CCJS451 EXAM 1
Principles Related to Matching the Program with a Target Population
(1) Appropriately Timed (2) Socioculturally Relevant
Principles Related to Program Characteristics
(1) Comprehensive (2) Varied Teaching Method (3) Sufficient Dosage (4) Theory Driven (5) Positive Relationships
6 Categories of Family Predictive Factors
(1) Criminal and Anti-Social Parents and Siblings (2) Large Family Size (3) Child Rearing Methods (4) Abuse or Neglect (5) Parental Conflict and Disrupted Families (6) Other Parental Factors
Prevention Intervention Research Cycle
(1) Epidemiology (2) Etiology (3) Efficacy (4) Effectiveness (5) Dissemination
Non-Experimental Design
(1) One Group Pretest-Posttest (2) Two Groups, Post-Test Only (3) Non-Equivalent Control Group Design (4) Simple Interrupted Time Series vs. Multiple Time Series
Principles Related to Implementation & Evaluation of Prevention Programs
(1) Outcome Evaluation (2) Well Trained Staff
Evaluation of Evidence Based Crime Prevention
(1) Process Evaluation (2) Impact (Outcome) Evaluation (3) Cost-Benefit Evaluation
4 Uses of Protective Factors
(1) effect outcome directly (2) cancels out mediator (3) gets rid of risk factor entirely (4) could act as moderator
Prenatal/Early Intervention Project Objectives
(1) to improve the outcomes of pregnancy (2) to improve the quality of care that parents provide to their children (3) to improve the mothers' own personal life-course development
3 Downfalls of the UCR
(1) voluntary data collection method (2) ability of individual police officers to adjust the crime rate (3) many offenses are not brought to the attention of police
Psychology Approach
**Parent Management Training** parents are trained to alter their child's behavior at home aimed to train parents to use rewards and punishments consistently and contingently in child rearing group sessions
Public Health Approach
**Parent education** Home Visiting Parent Education+Day Care
Why Out-of-Placement DOES NOT work
**Problem environment--> non-effective parenting, drugs, delinquent peers **out-of-placement leads to association with delinquent peers
Cambridge-Somerville Youth Project
-1930s -first randomized experiment of a social program -target boys aged 5-13 -treated with counseling
Threats to Internal Validity
-History -Maturation -Testing -Instrumentation -Statistical Regression (people on the extreme sides tend to regress to middle over-time) -Selection -Mortality (attrition)
Traditional Criminology Deficiencies
-Measuring onset of delinquency at first arrest (who says this arrest was the first one they committed?) -examining differences between groups -over-emphasis on cross-sectional research (surveys taken at one point in time are bad) -lack specificity with respect to "causes"
Syracuse University Family Development Research Project
-Parent education + full time daycare (weekly sessions -not randomized -used matching -reduces delinquency costs easily exceeded benefits (bad!)
Origins of Crime Prevention
-Rooted in individualistic survival practices -Anticipated Outcomes: **Retribution **Specific Deterrence **General Deterrence
Perry Pre-School Project -- David Weikart
-Target Population: 3-4yr old African American children -focused on social/cognitive development and enrichment -evaluated with random assignment and followed through life -found that participants were more likely to have successful life outcomes -not much of a difference in IQ -GRIT!
Good Behavior Game
-alternative to DARE -implemented by teachers during class -rewards good behavior by letting them play a 'good behavior game' -positive reinforcement -EFFECTIVE
Life Course Persisters
-begin delinquency before puberty -neuropsychological and temperamental deficits
Key Features of Preschool Intellectual Enrichment
-developmentally appropriate learning curricula -a wide array of cognitive based enriching activities -activities for parents so that they may be able to support the school experience at home
Methods of Research for Developmental Criminology
-focus is within-individual changes in offending over time -especially useful in periods of greatest behavior change (juveniles) -longitudinal studies with repeated measurements (prospective data gathering (life begin --> present)
Life Course Criminology
-focus on continuity and change -social control; embedded in social life -turning points -transitions
multi systemic therapy (MST)
-for juvenile delinquents at high risk of out-of-home placement -multi-modal intervention (views the youth as embedded within multiple interconnected systems) -the child and the family are the main focus -therapist available to each juvenile, 24/7
What We Know About Dropouts
-higher risk for current and subsequent offending -mostly due to accumulated risk for BOTH dropout and offending -premature school leaving may still increase subsequent offending, esp. for the unemployed
Main Goals of Preschool Intellectual Enrichment
-improved cognitive skills -school readiness -social and emotional development
Possible Effects of Police in School
-increased surveillance and enforcement = deterrence -increased student trust = increased crime reporting -erosion of informal social control -increased fear = weakened sense of community
Risk Factors for Dropping Out of School
-low SES family -poor academic grades -discipline problems -low educational aspirations
Why Do We Continue to Use Dare?
-low cost -public image of being effective -improve student attitudes towards police
Turning Points of Note
-marriage/cohabitation (only if its a good marriage will offending decrease) -parenthood -residential moving (less likely to offend) -military service -getting caught/apprehended (negative turning point; more likely to reoffend) -school dropout (bad or good depending on circumstances) -employment
Why Doesn't DARE Work?
-not cognitive/behavioral -failed teaching element
Dropping Out and Prison
-over 2/3 of state prisoners did not graduate from high school -nearly a 70% chance that African American men will be imprisoned -drop outs engage in more criminal behavior, esp. serious crime
Economic Consequences of Dropping Out
-over 70% more likely to be unemployed -earn approx. 10K less per year -public assistance is more likely
Adolescent Limited
-prosocial life trajectory temporarily derailed by adolescence -delinquency is an expression of autonomy and independence -do not have the early risk factors that life course persisters do
Evaluation of Cambridge-Somerville Youth Project
-randomized -early findings saw no difference -30 year follow up showed: **died early **more mental health and alcohol problems **convicted of serious crimes -deviancy training
Incredible Years Findings
-reduced harsh discipline and parental depression -increased non-physical discipline techniques and positive family communication -reduced children's conduct problems -$4 saved per $1 spent
Deviancy Training
-social learning process of contingent positive reactions to rule breaking discussion -when higher-risk youths spend time in groups unsupervised and in unstructured environments
Iowa Strengthening Families Program
-socioculturally relevant -group therapy for parents -family therapy as a unit -effective in Iowa -ineffective in DC because of different sociocultural factors
Randomized Experiments
-the "gold standard" -random assignment controls variance due to extraneous variables- eliminates selection threat
Risk Factor
-variables that predict later offending (or other problem behaviors) -probabilistic, not deterministic -we want prevention programs to counter-act them -risk factors can co-occur with other problem behaviors -cumulative -generally similar for different demographic groups
Developmental Trajectory
Activation --> Aggravation --> Desistance
Conclusions of Developmental Criminology
Continuity Age At Onset Matters Multiple Sequences and Trajectories Everyone Desists
Turning Points
EVENTS that occur in your life that can cause changed behavior
Evaluations of MST
Farrington&Welsh- most effective family based approach reduced rearrest and out of home placement saves $4 for every $1 spent
Changes in the 1960-70s
Increasing crime rate and social unrest **Loss of faith in the government traditional CJ response had little impact on crime **Martinson: Nothing Works (in corrections) **"Standard" policing strategies ineffective Focus on Family, Community, Employment **strain theory **war on poverty Situational Crime Prevention **focus on crime events, rather than criminals
20th Century Changes
Juvenile Delinquency Social Disorganization Neighborhood Watch
Muffin: Dual-Pathway Developmental Theory
Life Course Persisters vs. Adolescent Limited
Individual Risk Factors
Low Intelligence/Attainment Personality (weak morals) Difficult Temperament Low Empathy Impulsiveness Lack of Social Cognitive Skills
Hunter's Micro-, Meso-, and Macro-levels of Crime Prevention
Micro-level targets individuals, small groups, etc. for intervention Meso-Level targets larger communities or neighborhoods Macro-level targets large communities and society as a whole
Part 1 Crimes
Murder Rape Robbery Assault Burglary Larceny Auto-Theft Arson
Formal Social Controls
Obligatory Policing Constable **Watch and Ward **Hue and Cry Private Policing Environmental Protection
Data Sources
Official Statistics (i.e. UCR) Self Reports (by offenders) Victimization Surveys/Reports (i.e. NCVS) Parent and Teacher Reports
2 Early Family Approaches
Public Health Approach Psychology Approach
1980-90s
Punitive Approaches to the Crime Problem **Federal Crime Bill of 1994 **Prevention: "soft on crime" **era of the super-predator
How to Summarize Evidence
Single Study (worst) Narrative Vote Count Systematic + Meta Analysis (best)
How Ratings Are Used to Decide "What Works"
Works: at least 2 different studies with level 3 or hight and positive findings Promising: 1 study with level 3 or higher Doesn't Work: at least 2 different studies with level 3 or higher produce NO statistical significance
Basic Randomized Design
X Y ------- ~ X Y
Two Groups, Post - Test Only
X Ya X Ya suffers from selection issues no randomization not a good method
Simple Interrupted Time Series vs. Multiple Time Series
Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 X Y5 Y6 Y7 Y8 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 X Y5 Y6 Y7 Y8 (experimental) Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4........Y5 Y6 Y7 Y8 (control) Like pre-post, one group, but with several observations on either side Adding a control series eliminates all threats
One Group Pretest-Posttest
Yb X Ya worst method
Pre-Post Control Group Design
Yb X Ya ------------ Yb ~X Ya
Non-Equivalent Control Group Design
Yb X Ya (experimental) Yb X Ya (control) better method but not the best issue: selection by maturation interaction
Activation
acceleration stabilization diversification (of crime type)
Continuity
adult deviants are likely to have been child deviants 50% of at-risk children do not become chronic offenders large within-individual changes are responsible for different pathways
The Campbell Crime and Justice Group
aims to prepare and maintain systematic reviews of criminological interventions and to make them accessible electronically
Crime Control Definition
alludes to maintenance of a given or existing level and the management of that amount of behavior (i.e. arrest, probation, etc.)
Crime Prevention Definition
any action designed to reduce the actual level of crime and/or the perceived fear of crime
Age at Onset Matters
chronic offenders are 13.8 years old at first conviction non chronic offenders are 16 years old at first conviction more predictive for males than females
Crime Prevention Public Health Model
classifies prevention as primary, secondary, and tertiary
Watering Down of Prenatal/Early Intervention Project
communities started implementing on their own to cut costs and hired paraprofessionals instead of registered nurses
Statistical Conclusion Validity
concerned with whether the presumed cause and the presumed effect are related
Rational Choice Theory
crime events occur in response to specific opportunities, when their subjectively perceived benefits outweigh their subjectively perceived costs
Tertiary Crime Prevention
deals with actual offenders and involves intervention in such a fashion that they will not commit further offenses Ex. arrest, prosecution, correctional programs
Desistance
deceleration specialization de-escalation
Effectiveness
define, conduct, and analyze large scale trials
Efficacy
design, conduct, and analyze pilot studies, confirmatory, and replication trials
Socioculturally Relevant
designing a prevention program to be culturally appropriate is one recommendation for increasing relevance
Everyone Desists
desistance appears inversely related to progression in offending desistance is related to other development--age EVERYONE DIES
Between-Individual Differences
differences in criminal potential explain why some people are more likely to commit offenses than others in a particular situation
Home Visiting Goal
educating parents to improve the life chances of children from a very young age prevention of child abuse and neglect promotion of healthy child development and school readiness
Secondary Crime Prevention
engages in early identification of potential offenders and seeks to intervene prior to commission of illegal activity Ex. Situational Crime Prevention, Community Policing
Aggravation
escalates or increases in seriousness over-time
Within-Individual Differences
explain why some people are more likely to commit crimes at some times and in some situations than other times and situations
Systematic Review
explicit objectives, eligibility criteria, clear search process include only peer reviewed, published studies **publication bias: unpublished studies should also be included quantitative techniques if possible **Cochran to Campbell Collaboration does really well with these reviews
Child Social Skills Training
generally targeted on the risk factors of impulsivity, low empathy, and self-centeredness lasts a relatively short period of time
High Quality Evaluation according to Welsh and Farrington
high internal, construct, and statistical conclusion validity
Primary Crime Prevention
identifies conditions of the physical and social environment that provides opportunities for or precipitate criminal acts Ex. environmental design, neighborhood watch, education about crime prevention
Na and Gottfredson Conclusions
in schools with police... -more crimes involving weapon possession and drugs -a higher % of non-serious violent crimes reported to law enforcement (concern for school-to-prison pipeline) -no evidence that adding police reduces crime
Varied Teaching Method
involve interactive instruction and provide active, hands-on experiences that increase the participant's skills
Multiple Sequences and Trajectories
less serious behaviors precede more serious behaviors the developmental sequence of conduct problems can predict an offending trajectory
Criticisms of MST
most MST evaluations are conducted by the developers of MST... conflict of interest?
D.A.R.E
most widely used substance prevention program -teaches students to resist peer pressure to use drugs by laying it all out on the table -targets 5th-6th grade students -taught by uniformed police officers -universal program implementation -NOT EFFECTIVE
Transitions
moving from one life stage to another
Comprehensive
multiple interventions in multiple settings
Incredible Years
parent management technique program child, parent, and teacher programs cohesive method
Protective Factor
predicts a decreased probability of offending
Appropriately Timed
prevention programs should be timed to focus on changeable precursor behaviors prior to the full-blown problem behavior being prevented
Positive Relationships
providing opportunities for children to develop strong, positive relationships was consistently associated with positive outcomes
External Validity
refers to how well the effect of an intervention on an outcome is generalizable or replicable in different conditions
Internal Validity
refers to how well the study unambiguously demonstrates that an intervention had an effect on an outcome
Construct Validity
refers to the adequacy of the operational definition and measurement of the theoretical constructs that underlie the intervention on an outcome
Sufficient Dosage
refers to the need for participants to be exposed to enough of the intervention
Theory Driven
refers to the need for scientific justification of a preventive intervention
Watch and Ward
rotated the responsibility for keeping watch over town, particularly at night, among the male citizens
Current Changes
scientific evidence for effective prevention matters cost-effectiveness--> "smart on crime" **costly mass incarceration **low crime rates
Parent Education + Day Care
serve largely as an organized form of childcare so that parents (esp. mothers) can return to work
Prenatal/Early Intervention Project Evaluation
significant decrease in recorded child physical abuse and neglect children of treatment mothers had incurred significantly less arrests $3-4 saved for every $1 spent
BAM (School Based Program)
targets students with low school performance and low SES families resulted in better academic engagement and decreased non-violent crime participation
Outcome Evaluation
the evaluation of prevention programs is necessary to determine program effectiveness. Otherwise, practitioner may assume that a program is effective on the basis of anecdotal or case study evidence
Mediator
the factor that intervenes between the risk factor and the outcome.. but is required for the outcome to occur
Developmental Criminology Definition
the study of the development and dynamics of problem behaviors and offending within age The identification of explanatory or causal factors that predate or co-occur with the behavioral development and have an impact on its course
Moderator
variables that affect the direction or strength of the relationship between risk factors and outcomes or both
What is an Effective School?
when schools monitor students and control access to campus, and when students perceive that school rules are fair and consistently enforced, schools experience lower levels of problem behavior