for conflict and methods for resolving conflicts

identification-based trust

-based on a mutual understanding of each other's intentions and appreciation of the other's wants and desires, is particularly difficult to achieve without face-to-face interaction. -We believe good leadership skills will soon include the ability to communicate support, trust, and inspiration through electronic communication and to accurately read emotions in others' messages. In electronic communication, writing skills are likely to become an extension of interpersonal skills in ways that are not yet defined.

Nonverbal Communication

-body movements, the intonations or emphasis we give to words, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and receiver. -Every time we deliver a verbal message, we also impart an unspoken message. Sometimes the nonverbal component may stand alone as a powerful message of our business communication. Body movement: We could argue that every body movement has meaning, and no movement is accidental (though some are unconscious). We act out our state of being with nonverbal body language. For example, we smile to project trustworthiness, uncross our arms to appear approachable, and stand to signal authority Intonation: emphasis given to words or phrases. Intonations can change the meaning of a message. Facial expression: Facial expressions also convey meaning. Facial expressions, along with intonations, can show arrogance, aggressiveness, fear, shyness, and other characteristics. Physical distance: What is considered proper spacing between people largely depends on cultural norms. A businesslike distance in some European countries feels intimate in many parts of North America. If someone stands closer to you than is considered appropriate, it may indicate aggressiveness or sexual interest; if farther away, it may signal disinterest or displeasure with what is being said.

Stage V: Outcomes

-functional outcomes -dysfunctional outcomes

Functional departmentalization

-group activities by the functions performed -engineering, accounting, manufacturing, human resources (HR), and supply chain departments

Organizational approaches to managing stress

-improving employee selection and job placement -goal-setting -redesign of jobs -increasing employee involvement -organizational communication -employee sabbaticals -corporate wellness programs.

Social loafing

-individuals can engage in social loafing and coast on the group's effort when their particular contributions (or lack thereof) can't be identified. -Effective teams undermine this tendency by making members individually and jointly accountable for the team's purpose, goals, and approach. Therefore, members should be clear on what they are individually and jointly responsible for on the team.

Formal small-group networks

1. Chain 2. Wheel 3. All channel

Dark side traits

-machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy -Research indicates they're not all bad for leadership. A study in Europe and the United States found that normative (mid-range) scores on the Dark-Side personality traits were optimal, and low (and high) scores were associated with ineffective leadership. -However, higher scores on Dark-Side traits and emotional stability can contribute to leadership emergence. -Thankfully, both this study and other international research indicate that building self-awareness and self-regulation skills may be helpful for leaders to control the effects of their Dark-Side traits

Modes of Communication

-oral, written, nonverbal -Certain modes are highly preferred for specific types of communication.

Personal power

-personal power, which comes from an individual's unique characteristics. -There are two bases of personal power: expertise and the respect and admiration of others. Personal power is not mutually exclusive from formal power, but it can be independent.

Personal variables

-personality, emotions, and values People high in the personality traits of disagreeableness, neuroticism, or self-monitoring (see Chapter 5) are prone to tangle with other people more often—and to react poorly when conflicts occur Furthermore, differences in preferences and values can generate increased levels of conflict. For example, a study in Korea found that when group members didn't agree about their desired achievement levels, there was more task conflict; when group members didn't agree about their desired interpersonal closeness levels, there was more relationship conflict; and when group members didn't have similar desires for power, there was more conflict over status.

Negotiating in a Social Context

-reputation -relationships

Turning Individuals into Team Players Phases of organizational team building

-selection -training -rewards

How Employees Learn Culture

-stories -rituals -material symbols -language.

Leadership

-the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals. -not all leaders are managers, nor are all managers leaders. -Nonsanctioned leadership—the ability to influence that arises outside the formal structure of the organization—is sometimes more important than formal influence.

Cultural differences in behavioral theories

-there are international differences in the preference for initiating structure and consideration -The study found that leaders high in consideration succeeded best in countries where cultural values did not favor unilateral decision making, such as Brazil. -In Brazil, it is expected for managers to take everyones ideas into consideration. Having consideration is important there. -In France, managers can make more independent decisions. Consideration is less important and initiating structure is more important

Individual approaches to managing stress

-time management -physical exercise -relaxation training -social support networks

Entry socialization options

1 Formal vs. Informal 2 Individual vs. Collective 3 Fixed vs. Variable 4 Serial vs. Random 5 Investiture vs. Divestiture

A leader should choose one of four behaviors depending on follower readiness.

1) If followers are unable and unwilling to do a task: the leader needs to give clear and specific directions 2) If they are unable but willing: the leader needs to display a high task orientation to compensate for followers' lack of ability, and a high relationship orientation to get them to "buy into" the leader's desires. 3) If followers are able but unwilling: the leader needs to use a supportive and participative style 4) If they are both able and willing: the leader doesn't need to do much.

Determinants of whether someone will use automatic or controlled processing

1) Interest level 2) Prior knowledge 3)personality 4) Message characteristics

OD techniques

1) sensitivity training 2) survey feedback 3) process consultation 4) team building 5) intergroup development 6) appreciative inquiry

Common Organizational Frameworks and Structures

1) the simple structure 2) the bureaucracy 3) the matrix structure.

Seven key elements when designing organization structure

1) work specialization 2) departmentalization 3) chain of command 4) span of control 5) centralization and decentralization 6) formalization 7) boundary spanning

Characteristics of a spiritual organization

1. Benevolence 2. Strong sense of purpose 3. Trust and respect 4. Open-mindedness

Three contingency or situational dimensions

1. Leader-member relations: the degree of confidence, trust, and respect members have in their leader 2. Task structure: the degree to which the job assignments are procedurized (that is, structured or unstructured) 3. Position power: the degree of influence a leader has over power variables such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases

Socialization process

1. Pre-arrival 2. Encounter 3. Metamorphosis

Key Characteristics of a Charismatic Leader

1. Vision and articulation: Has a vision—expressed as an idealized goal—that proposes a future better than the status quo; and is able to clarify the importance of the vision in terms that are understandable to others. 2. Personal risk: Willing to take on high personal risk, incur high costs, and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve the vision. 3. Sensitivity to follower needs: Perceptive of others' abilities and responsive to their needs and feelings. 4. Unconventional behavior: Engages in behaviors that are perceived as novel and counter to norms.

Functions of Communication (within a group or organization)

1. management 2. feedback 3. emotional sharing 4. persuasion 5. information exchange

Forces for Change

1. nature of the workforce 2. technology 3. economic shocks 4. competition 5. social trends 6. world politics

Types of Teams

1. problem-solving teams 2. self-managed work teams 3. cross-functional teams 4. virtual teams

Characteristics of a learning organization

1. there exists a shared vision that everyone agrees on 2. people discard their old ways of thinking and the standard routines they use for solving problems or doing their jobs 3. members think of all organizational processes, activities, functions, and interactions with the environment as part of a system of interrelationships 4. people openly communicate with each other (across vertical and horizontal boundaries) without fear of criticism or punishment 5. people sublimate their personal self-interest and fragmented departmental interests to work together to achieve the organization's shared vision

Information Overload

A condition in which information inflow exceeds an individual's processing capacity -What happens when individuals have more information than they can sort and use? They tend to select, ignore, pass over, or forget it. Or they may put off further processing until the overload situation ends. In any case, lost information and less effective communication results, making it all the more important to deal well with overload.

Servant leadership

A leadership style marked by going beyond the leader's own self-interest and instead focusing on opportunities to help followers grow and develop. -Characteristic behaviors include listening, empathizing, persuading, accepting stewardship, and actively developing followers' potential. -Because servant leadership is based on the value of serving the needs of others, research has focused on its outcomes for the well-being of followers. Perhaps not surprisingly, a study of 126 CEOs found that servant leadership was negatively correlated with the trait of narcissism. -What are the effects of servant leadership? One study of 123 supervisors found it resulted in higher levels of commitment to the supervisor, self-efficacy, and perceptions of justice, which all were related to OCB. -Second, servant leadership increases team potency (a belief that your team has above-average skills and abilities), which in turn leads to higher levels of group performance. -Third, a study with a nationally representative sample found higher levels of citizenship were associated with a focus on growth and advancement, which in turn was associated with higher levels of creative performance Participants from Singapore tended to draw leaders at the back of the group, acting more to gather a group's opinions together and then unify the group from the rear. This suggests the East Asian prototype is more like a servant leader, which might mean servant leadership is more effective in these cultures.

Vision

A long-term strategy for attaining a goal or goals -a long-term strategy for attaining a goal by linking the present with a better future for the organization. Desirable visions fit the times and circumstances, and reflect the uniqueness of the organization. Thus, followers are inspired not only by how passionately the leader communicates, but also to an appealing message.

Full range of leadership model

A model that depicts seven management styles on a continuum: 1) laissez-faire: "let it be" (do nothing), the most passive and therefore least effective of leader behaviors. 2) management by exception: leaders primarily "put out fires" when there are crisis exceptions to normal operating procedures, means leaders are often too late to be effective 3) contingent reward leadership: gives predetermined rewards for employee efforts, can be an effective style of leadership but will not get employees to go above and beyond the call of duty 4) individualized consideration 5) intellectual stimulation 6) inspirational motivation 7) idealized influence. Four I's: -individualized consideration -intellectual stimulation -inspirational motivation -idealized influence. Four I's: all aspects of transformational leadership -Leaders can motivate followers to perform above expectations and transcend their self-interest for the sake of the organization -result in extra effort from workers, higher productivity, higher morale and satisfaction, higher organizational effectiveness, lower turnover, lower absenteeism, and greater organizational adaptability *Based on this model, leaders are most effective when they regularly use the four I's.

Mediator

A neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning, persuasion, and suggestions for alternatives. -But the situation is the key to whether mediation will succeed; the conflicting parties must be motivated to bargain and resolve their conflict. -In addition, conflict intensity can't be too high; mediation is most effective under moderate levels of conflict. -Finally, perceptions of the mediator are important; to be effective, the mediator must be perceived as neutral and noncoercive.

Coercive power

A power base that is dependent on fear of the negative results from failing to comply -At the organizational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss, suspend, or demote B, assuming B values the job. -If A can assign B work activities B finds unpleasant, or treat B in a manner B finds embarrassing, A possesses coercive power over B. -Coercive power comes also from withholding key information. -People in an organization who have data or knowledge others need can make others dependent on them.

Conflict

A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about. -Conflict describes the point in ongoing activity when interaction becomes disagreement. People experience a wide range of conflicts in organizations over an incompatibility of goals, differences in interpretations of facts, disagreements over behavioral expectations, and the like.

Filtering

A sender's manipulation of information so that it will be seen more favorably by the receiver -A manager who tells his boss what he feels the boss wants to hear is filtering information. -The more vertical levels in the organization's hierarchy, the more opportunities there are for filtering. But some filtering will occur wherever there are status differences. Factors such as fear of conveying bad news and the desire to please the boss often lead employees to tell their superiors what they think they want to hear, thus distorting upward communications.

Path-goal theory

A theory that states that it is the leader's job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization. -the term path-goal implies that effective leaders clarify followers' paths to their work goals and make the journey easier by reducing roadblocks The theory predicts: -Directive leadership yields greater employee satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful than when they are highly structured and well laid out. -Supportive leadership results in high employee performance and satisfaction when employees are performing structured tasks. -Directive leadership is likely to be perceived as redundant among employees with high ability or considerable experience. -Of course, this is a simplification. The match between leadership style and situation can be individualistic and mercurial. Some tasks might be both stressful and highly structured, and employees may have high ability or experience in some tasks and not others.

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

A theory that supports leaders' creation of in-groups and out-groups; subordinates with in-group status will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction. -LMX argues that, because of time pressures, leaders establish a special relationship with a small group of their followers. These followers make up the ingroup—they are trusted, get a disproportionate amount of the leader's attention, and are more likely to receive special privileges. Other followers fall into the outgroup. -LMX theory proposes that early in the history of the interaction between a leader and a given follower, the leader implicitly categorizes the follower as an "in" or an "out;" that relationship becomes relatively stable over time. Leaders induce LMX by rewarding employees with whom they want a closer linkage and punishing those with whom they do not.22 For the LMX relationship to remain intact, the leader and the follower must invest in the relationship. -Just how the leader chooses who falls into each category is unclear, but there is evidence ingroup members have demographic, attitude, and personality characteristics similar to those of their leaders or a higher level of competence than outgroup members -Leaders and followers of the same gender tend to have closer (higher LMX) relationships than those of different genders.24 Even though the leader does the choosing, the follower's characteristics drive the categorizing decision. -These findings shouldn't be surprising given our knowledge of self-fulfilling prophecy (see Chapter 6). Leaders invest resources in those whom they expect to perform best. Believing ingroup members are the most competent, leaders treat them as such and unwittingly fulfill their prophecy. Negatives of LMX: -employees from both groups responded with more negative work attitudes and higher levels of withdrawal behavior. -One study in China and the United States indicated that differential leadership treatment hurts team trust and perceptions of procedural justice, especially when the team members work closely together. -Overall team performance suffered

Arbitrator

A third party to a negotiation who has the authority to dictate an agreement. -Arbitration can be voluntary (requested by the parties) or compulsory (forced on the parties by law or contract). -The big plus of arbitration over mediation is that it always results in a settlement. -Whether there is a downside depends on how heavy-handed the arbitrator appears. If one party is left feeling overwhelmingly defeated, that party is certain to be dissatisfied and the conflict may resurface at a later time.

Neutralizers

attributes that make it impossible for leader behavior to make any difference to follower outcomes

-Why are processes important to team effectiveness? Teams should create outputs greater than the sum of their inputs. Exhibit 10-5 illustrates how group processes can have an impact on a group's actual effectiveness. Teams are often used in research laboratories because they can draw on the diverse skills of various individuals to produce more meaningful research than researchers working independently—that is, they produce positive synergy, and their process gains exceed their process losses.

Actual group effectiveness= Potential group effectiveness + Process gains - process losses

Functional structure

An organization structure that groups employees by their similar specialties, roles, or tasks An organization structured into production, marketing, HR, and accounting departments is an example. the functional structure allows specialists to become experts more easily than if they worked in diversified units.

Divisional structure

An organization structure that groups employees into units by product, service, customer, or geographical market area. It is highly departmentalized. Sometimes this structure is known by the type of division structure it uses: product/service organizational structure (like units for cat food, dog food, and bird food that report to an animal food producer); customer organizational structure (like units for outpatient care, inpatient care, and pharmacy that report to hospital administration); or geographic organizational structure (like units for Europe, Asia, and South America that report to corporate headquarters) The divisional structure has the opposite benefits and disadvantages of the functional structure. It facilitates coordination in units to achieve on-time completion, budget targets, and development and introduction of new products to market, while addressing the specific concerns of each unit. -It provides clear responsibility for all activities related to a product, but with duplication of functions and costs. Sometimes this is helpful, say when the organization has a unit in Spain and another in China, and a marketing strategy is needed for a new product. Marketing experts in both places can incorporate the appropriate cultural perspectives into their region's marketing campaigns. However, having marketing function employees in two different countries may represent an increased cost for the organization, in that they are doing basically the same task in two different places.

Organization size

An organization's size significantly affects its structure. Organizations that employ 2,000 or more people tend to have more specialization, more departmentalization, more vertical levels, and more rules and regulations than do small organizations. However, size becomes less important as an organization expands. Why? At around 2,000 employees, an organization is already fairly mechanistic; 500 more employees won't have much impact. But adding 500 employees to an organization of only 300 is likely to significantly shift it toward a more mechanistic structure.

How Charismatic Leaders Influence Followers

Articulating an appealing vision. Developing a vision statement. Establishing a new set of values. Conveying courage and conviction about the vision.

Stage II: Cognition and Personalization

As we noted in our definition of conflict, one or more of the parties must be aware that antecedent conditions exist. However, just because a disagreement is a perceived conflict does not mean it is personalized. It is at the felt conflict level, when individuals become emotionally involved, that they experience anxiety, tension, frustration, or hostility. Stage II is important because it's where conflict issues tend to be defined, where the parties decide what the conflict is about.10 The definition of conflict is important because it delineates the set of possible settlements. Second, emotions play a major role in shaping perceptions.11 Negative emotions allow us to oversimplify issues, lose trust, and put negative interpretations on the other party's behavior.12 In contrast, positive feelings increase our tendency to see potential relationships among elements of a problem, take a broader view of the situation, and develop innovative solutions

Dependence

B's relationship to A when A possesses something that B requires -Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependence. The greater B's dependence on A, the greater A's power in the relationship. -Dependence, in turn, is based on alternatives that B perceives and the importance B places on the alternative(s) A controls. -es that B perceives and the importance B places on the alternative(s) A controls. A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire. If you want a college degree and have to pass a certain course to get it, and your current instructor is the only faculty member in the college who teaches that course, she has power over you because your alternatives are highly limited and you place a high degree of importance on the outcome. -Similarly, if you're attending college on funds provided by your parents, you probably recognize the power they hold over you. But once you're out of school, have a job, and are making a good income; your parents' power is reduced significantly.

Avoiding blame

BLUFFING. Rigorously documenting activity to project an image of competence and thoroughness, known as "covering your rear." PLAYING SAFE. Evading situations that may reflect unfavorably. It includes taking on only projects with a high probability of success, having risky decisions approved by superiors, qualifying expressions of judgment, and taking neutral positions in conflicts. JUSTIFYING. Developing explanations that lessen one's responsibility for a negative outcome and/or apologizing to demonstrate remorse, or both. SCAPEGOATING. Placing the blame for a negative outcome on external factors that are not entirely blameworthy. MISREPRESENTING. Manipulation of information by distortion, embellishment, deception, selective presentation, or obfuscation.

Behavioral symptoms

Behavior-related stress symptoms include reductions in productivity; increases in absences and turnover; and personal changes in eating habits, increased smoking or consumption of alcohol, rapid speech, fidgeting, and sleep disorders

Culture as a Liability

But we shouldn't ignore the potentially dysfunctional aspects of culture, especially a strong one, on an organization's effectiveness.

Capacity

Capacity refers to the degree to which the environment can support growth. Rich and growing environments generate excess resources, which can buffer the organization in times of relative scarcity.

selection and placement

Certain jobs are more stressful than others, but as we've seen, individuals differ in their response to stressful situations. We know individuals with little experience or an external locus of control tend to be more prone to stress. Obviously, management shouldn't hire only experienced individuals with an internal locus, but such individuals may adapt better to high-stress jobs and perform those jobs more effectively. Similarly, training can increase an individual's self-efficacy and thus lessen job strain.

Idea champions and innovation

Champions often have similar personality characteristics: extremely high self-confidence, persistence, energy, and a tendency to take risks. They usually display traits associated with transformational leadership—they inspire and energize others with their vision of an innovation's potential and their strong personal conviction about their mission. Situations can also influence the extent to which idea champions are forces for change.

Managing behavior (management)

Communication acts to manage member behavior in several ways. -Organizations have authority hierarchies and formal guidelines for employees that guide communication flow. When employees follow their job descriptions or comply with company policies, communication performs a management function. -Informal communication controls behavior too. When work groups tease or harass a member who produces too much (and makes the rest of the members look bad), they are informally communicating, and managing, the member's behavior.

Reward power

Compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable -opposite of coercive power -These rewards can be financial—such as controlling pay rates, raises, and bonuses—or nonfinancial, including recognition, promotions, interesting work assignments, friendly colleagues, and preferred work shifts or sales territories.

Conflict levels

Conflict has a complex relationship with team performance, and it's not necessarily bad -Relationship conflicts—those based on interpersonal incompatibility, tension, and animosity toward others—are almost always dysfunctional. -task conflicts-when teams are performing nonroutine activities, disagreements about task content stimulate discussion, promote critical assessment of problems and options, and can lead to better team decisions. -both too much and too little disagreement about how a team should initially perform a creative task can inhibit performance.

Characteristics of transactional leaders

Contingent Reward: Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments. Management by Exception (active): Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes corrective action. Management by Exception (passive): Intervenes only if standards are not met. Laissez-Faire: Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making decisions.

Culture as an Asset

Culture can also significantly contribute to an organization's bottom line in many ways.

How a Culture Begins

Culture creation occurs in three ways.39 First, founders hire and keep only employees who think and feel the same way they do. Second, they indoctrinate and socialize employees to their way of thinking and feeling. And finally, the behavior of the founder(s) encourages employees to identify with them and internalize their beliefs, values, and assumptions. When the organization succeeds, the personality of the founder(s) becomes embedded in the culture.

The Functions of Culture

Culture defines the rules of the game. First, it has a boundary-defining role: It creates distinctions between organizations. Second, it conveys a sense of identity for organization members. Third, culture facilitates commitment to something larger than individual self-interest. Fourth, it enhances the stability of the social system. Culture is the social glue that helps hold the organization together by providing standards for what employees should say and do. Finally, it is a sense-making and control mechanism that guides and shapes employees' attitudes and behavior.

Barriers to change

Culture is a liability when shared values don't agree with those that further the organization's effectiveness. This is most likely when an organization's environment is undergoing rapid change, and its entrenched culture may no longer be appropriate.33 Consistency of employee behavior, which is an asset in a stable environment, may then burden the organization and make it difficult to respond to changes.

What Creates Dependence?

Dependence increases when a resource you control is: 1) important 2) scarce 3) nonsubstitutable

Overcoming Resistance to Change

Eight tactics can help change agents deal with resistance to change. -Communication -participation -building support and commitment -developing positive relationships -implementing changes fairly -manipulation and cooptation -selecting people who accept change -coercion

environmental factors of stress

Environmental uncertainty not only influences the design of an organization's structure, it also influences stress levels among employees in that organization. Indeed, uncertainty is the biggest reason people have trouble coping with organizational changes.62 There are three main types of environmental uncertainty: economic, political, and technological. Changes in the business cycle create economic uncertainties. When the economy is contracting, for example, people become increasingly anxious about their job security. Political uncertainties don't tend to create stress among North Americans as much as they do for employees in countries such as Haiti or Venezuela. The obvious reason is that the United States and Canada have more stable political systems, in which change is typically implemented in an orderly manner. Yet political threats and changes in all countries can induce stress. Because innovations can make an employee's skills and experience obsolete in a very short time, keeping up with new computer programs, robotics, automation, and similar forms of technological change are a further challenge to many people at work that cause them stress.

What can managers do to make their firms learning organizations? Here are some suggestions:

Establish a strategy. Management needs to make explicit its commitment to change, innovation, and continuous improvement. Redesign the organization's structure. The formal structure can be a serious impediment to learning. Flattening the structure, eliminating or combining departments, and increasing the use of cross-functional teams reinforces interdependence and reduces boundaries. Reshape the organization's culture. To become a learning organization, managers must demonstrate by their actions that taking risks and admitting failures are desirable. This means rewarding people who take chances and make mistakes. Management needs to encourage functional conflict.

Job experience

Experience on the job tends to be negatively related to work stress. Why? Two explanations have been offered.71 First is selective withdrawal. Voluntary turnover is more probable among people who experience more stress. Therefore, people who remain with an organization longer are those with more stress-resistant traits or those more resistant to the stress characteristics of the organization. Second, people eventually develop coping mechanisms to deal with stress. Because this takes time, senior members of the organization are more likely to be fully adapted and should experience less stress.

Complexity

Finally, complexity is the degree of heterogeneity and concentration among environmental elements. Simple environments—like the tobacco industry where the methods of production, competitive and regulatory pressures, and the like haven't changed in quite some time—are homogeneous and concentrated. Environments characterized by heterogeneity and dispersion—like the broadband industry—are complex and diverse, with numerous competitors.

Context

Four contextual factors most significantly related to team performance: 1. adequate resources 2. leadership and structure 3. climate of trust 4. performance evaluation and reward system

Individual Differences in Negotiation Effectiveness

Four factors influence how effectively individuals negotiate: personality, mood/emotions, culture, and gender.

Individual sources

Habit—To cope with life's complexities, we rely on habits or programmed responses. But when confronted with change, this tendency to respond in our accustomed ways becomes a source of resistance. Security—People with a high need for security are likely to resist change because it threatens their feelings of safety. Economic factors—Changes in job tasks or established work routines can arouse economic fears if people are concerned that they won't be able to perform the new tasks or routines to their previous standards, especially when pay is closely tied to productivity. Fear of the unknown—Change substitutes ambiguity and uncertainty for the unknown. Selective information processing—Individuals are guilty of selectively processing information in order to keep their perceptions intact. They hear what they want to hear, and they ignore information that challenges the world they've created.

strengthening dysfunctions

However, coherence around negativity and dysfunctional management systems in a corporation can produce downward forces that are equally powerful.

Characteristics of transformational leaders

Idealized Influence: Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust. Inspirational Motivation: Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple ways. Intellectual Stimulation: Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem solving. Individualized Consideration: Gives personal attention, treats each employee individually, coaches, advises.

Important

If nobody wants what you have, it's not going to create dependence. However, note that there are many degrees of importance, from needing the resource for survival to wanting a resource that is in fashion or adds to convenience.

Managing paradox

In a paradox situation, we are required to balance tensions across various courses of action. There is a constant process of finding a balancing point, a dynamic equilibrium, among shifting priorities over time. The first lesson is that as the environment and members of the organization change, different elements take on more or less importance. For example, sometimes a company needs to acknowledge past success and learn how it worked, while at other times looking backward will only hinder progress. There is some evidence that managers who think holistically and recognize the importance of balancing paradoxical factors are more effective, especially in generating adaptive and creative behaviors in those they are managing.

Barriers to acquisitions and mergers

In recent years, cultural compatibility has become the primary concern.36 All things being equal, whether the acquisition works seems to have much to do with how well the two organizations' cultures match up. When they don't mesh well, the organizational cultures of both become a liability to the whole new organization.

Organizational communication

Increasing formal organizational communication with employees reduces uncertainty by lessening role ambiguity and role conflict. Given the importance that perceptions play in moderating the stress-response relationship, management can also use effective communication as a means to shape employee perceptions.

Seven primary characteristics seem to capture the essence of an organization's culture:

Innovation and risk taking. The degree to which employees are encouraged to be innovative and take risks. Attention to detail. The degree to which employees are expected to exhibit precision, analysis, and attention to detail. Outcome orientation. The degree to which management focuses on results or outcomes rather than on the techniques and processes used to achieve them. People orientation. The degree to which management decisions take into consideration the effect of outcomes on people within the organization. Team orientation. The degree to which work activities are organized around teams rather than individuals. Aggressiveness. The degree to which people are aggressive and competitive rather than easygoing. Stability. The degree to which organizational activities emphasize maintaining the status quo in contrast to growth.

Structural matches describes the structural option that best matches each strategy

Innovation: organic Cost minimization: mechanistic Imitation: mechanistic and organic Innovators need the flexibility of the organic structure (although, as we noted, they may use some elements of the mechanistic structure as well), whereas cost minimizers seek the efficiency and stability of the mechanistic structure. Imitators combine the two structures. They use a mechanistic structure to maintain tight controls and low costs in their current activities but create organic subunits in which to pursue new opportunities.

Psychological symptoms

Job dissatisfaction is an obvious cause of stress. But stress shows itself in other psychological states—for instance, tension, anxiety, irritability, boredom, and procrastination. One study that tracked physiological responses of employees over time found that stress due to high workloads was related to lower emotional well-being

Kotter's Eight-Step Plan

Kotter began by listing common mistakes managers make when trying to initiate change. Kotter established eight sequential steps to overcome these problems. Notice how Kotter's first four steps essentially extrapolate Lewin's "unfreezing" stage. Steps 5, 6, and 7 represent "movement," and the final step works on "refreezing." So Kotter's contribution lies in providing managers and change agents with a more detailed guide for successfully implementing change. 1)Establish a sense of urgency by creating a compelling reason for why change is needed. 2)Form a coalition with enough power to lead the change. 3)Create a new vision to direct the change and strategies for achieving the vision. 4)Communicate the vision throughout the organization. 5)Empower others to act on the vision by removing barriers to change and encouraging risk taking and creative problem solving. 6)Plan for, create, and reward short-term "wins" that move the organization toward the new vision. 7)Consolidate improvements, reassess changes, and make necessary adjustments in the new programs. 8)Reinforce the changes by demonstrating the relationship between new behaviors and organizational success.

Lewin's Three-Step Model

Kurt Lewin argued that successful change in organizations should follow three steps: 1) unfreezing the status quo 2) movement to a desired end state 3) refreezing the new change to make it permanent By definition, status quo is an equilibrium state. To move from equilibrium—to overcome the pressures of both individual resistance and group conformity—unfreezing must happen in one of three ways (see Exhibit 17-3). For one, the driving forces, which direct behavior away from the status quo, can be increased. For another, the restraining forces, which hinder movement away from equilibrium, can be decreased. A third alternative is to combine the first two approaches.

Difference between power and leadership

Leaders use power as a means of attaining group goals. How are the two terms different? 1) Power does not require goal compatibility, just dependence. Leadership, on the other hand, requires some congruence between the goals of the leader and those being led. 2) A second difference relates to the direction of influence. Leadership research focuses on the downward influence on followers. It minimizes the importance of lateral and upward influence patterns. Power research takes all factors into consideration. 3) For a third difference, leadership research often emphasizes style. It seeks answers to questions such as: How supportive should a leader be? How much decision making should be shared with followers? In contrast, the research on power focuses on tactics for gaining compliance. 4)Lastly, leadership concentrates on the individual leader's influence, while the study of power acknowledges that groups as well as individuals can use power to control other individuals or groups.

Barriers to diversity

Management wants to demonstrate support for the differences these employees bring to the workplace, but newcomers who wish to fit in must accept the organization's core culture. The desire for quick assimilation creates one barrier to diversity. Second, because diverse behaviors and unique strengths are likely to diminish as people assimilate, strong cultures can become liabilities when they effectively eliminate the advantages of diversity. Third, a strong culture that condones prejudice, supports bias, or becomes insensitive to differences can undermine formal corporate diversity policies.

Language

Many organizations and subunits within them use language to help members identify with the culture, attest to their acceptance of it, and help preserve it. Unique terms describe equipment, officers, key individuals, suppliers, customers, or products that relate to the business. New employees may at first be overwhelmed by acronyms and jargon that, once assimilated, act as a common denominator to unite members of a given culture or subculture.

Avoid action

OVERCONFORMING. Strictly interpreting your responsibility by saying things like "The rules clearly state ..." or "This is the way we've always done it." BUCK PASSING. Transferring responsibility for the execution of a task or decision to someone else. PLAYING DUMB. Avoiding an unwanted task by falsely pleading ignorance or inability. STRETCHING. Prolonging a task so that one person appears to be occupied—for example, turning a two-week task into a four-month job. STALLING. Appearing to be more or less supportive publicly while doing little or nothing privately.

Third-Party Negotiations

Occasionally, however, individuals or group representatives reach a stalemate and are unable to resolve their differences through direct negotiations. In such cases, they may turn to a third party to help them find a solution. There are three basic third-party roles: mediator, arbitrator, and conciliator. mediator, arbitrator, conciliator

Mapping Your Political Career

One of the most useful ways to think about power and politics is in terms of your own career. What are your ambitions? Who has the power to help you achieve them? What is your relationship to these people? The best way to answer these questions is with a political map, which can help you sketch out your relationships with the people upon whom your career depend -Assume your future promotion depends on five people, including Jamie, your immediate supervisor. As you can see in the exhibit, you have a close relationship with Jamie (you would be in real trouble otherwise). You also have a close relationship with Zack in finance. However, with the others you have either a loose relationship (Lane) or none at all (Jia, Marty). One obvious implication of this map is the need to formulate a plan to gain more influence over, and a closer relationship with, these people. How might you do that? One of the best ways to influence people is indirectly. What if you played in a tennis league with Mark, Jamie's former coworker who you know remains friends with Jamie? To influence Mark, in many cases, may also be to influence Marty. Why not post an entry on CJ's blog? You can complete a similar analysis for the other four decision makers and their networks.

The Global Context

One of the primary things U.S. managers can do is be culturally sensitive. The United States is a dominant force in business and in culture—and with that influence comes a reputation. "We are broadly seen throughout the world as arrogant people, totally self-absorbed and loud," says one U.S. executive. Some ways in which U.S. managers can be culturally sensitive include talking in a low tone of voice, speaking slowly, listening more, and avoiding discussions of religion and politics.

Substitutes for and Neutralizers of Leadership

One theory of leadership suggests that in many situations, leaders' actions are irrelevant.105 Experience and training are among the substitutes that can replace the need for a leader's support or ability to create structure.

Sources of innovation

Organic structures. Because they're lower in vertical differentiation, formalization, and centralization; organic organizations facilitate the flexibility, adaptation, and cross-fertilization that make the adoption of innovations easier. Long tenure in management. Managerial tenure can provide the legitimacy and knowledge of how to accomplish tasks and obtain desired outcomes through creative methods. Slack resources. Having an abundance of resources allows an organization to afford to purchase or develop innovations, bear the cost of instituting them, and absorb failures. High interunit communication.38 These organizations are heavy users of committees, task forces, cross-functional teams, and other mechanisms that facilitate interaction across departmental lines.

Diversity of Members Organizational demography

Organizational demography: -The degree to which members of a work unit (group, team, or department) share a common demographic attribute, such as age, sex, race, educational level, or length of service in the organization, and the impact of this attribute on turnover -Organizational demography suggests that attributes such as age or the date of joining should help predict turnover. -The logic goes like this: Turnover will be greater among those with dissimilar experiences because communication is more difficult and conflict is more likely. Increased conflict makes membership less attractive, so employees are more likely to quit. -Similarly, the losers of a conflict are more apt to leave voluntarily or be forced out. -The conclusion is that diversity negatively affects team performance. -Many of us hold the optimistic view that diversity should be a good thing—diverse teams should benefit from differing perspectives. -Two meta-analytic reviews showed, however, that demographic diversity was essentially unrelated to team performance, while a third review suggested that race and gender diversity were actually negatively related to team performance. -Other research findings are mixed. One qualifier is that gender and ethnic diversity have more negative effects in occupations dominated by White or male employees, but in more demographically balanced occupations, diversity is less of a problem. -Diversity in function, education, and expertise are positively related to team performance, but these effects are small and depend on the situation.

The Politics of Change

Politics suggests the impetus for change is more likely to come from outside change agents, employees new to the organization (who have less invested in the status quo), or managers who are slightly removed from the main power structure. Managers who have spent a long time with an organization and achieved a senior position in the hierarchy are often major impediments to change.

Resistance to change

Our egos are fragile, and we often see change as threatening. Even when employees are shown data that suggest they need to change, they latch onto whatever information they can find that suggest they are okay and don't need to change.2 Employees who have negative feelings about a change cope by not thinking about it, increasing their use of sick time, or quitting. All of these reactions can sap the organization of vital energy when it is most needed Resistance to change doesn't just come from lower levels of the organization. In many cases, higher-level managers will resist changes proposed by subordinates, especially if these leaders are focused on immediate performance.4 Conversely, when leaders are more focused on mastery and exploration, they are more willing to hear and adopt subordinates' suggestions for change. Resistance to change can be positive if it leads to open discussion and debate.5 These responses are usually preferable to apathy or silence and can indicate that members of the organization are engaged in the process, providing change agents an opportunity to explain the change effort. Change agents can also monitor resistance in order to modify the change to fit the preferences of members of the organization.

Avoiding change

PREVENTION. Trying to prevent a threatening change from occurring. SELF-PROTECTION. Acting in ways to protect one's self-interest during change by guarding information or other resources.

Perception

Perception, therefore, will moderate the relationship between a potential stress condition and an employee's reaction to it. Layoffs may cause one person to fear losing a job, while another sees it as an opportunity to get a large severance allowance and start a new business. So stress potential doesn't lie in objective conditions; rather, it lies in an employee's interpretation of those conditions.

Stage IV: Behavior

Pyramid: lowest level: differing perceptions mid-level: verbal disputes, negative moods, protective behavior highest level: overt attacks At the lowest point are perceptions, misunderstandings, and differences of opinions. These may grow to subtle, indirect, and highly controlled forms of tension, such as a student challenging a point the instructor has made. Conflict can intensify until it becomes highly destructive. Strikes, riots, and wars clearly fall in this upper range. Conflicts that reach the upper ranges of the continuum are almost always dysfunctional. Functional conflicts are typically confined to the lower levels.

Redesigning jobs

Redesigning jobs to give employees more responsibility, more meaningful work, more autonomy, and increased feedback can reduce stress because these factors give employees greater control over work activities and lessen dependence on others.

National Culture

Research suggests national culture influences the preference for structure.46 Organizations that operate with people from high power-distance cultures, such as Greece, France, and most of Latin America, often find their employees are much more accepting of mechanistic structures than are employees from low power-distance countries. So consider cultural differences along with individual differences when predicting how structure will affect employee performance and satisfaction. Finally, the changing landscape of organizational structure designs has implications for the individual progressing on a career path. Research with managers in Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States indicated that employees who weathered downsizing and resulting hybrid organizational structures considered their future career prospects diminished. While this may or may not have been correct, their thinking shows that organizational structure does affect the employee and thus must be carefully designed

Cultural Differences

Research suggests that the job conditions that cause stress show some differences across cultures. One study revealed that whereas U.S. employees were stressed by a lack of control, Chinese employees were stressed by job evaluations and lack of training. It doesn't appear that personality effects on stress are different across cultures, however.

employee involvement

Role stress is detrimental to a large extent because employees feel uncertain about goals, expectations, how they'll be evaluated, and the like. By giving these employees a voice in the decisions that directly affect their job performance, management can increase employee control and reduce role stress. Thus, managers should consider increasing employee involvement in decision making because evidence clearly shows that increases in employee empowerment reduce psychological strain.

employee sabaticals

Some employees need an occasional escape from the frenetic pace of their work. Companies including Genentech, American Express, Intel, General Mills, Microsoft, Morningstar, DreamWorks Animation, and Adobe Systems have begun to provide extended voluntary leaves.94 These sabbaticals—ranging in length from a few weeks to several months—can revive and rejuvenate workers who might otherwise be headed for burnout.

Stories

Stories such as these circulate through many organizations, anchoring the present in the past and legitimizing current practices. They typically include narratives about the organization's founders, rule breaking, rags-to-riches successes, workforce reductions, relocations of employees, reactions to past mistakes, and organizational coping.54 Employees also create their own narratives about how they came to either fit or not fit with the organization during the process of socialization, including first days on the job, early interactions with others, and first impressions of organizational life.55 Today, a number of senior Nike executives spend much of their time serving as corporate storytellers.53 When they tell how co-founder (and Oregon track coach) Bill Bowerman went to his workshop and poured rubber into a waffle iron to create a better running shoe, they're talking about Nike's spirit of innovation.

Organizational Sources

Structural inertia—Organizations have built-in mechanisms—such as their selection processes and formalized regulations—to produce stability. When an organization is confronted with change, this structural inertia acts as a counterbalance to sustain stability. Limited focus of change—Organizations consist of a number of interdependent subsystems. One can't be changed without affecting the others. So limited changes in subsystems tend to be nullified by the larger system. Group inertia—Even if individuals want to change their behavior, group norms may act as a constraint. Threat to expertise—Changes in organizational patterns may threaten the expertise of specialized groups. Threat to established power relationships—Any redistribution of decision-making authority can threaten long-established power relationships within the organization.

All-channel

The all-channel network permits group members to actively communicate with each other; it's most often characterized by self-managed teams, in which group members are free to contribute and no one person takes on a leadership role.

Chain

The chain rigidly follows the formal chain of command; this network approximates the communication channels you might find in a rigid three-level organization.

Selection

The explicit goal of the selection process is to identify and hire individuals with the knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform successfully. The final decision, because it is significantly influenced by the decision maker's judgment of how well candidates will fit into the organization, identifies people whose values are consistent with at least a good portion of the organization's.

nonsubstitutable

The fewer viable substitutes for a resource, the more power a person controlling that resource has. At universities that value faculty publishing, for example, the more recognition the faculty member receives through publication, the more control that person has because other universities also want faculty who are highly published and visible.

Team processes

The final category related to team effectiveness includes process variables such as member commitment to a common plan and purpose, specific team goals, team efficacy, team identity, team cohesion, mental models, conflict levels, and social loafing. -Common plan and purpose -Specific goals -Team efficacy -Team identity -Team Cohesion -Mental models -Conflict levels -Social loafing

Closure and implementation

The final step in the negotiation process is formalizing your agreement and developing procedures necessary for implementing and monitoring it. For major negotiations—from labor-management negotiations to bargaining over lease terms—this requires hammering out the specifics in a formal contract. For other cases, closure of the negotiation process is nothing more formal than a handshake.

Stage I: Potential Opposition or Incompatibility

The first stage of conflict is the appearance of conditions—causes or sources—that create opportunities for it to arise. We group the conditions into three general categories: communication, structure, and personal variables.

The General Dependence Postulate

The greater B's dependence on A, the more power A has over B -When you possess anything others require that you alone control, you make them dependent on you, and therefore you gain power over them -But if something is plentiful, possessing it will not increase your power. -Therefore, the more you can expand your own options, the less power you place in the hands of others. -This explains why most organizations develop multiple suppliers rather than give their business to only one. It also explains why so many people aspire to financial independence. -Independence reduces the power others can wield to limit our access to opportunities and resources.

Culture and Innovation

The most innovative companies are often characterized by their open, unconventional, collaborative, vision-driven, and accelerating cultures

Summary: how organizational cultures form

The original culture derives from the founders' philosophy and strongly influences hiring criteria as the firm grows. The success of socialization depends on the deliberateness of matching new employees' values to those of the organization in the selection process and on top management's commitment to socialization programs. Top managers' actions set the general climate, including what is acceptable behavior and what is not, and employees sustain and perpetuate the culture.

Relationships

The social, interpersonal component of relationships with repeated negotiations means that individuals go beyond valuing what is simply good for themselves and instead start to think about what is best for the other party and the relationship as a whole. Repeated negotiations built on a foundation of trust also broaden the range of options, since a favor or concession today can be offered in return for some repayment further down the road.58 Repeated negotiations also facilitate integrative problem solving. This occurs partly because people begin to see their negotiation partners in a more personal way over time and come to share emotional bond

Metamorphosis stage

The stage in the socialization process in which a new employee changes and adjusts to the job, work group, and organization.

Culture vs Formalization

The stronger an organization's culture, the less management needs to be concerned with developing formal rules and regulations to guide employee behavior. Those guides will be internalized in employees when they adopt the organization's culture.

Team composition

The team composition category includes variables that relate to how teams should be staffed: the abilities and personalities of team members, allocation of roles, diversity, cultural differences, size of the team, and members' preferences for teamwork. -Abilities of members -Personality of members -Allocation of roles -Diversity of members -Cultural differences -Size of teams -Member preferences

Wheel

The wheel relies on a central figure to act as the conduit for all group communication; it simulates the communication network you might find on a team with a strong leader.

Physiological symptoms

Their work led to the conclusion that stress could create changes in metabolism, increase heart and breathing rates and blood pressure, bring on headaches, and induce heart attacks. Evidence now clearly suggests stress may have other harmful physiological effects. A long-term study conducted in the United Kingdom found that job strain was associated with higher levels of coronary heart disease.79 Still another study conducted with Danish human services workers found that higher levels of psychological burnout at the work-unit level were related to significantly higher levels of sickness absence.

Top management

Through words and behavior, senior executives establish norms that filter through the organization about, for instance, whether risk taking is desirable, how much freedom managers give employees, what is appropriate dress, and what actions earn pay raises, promotions, and other rewards.

As tasks become more complex, teams often grow in size. Increases in team size are accompanied by higher coordination demands, creating a tipping point at which the addition of another member does more harm than good.

To solve this problem, organizations use multiteam systems

The outcomes of trust

Trust encourages taking risks: -Whenever employees decide to deviate from the usual way of doing things, or to take their supervisor's word on a new direction, they are taking a risk. In both cases, a trusting relationship can facilitate that leap. Trust facilitates information sharing: -When managers demonstrate they will give employees' ideas a fair hearing and actively make changes, employees are more willing to speak out. Trusting groups are more effective: -When a leader sets a trusting tone in a group, members are more willing to help each other and exert extra effort, which increases trust. Trust enhances productivity: -Employees who trust their supervisors tend to receive higher performance ratings, indicating higher productivity.

context and innovation

Unfortunately, in too many organizations, people are rewarded for the absence of failures rather than for the presence of successes. Such cultures extinguish risk taking and innovation. Innovative organizations have policies to actively promote the training and development of their members so they keep current, offer high job security so employees don't fear getting fired for making mistakes, and encourage individuals to become champions of change.

Volatility

Volatility describes the degree of instability in the environment. A dynamic environment with a high degree of unpredictable change makes it difficult for management to make accurate predictions. Because information technology changes at such a rapid place, more organizations' environments are becoming volatile.

Persuasive Communication

We've discussed a number of methods for communication up to this point. Now we turn our attention to one of the functions of communication—persuasion—and the features that might make messages more or less persuasive to an audience.

Trait theories help us predict leadership, but they don't fully help us explain leadership. Trait research provides a basis for selecting the right people for leadership. Behavioral theories of leadership, in contrast, imply we can train people to be leaders.

What do successful leaders do that makes them effective? Are different types of leader behaviors equally effective? Behavioral theories, discussed next, help us define the parameters of leadership.

Stressors are additive

When we review stressors individually, it's easy to overlook that stress is an additive phenomenon—it builds up.70 Each new and persistent stressor adds to an individual's stress level. A single stressor may be relatively unimportant in and of itself, but if added to an already high level of stress, it can be too much. To appraise the total amount of stress an individual is under, we have to sum up all of the sources and severity levels of that person's stress. Since this cannot be easily quantified or observed, managers should remain aware of the potential stress loads from organizational factors in particular. Many employees are willing to express their perceived stress load at work to a caring manager.

Clarification and justification

When you have exchanged initial positions, you and the other party will explain, amplify, clarify, bolster, and justify your original demands. This step needn't be confrontational. Rather, it's an opportunity for educating each other on the issues, why they are important, and how you arrived at your initial demands. Provide the other party with any documentation that supports your position.

Politics: power in action

Whenever people get together in groups, power will be exerted. People in organizations want to carve out a niche to exert influence, earn rewards, and advance their careers. -If they convert their power into action, we describe them as being engaged in politics. Those with good political skills have the ability to use their bases of power effectively. -Politics are not only inevitable; they might be essential, too.

Groups and teams are not the same thing.

Whereas we can think of a work team as a subset of a workgroup, the team is constructed to be purposeful (symbiotic) in its member interaction. The distinction between a workgroup and a work team should be kept even when the terms are mentioned interchangeably in differing contexts -Management is looking for positive synergy that will create increased performance. The extensive use of teams creates the potential for an organization to generate greater outputs with no increase in employee headcount. Notice, however, that we said potential. There is nothing magical that ensures the achievement of positive synergy in the creation of teams. Merely calling a group a team doesn't automatically improve its performance. As we show later, effective teams have certain common characteristics. If management hopes to gain increases in organizational performance through the use of teams, the teams must possess these characteristics.

Definition of ground rules

Who will do the negotiating? Where will it take place? What time constraints, if any, will apply? To what issues will negotiation be limited? Will you follow a specific procedure if an impasse is reached? During this phase, the parties will exchange their initial proposals or demands.

Barriers caused by word connotations

Words imply different things in different languages. Negotiations between U.S. and Japanese executives can be difficult because the Japanese word hai translates as "yes," but its connotation is "Yes, I'm listening" rather than "Yes, I agree."

Power

a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B so that B acts in accordance with A's wishes -Someone can thus have power but not use it; it is a capacity or potential.

Action Research

a change process based on systematic collection of data and then selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data indicate Its value is in providing a scientific methodology for managing planned change. Action research consists of five steps (note how they closely parallel the scientific method): diagnosis, analysis, feedback, action, and evaluation. Action research provides at least two specific benefits. First, it's problem-focused. The change agent objectively looks for problems, and the type of problem determines the type of change action. A second benefit of action research is the lowering of resistance. Because action research engages employees so thoroughly in the process, it reduces resistance to change. Once employees have actively participated in the feedback stage, the change process typically takes on a momentum of its own.

Organizational Development

a collection of planned change interventions, built on humanistic-democratic values, that seeks to improve organizational effectiveness and employee well-being OD methods value human and organizational growth, collaborative and participative processes, and a spirit of inquiry

Multiteam Systems

a collection of two or more interdependent teams that share a superordinate goal; a team of teams ex. To picture a multiteam system, imagine the coordination of response needed after a major car accident. There is the emergency medical services team, which responds first and transports the injured people to the hospital. An emergency room team then takes over, providing medical care, followed by a recovery team. Although the emergency services team, emergency room team, and recovery team are technically independent, their activities are interdependent, and the success of one depends on the success of the others. Why? Because they all share the higher goal of saving lives.

Institutionalization

a condition that occurs when an organization takes on a life of its own, apart from any of its members, and acquires immortality Institutionalized organizations often don't go out of business even if the original goals are no longer relevant. Acceptable modes of behavior become largely self-evident to members, and although this isn't entirely negative, it does mean behaviors and habits go unquestioned, which can stifle innovation and make maintaining the organization's culture an end in itself.

Situational leadership theory

a contingency theory that focuses on followers' readiness -It says successful leadership depends on selecting the right leadership style contingent on the followers' readiness, the extent to which followers are willing and able to accomplish a specific task. -A leader should choose one of four behaviors depending on follower readiness.

Strong culture

a culture in which the core values are intensely held and widely shared

Positive organizational culture

a culture that emphasizes building on employee strengths, rewards more than punishes, and emphasizes individual vitality and growth

Dominant culture

a culture that expresses the core values that are shared by a majority of the organization's members

Competing

a desire to satisfy one's interests, regardless of the impact on the other party to the conflict We are more apt to compete when resources are scarce.

Controlled processing

a detailed consideration of evidence and information relying on facts, figures, and logic -Controlled processing requires effort and energy, and it's harder to fool someone who has taken the time and effort to engage in it. So what makes someone engage in either shallow or deep processing?

Vision statement

a formal articulation of an organization's vision or mission -Charismatic leaders may use vision statements to imprint on followers an overarching goal and purpose. These leaders also set a tone of cooperation and mutual support. -They build followers' self-esteem and confidence with high performance expectations and the belief that followers can attain them. Through words and actions, the leader conveys a new set of values and sets an example for followers to imitate. -Finally, the charismatic leader engages in emotion-inducing and often unconventional behavior to demonstrate courage and conviction about the vision.

Work group

a group that interacts primarily to share information and make decisions to help each member perform within his or her area of responsibility -Workgroups have no need or opportunity to engage in collective work with joint effort, so the group's performance is merely the summation of each member's individual contribution. There is no positive synergy that would create an overall level of performance greater than the sum of the inputs. A workgroup is a collection of individuals doing their work, albeit with interaction and/or dependency.

Socialized charismatic leadership

a leadership concept that states that leaders convey values that are other centered versus self centered and who role-model ethical conduct -

Leader-participation model

a leadership theory that provides a set of rules to determine the form and amount of participative decision making in different situations -The final contingency theory we cover argues that the way the leader makes decisions is as important as what he or she decides -The leader-participation model relates leadership behavior to subordinate participation in decision making. -Like path-goal theory, it says leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task structure (such as routine, nonroutine, or in between), but it does not cover all leadership behaviors and is limited to recommending what types of decisions might be best made with subordinate participation. It lays the groundwork for the situations and leadership behaviors most likely to elicit acceptance from subordinates. -As one leadership scholar noted, "Leaders do not exist in a vacuum;" leadership is a symbiotic relationship between leaders and followers

Attribution theory of leadership

a leadership theory that says that leadership is merely an attribution that people make about other individuals -We attribute the following to leaders: intelligence, outgoing personality, strong verbal skills, aggressiveness, understanding, and industriousness. -At the organizational level, we tend, rightly or wrongly, to see leaders as responsible for both extremely negative and extremely positive performance. -Attribution theory suggests what's important is projecting the appearance of being a leader rather than focusing on actual accomplishments. -Leader-wannabes who can shape the perception that they're smart, personable, verbally adept, aggressive, hardworking, and consistent in their style can increase the probability their bosses, colleagues, and employees will view them as effective leaders.

Charismatic Leadership

a leadership theory that states that followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors

Process consultation

a meeting in which a consultant assists a client in understanding process events with which he or she must deal and identifying processes that need improvement PC is similar to sensitivity training in assuming we can improve organizational effectiveness by dealing with interpersonal problems and in emphasizing involvement. But PC is more task-directed, and consultants do not solve the organization's problems, but rather guide or coach the client to solve his or her own problems after jointly diagnosing what needs improvement. The client develops the skill to analyze processes within his or her unit and can therefore use the skill long after the consultant is gone. Because the client actively participates in both the diagnosis and the development of alternatives, he or she arrives at a greater understanding of the process and the remedy, and becomes less resistant to the action plan chosen.

Compromising

a situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up something -there is no winner or loser. -Rather, there is a willingness to ration the object of the conflict and accept a solution with incomplete satisfaction of both parties' concerns. -each party intends to give up something.

Innovation

a new idea applied to initiating or improving a product, process, or service all innovations imply change, but not all changes introduce new ideas or lead to significant improvements.

Need for cognition

a personality trait of individuals who are most likely to be persuaded by evidence and facts

Trust

a positive expectation that another will not act opportunistically -a psychological state that exists when you agree to make yourself vulnerable to another person because you have positive expectations about how things are going to turn out. -Although you aren't completely in control of the situation, you are willing to take a chance that the other person will come through for you.

Negotiation

a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them

Socialization

a process that adapts employees to the organization's culture Socialization can help alleviate the problem many employees report when their new jobs are different than they expected.

The conflict process

a process that has five stages: 1) potential opposition or incompatibility 2) cognition and personalization 3) intentions 4) behavior 5) outcomes

Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) Questionnaire

a questionnaire that measures whether a leader is task or relationship oriented -As a first step, the least preferred coworker (LPC) questionnaire identifies whether a person is task-oriented or relationship-oriented by asking respondents to think of all the coworkers they ever had and describe the one they least enjoyed working with. -If you describe this person in favorable terms (a high LPC score), you are relationship-oriented. If you see your least-preferred coworker in unfavorable terms (a low LPC score), you are primarily interested in productivity and are task-oriented.

Automatic processing

a relatively superficial consideration of evidence and information, making use of heuristics -Automatic processing takes little time and low effort, so it makes sense to use it for processing persuasive messages related to topics you don't care much about. The disadvantage is that it lets us be easily fooled by a variety of tricks, like a cute jingle or glamorous photo.

Collaborating

a situation in which the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the concerns of all parties -search for a mutually beneficial outcome -attempt to find a win-win solution that allows both parties' goals to be completely achieved

Team cohesion

a situation when team members are emotionally attached to one another and motivated toward the team because of their attachment -Team cohesion is a useful tool to predict team outcomes. -Team cohesion is a strong predictor of team performance such that when cohesion is harmed, performance may be too. Negative relationships are one driver of reduced cohesion. To mitigate this effect, teams can foster high levels of interdependence and high-quality interpersonal interactions.

Virtual structure

a small, core organization that outsources major business functions -network, or modular, structure -The major advantage of the virtual structure is its flexibility, which allows individuals with an innovative idea and little money to successfully compete against larger, more established organizations. The structure also saves a great deal of money by eliminating permanent offices and hierarchical roles -On the other hand, the drawbacks have become increasingly clear as popularity has grown -Virtual organizations are in a state of perpetual flux and reorganization, which means roles, goals, and responsibilities are unclear, setting the stage for political behavior. -Cultural alignment and shared goals can be lost because of the low degree of interaction among members. Team members who are geographically dispersed and communicate infrequently find it difficult to share information and knowledge, which can limit innovation and slow response time.

Innovation strategy

a strategy that emphasizes the introduction of major new products and services Innovative firms use competitive pay and benefits to attract top candidates and motivate employees to take risks. Some degree of the mechanistic structure can actually benefit innovation. Well-developed communication channels, policies for enhancing long-term commitment, and clear channels of authority all may make it easier for rapid changes to occur smoothly.

Cost-minimization strategy

a strategy that emphasizes tight cost controls, avoidance of unnecessary innovation or marketing expenses, and price cutting This describes the strategy pursued by Walmart and the makers of generic or store-label grocery products. Cost-minimizing organizations usually pursue fewer policies meant to develop commitment among their workforce.

Imitation strategy

a strategy that seeks to move into new products or new markets only after their viability has already been proven They follow smaller and more innovative competitors with superior products, but only after competitors have demonstrated the market is there.

Mechanistic model

a structure characterized by extensive departmentalization, high formalization, a limited information network, and centralization -It's generally synonymous with the bureaucracy in that it has highly standardized processes for work, high formalization, and more managerial hierarchy.

Organic model

a structure that is flat, uses cross-hierarchical and cross-functional teams, has low formalization, possesses a comprehensive information network, and relies on participative decision making

relflexivity

a team characteristic of reflecting on and adjusting the master plan when necessary

Conciliator

a trusted third party who provides an informal communication link between the negotiator and the opponent In practice, conciliators typically act as more than mere communication conduits. They also engage in fact-finding, interpreting messages, and persuading disputants to develop agreements.

Political behavior

activities that are not required as part of a person's formal role in the organization but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization -Political behavior is outside specified job requirements. It requires some attempt to use power bases. It includes efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes used for decision making. Our definition is broad enough to include varied political behaviors such as withholding key information from decision makers, joining a coalition, whistle-blowing, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information to the media, exchanging favors with others for mutual benefit, and lobbying on behalf of or against a particular individual or decision alternative. In this way, political behavior is often negative, but not always.

Appreciative inquiry

an approach that seeks to identify the unique qualities and special strengths of an organization, which can then be built on to improve performance Rather than looking for problems to fix, it seeks to identify the unique qualities and special strengths of an organization, which members can build on to improve performance. That is, AI focuses on an organization's successes rather than its problems. The AI process consists of four steps—discovery, dreaming, design, and destiny—often played out in a large-group meeting over two to three days and overseen by a trained change agent. Discovery sets out to identify what people think are the organization's strengths. Employees recount times they felt the organization worked best or when they specifically felt most satisfied with their jobs. In dreaming, employees use information from the discovery phase to speculate on possible futures, such as what the organization will be like in five years. In design, participants find a common vision of how the organization will look in the future and agree on its unique qualities. For the fourth step, participants seek to define the organization's destiny or how to fulfill their dream, and they typically write action plans and develop implementation strategies.

The zero-sum approach

an approach that treats the reward "pie" as fixed, such that any gains by one individual are at the expense of another (if someone wins, that means someone else loses) -The more an organizational culture emphasizes the zero-sum or win-lose approach to reward allocations, the more employees will be motivated to engage in politicking. -For example, if $15,000 is distributed among five employees for raises, any employee who gets more than $3,000 takes money away from one or more of the others. Such a practice encourages making others look bad and increasing the visibility of what you do.

Simple structure

an organization structure characterized by a low degree of departmentalization, wide spans of control, authority centralized in a single person, and little formalization It is a flat organization; it usually has only two or three vertical levels, a loose body of employees, and one individual with decision-making authority. Most companies start as a simple structure, and many innovative technology-based firms with short life spans, like cell phone app development firms, remain compact by design -The strength of the simple structure lies in its simplicity. It's fast, flexible, inexpensive to operate, and accountability is clear. -One major weakness is that it becomes increasingly inadequate as an organization grows because its low formalization and high centralization tend to create information overload at the top. Decision making typically becomes slower as the single executive tries to continue doing it all. The simple structure's other weakness is that it's risky—everything depends on one person. An illness at the top can literally halt the organization's information and decision-making capabilities.

Matrix structure

an organization structure that creates dual lines of authority and combines functional and product departmentalization combines the functional and product structures, and we find it in advertising agencies, aerospace firms, R&D laboratories, construction companies, hospitals, government agencies, universities, management consulting firms, and entertainment companies The most obvious structural characteristic of the matrix is that it breaks the unity-of-command concept. Employees in the matrix have two bosses: their functional department managers and their product managers The academic departments of accounting, decision and information systems, marketing, and so forth are functional units. Overlaid on them are specific programs (that is, products). Thus, members in a matrix structure have a dual chain of command: to their functional department and to their product groups. The strength of the matrix is its ability to facilitate coordination when the organization has a number of complex and interdependent activities. The matrix reduces "bureaupathologies"—its dual lines of authority limit people's tendency to protect their territories at the expense of the organization's goals. The major disadvantages of the matrix lie in the confusion it creates, its tendency to foster power struggles, and the stress it places on individuals.23 Without the unity-of-command concept, ambiguity about who reports to whom is significantly increased and often leads to conflict and power struggles between functional and product managers.

Learning organization

an organization that has developed the continuous capacity to adapt and change

The Circular Structure

an organizational structure in which executives are at the center, spreading their vision outward in rings grouped by function (managers, then specialists, then workers)

Chain of command

an unbroken line of authority that extends from the top of the organization to the lowest echelon and clarifies who reports to whom.

Stress

an unpleasant psychological process that occurs in response to environmental pressures Although stress is typically discussed in a negative context, it also has a positive purpose. Many professionals see the pressures of heavy workloads and deadlines as positive challenges that enhance the quality of their work and the satisfaction they get from their job. However, when the situation is negative, stress is harmful and may hinder your progress by elevating your blood pressure uncomfortably and creating an erratic heart rhythm as you struggle to speak and think logically

Sexual harrasment

any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual's employment and creates a hostile work environment -According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), sexual harassment happens when a person encounters "unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature" on the job that disrupts work performance or that creates an "intimidating, hostile, or offensive" work environment -Although the definition changes from country to country, most nations have at least some policies to protect workers. Whether the policies or laws are followed is another question, however. Equal employment opportunity legislation is established in Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Oman, for example, but studies suggest it might not be well implemented -Generally, sexual harassment is more prevalent in male-dominated societies. -The bottom line is that managers have a responsibility to protect their employees from a hostile work environment. They may easily be unaware that one of their employees is being sexually harassed, but being unaware does not protect them or their organization. If investigators believe a manager could have known about the harassment, both the manager and the company can be held liable.

Perceived conflict

awareness by one or more parties of the existence of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise

Any organization's environment has three dimensions:

capacity, volatility, and complexity.

Planned change

change activities that are intentional and goal oriented What are the goals of planned change? First, it seeks to improve the ability of the organization to adapt to changes in its environment. Second, it seeks to change employee behavior.

Social support

collegial relationships with coworkers or supervisors—can buffer the impact of stress.72 This is one of the best-documented relationships in the stress literature. Social support acts as a palliative, mitigating the negative effects of even high-strain jobs.

Formal channels

communication channels established by an organization to transmit messages related to the professional activities of members

Informal channels

communication channels that are created spontaneously and that emerge as responses to individual choices

Relationship conflict

conflict based on interpersonal relationships -almost always dysfunctional -Of the three types, relationship conflicts also appear to be the most psychologically exhausting to individuals. Because they tend to revolve around personalities, you can see how relationship conflicts can become destructive. After all, we can't expect to change our coworkers' personalities, and we would generally take offense at criticisms directed at who we are as opposed to how we behave.

Task conflict

conflict over content and goals of the work -Early research suggested that task conflict within groups correlated to higher group performance, but a review of 116 studies found that generalized task conflict was essentially unrelated to group performance. -Other scholars have argued that the strength of conflict is important: if task conflict is very low, people aren't really engaged or addressing the important issues; if task conflict is too high, infighting will quickly degenerate into relationship conflict. Moderate levels of task conflict may thus be optimal.

Process conflict

conflict over how work gets done -What about process conflict? Researchers found that process conflicts are about delegation and roles. Conflicts over delegation often revolve around the perception that some members as shirking, and conflicts over roles can leave some group members feeling marginalized.

Dysfunctional conflict

conflict that hinders group performance -A highly personal struggle for control that distracts from the task at hand in a team is dysfunctional.

Intergroup conflict

conflict that occurs between two or more groups

Dyadic conflict

conflict that occurs between two people

Intragroup conflict

conflict that occurs within a group or team

Functional conflict

conflict that supports the goals of the group and improves its performance -For example, a debate among members of a work team about the most efficient way to improve production can be functional if unique points of view are discussed and compared openly.

Impression management techniques

conformity: Agreeing with someone else's opinion to gain his or her approval is a form of ingratiation. favors: Doing something nice for someone to gain that person's approval is a form of ingratiation. excuses: Explaining a predicament-creating event aimed at minimizing the apparent severity of the predicament is a defensive IM technique. apologies: Admitting responsibility for an undesirable event and simultaneously seeking to get a pardon for the action is a defensive IM technique. self-promotion: Highlighting your best qualities, downplaying your deficits, and calling attention to your achievements is a self-focused IM technique. enhancement: Claiming that something you did is more valuable than most other members of the organizations would think is a self-focused IM technique. flattery: Complimenting others about their virtues in an effort to make yourself appear perceptive and likeable is an assertive IM technique. exemplification: Doing more than you need to in an effort to show how dedicated and hardworking you are is an assertive IM technique.

Institutions

cultural factors that lead many organizations to have similar structures, especially those factors that might not lead to adaptive consequences The most obvious institutional factors come from regulatory pressures; certain industries under government contracts, for instance, must have clear reporting relationships and strict information controls. Sometimes simple inertia determines an organizational form—companies can be structured in a particular way just because that's the way things have always been done. Organizations in countries with high power distance might have a structural form with strict authority relationships because it's seen as more legitimate in that culture. Some have attributed problems in adaptability in Japanese organizations to the institutional pressure to maintain authority relationships.

High-context cultures

cultures that rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues in communication -China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam -a person's official status, place in society, and reputation carry considerable weight -What is not said may be more significant than what is said.

Low-context cultures

cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication -They rely essentially on spoken and written words to convey meaning; body language and formal titles are secondary

Stage III: Intentions

decisions to act in a given way Intentions intervene between people's perceptions and emotions, and their overt behavior. They are decisions to act in a given way.14 There is slippage between intentions and behavior, so behavior does not always accurately reflect a person's intentions. Using two dimensions—assertiveness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her own concerns) and cooperativeness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other party's concerns)—we can identify five conflict-handling intentions: -competing (assertive and uncooperative) -collaborating (assertive and cooperative) -avoiding (unassertive and uncooperative) -accommodating (unassertive and cooperative) -compromising (mid-range on both assertiveness and cooperativeness) Intentions are not always fixed. During the course of a conflict, intentions might change if a party is able to see the other's point of view or to respond emotionally to the other's behavior.

Technology

describes the way an organization transfers inputs into outputs. Every organization has at least one technology for converting financial, human, and physical resources into products or services. For example, the Chinese consumer electronics company Haier uses an assembly-line process for mass-produced products, which is complemented by more flexible and innovative structures to respond to customers and design new products.38 Also, colleges may use a number of instructional technologies—the ever-popular lecture, case analysis, experiential exercise, programmed learning, online instruction, and distance learning. Regardless, organizational structures adapt to their technology.

Loci of conflict

dyadic, intragroup, intergroup

Felt conflict

emotional involvement in a conflict that creates anxiety, tenseness, frustration, or hostility

Cross-functional teams

employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task -Cross-functional teams are an effective means of allowing people from diverse areas within or even between organizations to exchange information, develop new ideas, solve problems, and coordinate complex projects. However, due to the high need for coordination, cross-functional teams are not simple to manage. -because the members are at roughly the same level in the organization, there is leadership ambiguity. -A climate of trust thus needs to be developed before shifts can happen without undue conflict. -Second, the early stages of development are often long since members need to learn to work with higher levels of diversity and complexity. -Third, it takes time to build trust and teamwork, especially among people with different experiences and perspectives.

Barriers to Effective Communication

filtering, selective perception, information overload, emotions, language, silence, communication apprehension, lying

Driving forces

forces that direct behavior away from the status quo

restraining forces

forces that hinder movement from the existing equilibrium

Work team

generates positive synergy through coordination. The individual efforts result in a level of performance greater than the sum of the individual inputs.

Self-managed work teams

groups of 10 to 15 people who take on responsibilities of their former supervisors -perform highly related or interdependent jobs; these teams take on some supervisory responsibilities -Typically, the responsibilities include planning and scheduling work, assigning tasks to members, making operating decisions, taking action on problems, and working with suppliers and customers -Fully self-managed work teams even select their own members who evaluate each other's performance. When these teams are established, former supervisory positions become less important and are sometimes eliminated. -teams that also implement solutions and take responsibility for outcomes -Research results on the effectiveness of self-managed work teams have not been uniformly positive. Some research indicates that self-managed teams may be more or less effective based on the degree to which team-promoting behaviors are rewarded. -A second area of research focus has been the impact of conflict on self-managed team effectiveness. Some research indicated that self-managed teams are not effective when there is conflict. When disputes arise, members often stop cooperating and power struggles ensue, which lead to lower group performance. -when they feel psychologically safe, conflict can be beneficial and boost team performance -Thirdly, research has explored the effect of self-managed work teams on member behavior. Here again the findings are mixed. Although individuals on teams report higher levels of job satisfaction than other individuals, studies indicate they sometimes also have higher absenteeism and turnover rates

Problem-solving teams

groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment ex. quality control teams Problem-solving teams only make recommendations.

Team building

high interaction among team members to increase trust and openness Team building typically includes goal-setting, development of interpersonal relations among team members, role analysis to clarify each member's role and responsibilities, and team process analysis. It may emphasize or exclude certain activities, depending on the purpose of the development effort and the specific problems the team is confronting. Basically, however, team building uses high interaction among members to increase trust and openness. In these times when organizations increasingly rely on teams, team building is an important topic.

Bureaucracy

highly routine operating tasks achieved through specialization, strictly formalized rules and regulations, tasks grouped into units, centralized authority, narrow spans of control, and decision making that follows the chain of command. -Bureaucracy incorporates all the strongest degrees of departmentalization described earlier. -However, it does have advantages, primarily the ability to perform standardized activities in a highly efficient manner. Putting like specialties together in units results in economies of scale, minimum duplication of people and equipment, and a common language employees all share. Bureaucracies can get by with less talented—and hence less costly—middle- and lower-level managers because rules and regulations substitute for managerial discretion. There is little need for innovative and experienced decision makers below the level of senior executives. --This conversation highlights that bureaucratic specialization can create conflicts in which the unit perspectives override the overall goals of the organization. -The other major weakness of a bureaucracy is something we've all witnessed: obsessive concern with following the rules. When cases don't precisely fit the rules, there is no room for modification. The bureaucracy is efficient only as long as employees confront familiar problems with programmed decision rules. There are two aspects of bureaucracies we should explore: functional and divisional structures.

Trust propensity

how likely an employee is to trust a leader

Creating a Culture for Change

how organizations can embrace change by transforming their cultures. three approaches: 1) managing paradox 2) stimulating an innovative culture 3) creating a learning organization.

Goal setting

individuals perform better when they have specific and challenging goals and receive feedback on their progress toward these goals. Goals can reduce stress as well as provide motivation.92 Employees who are highly committed to their goals and see purpose in their jobs experience less stress because they are more likely to perceive stressors as challenges rather than hindrances.

Idea champions

individuals who take an innovation and actively and enthusiastically promote the idea, build support, overcome resistance, and ensure that the idea is implemented

Referent power

influence based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits -If I like, respect, and admire you; you can exercise power over me because I want to please you. -Referent power develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person. It helps explain, for instance, why celebrities are paid millions of dollars to endorse products in commercials. Marketing research shows people such as LeBron James and Tom Brady have the power to influence your choice of athletic shoes and credit cards. -Some people who are not in formal leadership positions have referent power and exert influence over others because of their charismatic dynamism, likability, and emotional appeal.

Expert power

influence based on special skills or knowledge -As jobs become more specialized, we become dependent on experts to achieve goals. It is generally acknowledged that physicians have expertise and hence expert power: most of us follow our doctor's advice. Computer specialists, tax accountants, economists, industrial psychologists, and other specialists wield power as a result of their expertise.

Most current strategy frameworks focus on three strategy dimensions

innovation, cost minimization, and imitation

Choosing bargaining methods

integrative bargaining is preferable to distributive bargaining because the former builds long-term relationships. Integrative bargaining bonds negotiators and allows them to leave the bargaining table feeling they have achieved a victory. Distributive bargaining, however, leaves one party a loser. It tends to build animosity and deepen divisions when people have to work together on an ongoing basis. Why, then, don't we see more integrative bargaining in organizations? The answer lies in the conditions necessary for it to succeed. These include opposing parties who are open with information and candid about concerns, are sensitive to the other's needs and trust, and maintain flexibility. Because these conditions seldom exist in organizations, negotiations often take a win-at-any-cost dynamic.

Sustainability

organization practices that can be maintained over very long periods of time20 because the tools or structures that support the practices are not damaged by the processes

Transactional leaders

leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements

Transformational leaders

leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests and who are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers

Change

making things different

Subcultures

minicultures within an organization, typically defined by department designations and geographical separation

Intergrative bargaining

negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can create a win-win solution both parties must be engaged for integrative bargaining to work.

Distributive bargaining

negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources; a win-lose situation -Its identifying feature is that it operates under zero-sum conditions—that is, any gain I make is at your expense, and vice versa -Every dollar you can get the seller to cut from the car's price is a dollar you save, and every dollar the seller can get from you comes at your expense. -The essence of distributive bargaining is negotiating over who gets what share of a fixed pie. Parties A and B represent two negotiators. Each has a target point that defines what he or she would like to achieve. Each also has a resistance point, which marks the lowest acceptable outcome—the point beyond which the party would break off negotiations rather than accept a less favorable settlement. The area between these two points makes up each party's aspiration range. As long as there is some overlap between A's and B's aspiration ranges, there exists a settlement range in which each one's aspirations can be met. When you are engaged in distributive bargaining, one of the best things you can do is make the first offer and make it an aggressive one. Making the first offer shows power; individuals in power are much more likely to make initial offers, speak first at meetings, and thereby gain the advantage.

Wellness programs

organizationally supported programs that focus on the employee's total physical and mental condition These typically provide workshops to help people quit smoking, control alcohol use, lose weight, eat better, and develop a regular exercise program; they focus on the employee's total physical and mental condition.95 Some programs help employees improve their psychological health as well. A meta-analysis of 36 programs designed to reduce stress (including wellness programs) showed that interventions that helped employees reframe stressful situations and use active coping strategies appreciably reduced stress levels Most wellness programs assume employees need to take personal responsibility for their physical and mental health and that the organization is merely a means to that end.

Enironment

outside institutions or forces that can affect its structure, such as suppliers, customers, competitors, and public pressure groups.

Change agents

people who act as change catalysts and assume the responsibility for managing the change process They see a future for the organization others have not identified, and they are able to motivate, invent, and implement this vision. Change agents can be managers or non-managers, current or new employees, or outside consultants.

Individual Differences in Stress

perception, job experience, social support, and personality traits.

Consequences of Stress at Work

physiological, psychological, and behavioral symptoms.

Centralization

the degree to which decision making is concentrated at a single point in the organization -In centralized organizations, top managers make all the decisions, and lower-level managers merely carry out their directives.

Defensive behaviors

reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, blame, or change

Organizational culture

refers to a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from other organizations

Authority

refers to the rights inherent in a managerial position to give orders and expect them to be obeyed.

Organizational climate

refers to the shared perceptions organizational members have about their organization and work environment -a safe work climate promotes more safety procedures being followed

Rituals

repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce the key values of the organization, which goals are most important, which people are important, and which are expendable

Demands

responsibilities, pressures, obligations, and even uncertainties that individuals face in the workplace

Potential Sources of Stress at Work

role ambiguity, role conflict, role overload, job insecurity, environmental uncertainty, and situational constraints were all consistently negatively related to job performance

Team structure

seeks to eliminate the chain of command and replace departments with empowered teams. This structure removes vertical and horizontal boundaries in addition to breaking down external barriers between the company and its customers and suppliers.

Keeping a Culture Alive

selection, top management, socialization

Decentralized decision making

the degree to which decision making is pushed down to the managers closest to the action or to workgroups

Challenge stressors

stressors associated with workload, pressure to complete tasks, and time urgency

Hindrance stressors

stressors that keep you from reaching your goals (for example, red tape, office politics, confusion over job responsibilities)

Downsizing

systematic effort to make an organization leaner by closing locations, reducing staff, or selling off business units that don't add value. Some firms downsize to direct all their efforts toward their core competencies.

Mental models

team members' knowledge and beliefs about how the work gets done by the team -Effective teams share accurate mental models—organized mental representations of the key elements within a team's environment that team members share (If the team mission and goals pertain to what a team needs to be effective, mental models pertain to how a team does its work) -If team members have the wrong mental models, which is particularly likely in teams under acute stress, their performance suffers. -One review of 65 independent studies found that teams with shared mental models engaged in more frequent interactions with one another, were more motivated, had more positive attitudes toward their work, and had higher levels of objectively rated performance.59 If team members have different ideas about how to do things, however, the team will fight over methods rather than focus on what needs to be done.60

Virtual teams

teams that use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal -Members collaborate online using communication links such as wide area networks, corporate social media, videoconferencing, and e-mail; whether members are nearby or continents apart. Nearly all teams do at least some of their work remotely. -Virtual teams should be managed differently than face-to-face teams in an office, partially because virtual team members may not interact along traditional hierarchical patterns. For virtual teams to be effective, management should ensure that: (1) trust is established among members (one inflammatory remark in an e-mail can severely undermine team trust); (2) progress is monitored closely (so the team doesn't lose sight of its goals and no team member "disappears"); and (3) the efforts and products of the team are publicized throughout the organization (so the team does not become invisible).

Political skill

the ability to influence others in such a way as to enhance one's objectives -people differ in political skill -The politically skilled are more effective users of all the influence tactics. Political skill is also more effective when the stakes are high, such as when the individual is accountable for important organizational outcomes. -Finally, the politically skilled are able to exert their influence without others detecting it, a key element in effectiveness (it's damaging to be labeled political) -These individuals are able to use their political skills in environments with low levels of procedural and distributive justice. When an organization has fairly applied rules, free of favoritism or biases, political skill is actually negatively related to job performance ratings -Lastly, we know cultures within organizations differ markedly; some are warm, relaxed, and supportive; others are formal and conservative. Some encourage participation and consultation, some encourage reason, and still others rely on pressure. People who fit the culture of the organization tend to obtain more influence -Specifically, extraverts tend to be more influential in team-oriented organizations, and highly conscientious people are more influential in organizations that value working alone on technical tasks.

Channel richness

the amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode Channels differ in their capacity to convey information. -Some are rich in that they can (1) handle multiple cues simultaneously, (2) facilitate rapid feedback, and (3) be very personal. -Others are lean, in that they score low on these factors. -Face-to-face conversation scores highest in channel richness because it transmits the most information per communication episode-multiple information cues (words, postures, facial expressions, gestures, intonations), immediate feedback (both verbal and nonverbal), and the personal touch of being present. -In sum, rich channels give us the chance to observe. The unconscious aspects of communication help us understand the full meaning of a message. When these aspects are missing, we must look for other clues to deduce the sender's emotions and attitudes.

Departmentalization

the basis by which jobs in an organization are grouped together

Fixed pie

the belief that there is only a set amount of goods or services to be divvied up between the parties

BATNA

the best alternative to a negotiated agreement; the least the individual should accept

Team efficacy

the collective belief among team members in the team's capability to successfully complete a task -Effective teams have confidence in themselves; they believe they can succeed. -Teams that have been successful raise their beliefs about future success, which, in turn, motivates them to work harder. In addition, teams that have a shared knowledge of individual capabilities can strengthen the link between team members' self-efficacy and their individual creativity because members can more effectively solicit informed opinions from their teammates. Two ways to increase team efficacy: 1. Helping the team achieve small successes that build confidence 2. Providing training to improve members' technical and interpersonal skills. The greater the abilities of team members, the more likely the team will develop confidence and the ability to deliver on that confidence

Leader-member relations

the degree of confidence, trust, and respect subordinates have in their leader

Position power

the degree of influence a leader has over power variables such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases

Formalization

the degree to which jobs within an organization are standardized -If a job is highly formalized, the employee has a minimal amount of discretion over what to do and when and how to do it, resulting in consistent and uniform output. -There are explicit job descriptions, lots of organizational rules, and clearly defined procedures covering work processes. -Formalization not only eliminates the possibility of employees engaging in alternative behaviors; it removes the need for them to consider alternatives. Conversely, where formalization is low, job behaviors are relatively unprogrammed and employees have a great deal of freedom to exercise discretion in their work.

Work specialization

the degree to which tasks in an organization are subdivided into separate jobs By the 1960s, it increasingly seemed that the good news of specialization could be carried too far. Human diseconomies began to surface in the form of boredom, fatigue, stress, low productivity, poor quality, increased absenteeism, and high turnover, which more than offset the economic advantages

Avoiding

the desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict -trying to ignore a conflict and keeping away from others with whom you disagree

Initiating structure

the extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of subordinates in the search for goal attainment -It includes behavior that attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals. A leader high in initiating structure is someone who assigns followers particular tasks, sets definite standards of performance, and emphasizes deadlines. -According to a review of the leadership literature, initiating structure is more strongly related to higher levels of group and organization productivity, and to more positive performance evaluations.

Consideration

the extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinates' ideas, and regard for their feelings -A leader high in consideration helps employees with personal problems, is friendly and approachable, treats all employees as equals, and expresses appreciation and support (people-oriented). -Most of us want to work for considerate leaders—when asked to indicate what most motivated them at work, 66 percent of U.S. employees surveyed mentioned appreciation.12 Indeed, one review found the followers of leaders high in consideration were more satisfied with their jobs, were more motivated, and had more respect for their leaders.

Unity of command

the idea that a subordinate should have only one superior to whom he or she is directly responsible -helps preserve the concept of an unbroken line of authority. -If the unity of command is broken, an employee might have to cope with conflicting demands or priorities from several superiors

Span of control

the number of subordinates a manager can efficiently and effectively direct All things being equal, the wider or larger the span, with fewer levels and more employees at each level, the more efficient the organization can be. -less costly (don't have to pay that many managers) Narrow or small spans have their advocates. Narrow spans of control with, perhaps, five or six members are sometimes preferred to minimize ambiguity, but narrow spans have three major drawbacks. First, they're expensive because they add levels of management. Second, they make vertical communication in the organization more complex. The added levels of hierarchy slow down decision making and can isolate upper management. Third, narrow spans encourage overly tight supervision and discourage employee autonomy. The trend in recent years has been toward wider spans of control. They're consistent with firms' efforts to reduce costs, cut overhead, speed decision making, increase flexibility, get closer to customers, and empower employees.

Prearrival stage

the period of learning in the socialization process that occurs before a new employee joins the organization recognizes that each individual arrives with a set of values, attitudes, and expectations about both the work and the organization.

Legitimate power

the power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization -It represents the formal authority to control and use organizational resources based on the person's structural position in the organization. -Legitimate power is broader than the power to coerce and reward. Specifically, it includes members' acceptance of the authority of a hierarchical position. We associate power so closely with the concept of hierarchy that just drawing longer lines in an organization chart leads people to infer the leaders are especially powerful

Core values

the primary or dominant values that are accepted throughout the organization

Impression Management

the process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them

Workplace spirituality

the recognition that people have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work that takes place in the context of community Organizations that support a spiritual culture recognize that people seek to find meaning and purpose in their work and desire to connect with other human beings as part of a community. Many of the topics we have discussed—ranging from job design to corporate social responsibility (CSR)—are well matched to the concept of organizational spirituality.

Ethical work climate

the shared concept of right and wrong behavior in the workplace that reflects the true values of the organization and shapes the ethical decision-making of its members

Encounter stage

the stage in the socialization process in which a new employee sees what the organization is really like and confronts the possibility that expectations and reality may diverge

Communication Process

the steps between a source and a receiver that result in the transfer and understanding of meaning (1) the sender (2) encoding (3) the message (4) the channel (5) decoding (6) the receiver (7) noise (8) feedback -The sender initiates a message by encoding a thought. -The message is the actual physical product of the sender's encoding. When we speak, the speech is the message. When we write, the writing is the message. When we gesture, the movements of our arms and the expressions on our faces are the message. -The channel is the medium through which the message travels. The sender selects it, determining whether to use a formal or informal channel. -The receiver is the person(s) to whom the message is directed, who must first translate the symbols into understandable form. This step is the decoding of the message. -Noise represents communication barriers that distort the clarity of the message, such as perceptual problems, information overload, semantic difficulties, or cultural differences. -The final link in the communication process is a feedback loop. Feedback is the check on how successful we have been in transferring our messages as originally intended. It determines whether understanding has been achieved.

Fiedler contingency model

the theory that effective groups depend on a proper match between a leader's style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader -group performance depends on the proper match between the leader's style and the degree to which the situation gives the leader control. *With the model, the individual's leadership style is assumed to be permanent. 1) LPC questionnaire: is a leader task or relationship oriented 2) A fit must be found between the organizational situation and the leader's style for leadership effectiveness to be predicted. We can assess the situation in terms of three contingency or situational dimensions: -Leader-member relations: the degree of confidence, trust, and respect members have in their leader. -Task structure: the degree to which the job assignments are procedurized (that is, structured or unstructured). -Position power: the degree of influence a leader has over power variables such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases.

paradox theory

the theory that the key paradox in management is that there is no final optimal status for an organization

Communication

the transfer and understanding of meaning

Survey feedback

the use of questionnaires to identify discrepancies among member perceptions; discussion follows, and remedies are suggested The survey feedback approach can be helpful to keep decision makers informed about the attitudes of employees toward the organization. However, individuals are influenced by many factors when they respond to surveys, which may make some findings unreliable. Second, a high number of nonresponses may indicate organizational dysfunction or decreased job satisfaction, which the absence of data will not show.

Conflict management

the use of resolution and stimulation techniques to achieve the desired level of conflict

Organizational Structure

the way in which job tasks are formally divided, grouped, and coordinated

accomodating

the willingness of one party in a conflict to place the opponent's interests above his or her own A party who seeks to appease an opponent may be willing to place the opponent's interests above his or her own, sacrificing to maintain the relationship -Supporting someone else's opinion despite your reservations

Behavioral theories of leadership

theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders -initiating structure -consideration

Trait theories of leadership

theories that consider personal qualities and characteristics that differentiate leaders from nonleaders -Based on the latest research literature, we offer two conclusions about personality traits and leadership: one, traits can predict leadership; and two, traits do a better job in predicting the emergence of leaders and the appearance of leadership than in distinguishing between effective and ineffective leaders

Contingency theories

theories that look at the interaction of characteristics of both the leader and the situation -Fiedler contingency model -Situational leadership theory -Path-goal theory -Leader-participation model

Sensitivity training

training groups that seek to change behavior through unstructured group interaction Current organizational interventions such as diversity training, executive coaching, and team-building exercises are descendants of this early OD intervention technique.

Group

two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who work together to achieve particular objectives.

Power tactics

ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions - Legitimacy. Relying on your authority position or saying a request accords with organizational policies or rules. - Rational persuasion. Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate a request is reasonable. - Inspirational appeals. Developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target's values, needs, hopes, and aspirations. - Consultation. Increasing support by involving the target in deciding how to accomplish your plan. Exchange. Rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for acceding to a request. - Personal appeals. Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty. - Ingratiation. Using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making a request. - Pressure. Using warnings, repeated demands, and threats. - Coalitions. Enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to agree.

Material symbols

what conveys to employees who is important, the degree of egalitarianism top management desires, and the kinds of behavior that are appropriate Others include the size of offices, the elegance of furnishings, perks, and attire. The layout of corporate headquarters, the types of automobiles top executives are given, and the presence or absence of corporate aircraft Dynegy's headquarters doesn't look like your typical head-office operation. There are few individual offices, even for senior executives. The space is essentially made up of cubicles, common areas, and meeting rooms. This informality conveys to employees that Dynegy values openness, equality, creativity, and flexibility. While some organizations provide their top executives with chauffeur-driven limousines and a corporate jet, other CEOs drive the company car themselves and travel in the economy section.

Boundary Spanning

when individuals form relationships outside their formally assigned groups -An HR executive who frequently engages with the IT group is engaged in boundary spanning, as is a member of an R&D team who implements ideas from a production team. These activities help prevent formal structures from becoming too rigid and, not surprisingly, enhance organization and team creativity Boundary-spanning activities occur not only within but also between organizations. Gathering information from external knowledge sources is especially advantageous in highly innovative industries where keeping up with the competition is challenging. Positive results are especially strong in organizations that encourage extensive internal communication; in other words, external boundary spanning is most effective when it is followed up with internal boundary spanning.

Barriers caused by semantics

words mean different things to different people Words mean different things to different people, particularly people from different national cultures. Some words don't translate between cultures. For instance, the Finnish word sisu means something akin to "guts" or "dogged persistence" but is essentially untranslatable into English. Similarly, capitalists in Russia may have difficulty communicating with their British or Canadian counterparts because English terms such as efficiency, free market, and regulation have no direct Russian equivalents.

Allostasis

working to change behavior and attitudes to find stability