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D.A.R.E.

(Drug Abuse Resistance Education) program in public schools (Figure). This program typically involves police officers coming into the classroom to educate students about the dangers of becoming involved with alcohol and other drugs

PhD

(doctor of philosophy) doctoral degree conferred in many disciplinary perspectives housed in a traditional college of liberal arts and sciences

PsyD

(doctor of psychology) doctoral degree that places less emphasis on research-oriented skills and focuses more on application of psychological principles in the clinical context

In Milgram's controversial study on obedience, nearly ________ of the participants were willing to administer what appeared to be lethal electrical shocks to another person because they were told to do so by an authority figure.

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Stanley Milgram

American social psychologist who is most famous for research that he conducted on obedience. nazi research thing..

Sigmund Freud

Austrian neurologist who was fascinated by patients suffering from "hysteria" and neurosis. Hysteria was an ancient diagnosis for disorders, primarily of women with a wide variety of symptoms, including physical symptoms and emotional disturbances, none of which had an apparent physical cause. Freud theorized that many of his patients' problems arose from the unconscious mind... had lots of interesting ideas to explain various human behaviors

1.2 History of Psychology

Before the time of Wundt and James, questions about the mind were considered by philosophers. However, both Wundt and James helped create psychology as a distinct scientific discipline. Wundt was a structuralist, which meant he believed that our cognitive experience was best understood by breaking that experience into its component parts. He thought this was best accomplished by introspection. William James was the first American psychologist, and he was a proponent of functionalism. This particular perspective focused on how mental activities served as adaptive responses to an organism's environment. Like Wundt, James also relied on introspection; however, his research approach also incorporated more objective measures as well. Sigmund Freud believed that understanding the unconscious mind was absolutely critical to understand conscious behavior. This was especially true for individuals that he saw who suffered from various hysterias and neuroses. Freud relied on dream analysis, slips of the tongue, and free association as means to access the unconscious. Psychoanalytic theory remained a dominant force in clinical psychology for several decades. Gestalt psychology was very influential in Europe. Gestalt psychology takes a holistic view of an individual and his experiences. As the Nazis came to power in Germany, Wertheimer, Koffka, and Köhler immigrated to the United States. Although they left their laboratories and their research behind, they did introduce America to Gestalt ideas. Some of the principles of Gestalt psychology are still very influential in the study of sensation and perception. One of the most influential schools of thought within psychology's history was behaviorism. Behaviorism focused on making psychology an objective science by studying overt behavior and deemphasizing the importance of unobservable mental processes. John Watson is often considered the father of behaviorism, and B. F. Skinner's contributions to our understanding of principles of operant conditioning cannot be underestimated. As behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory took hold of so many aspects of psychology, some began to become dissatisfied with psychology's picture of human nature. Thus, a humanistic movement within psychology began to take hold. Humanism focuses on the potential of all people for good. Both Maslow and Rogers were influential in shaping humanistic psychology. During the 1950s, the landscape of psychology began to change. A science of behavior began to shift back to its roots of focus on mental processes. The emergence of neuroscience and computer science aided this transition. Ultimately, the cognitive revolution took hold, and people came to realize that cognition was crucial to a true appreciation and understanding of behavior... HEIRCHY OF NEEDS

1.4 Careers in Psychology

Generally, academic careers in psychology require doctoral degrees. However, there are a number of nonacademic career options for people who have master's degrees in psychology. While people with bachelor's degrees in psychology have more limited psychology-related career options, the skills acquired as a function of an undergraduate education in psychology are useful in a variety of work contexts.

Wilhelm Wundt

German scientist who was the first person to be referred to as a psychologist. His famous book entitled Principles of Physiological Psychology was published in 1873. Wundt viewed psychology as a scientific study of conscious experience, and he believed that the goal of psychology was to identify components of consciousness and how those components combined to result in our conscious experience.

psyche

Greek word for soul

Ivan Pavlov

Pavlov studied a form of learning behavior called a conditioned reflex, in which an animal or human produced a reflex (unconscious) response to a stimulus and, over time, was conditioned to produce the response to a different stimulus that the experimenter associated with the original stimulus

1.1 What Is Psychology?

Psychology derives from the roots psyche (meaning soul) and -ology (meaning scientific study of). Thus, psychology is defined as the scientific study of mind and behavior. Students of psychology develop critical thinking skills, become familiar with the scientific method, and recognize the complexity of behavior.

1.3 Contemporary Psychology

Psychology is a diverse discipline that is made up of several major subdivisions with unique perspectives. Biological psychology involves the study of the biological bases of behavior. Sensation and perception refer to the area of psychology that is focused on how information from our sensory modalities is received, and how this information is transformed into our perceptual experiences of the world around us. Cognitive psychology is concerned with the relationship that exists between thought and behavior, and developmental psychologists study the physical and cognitive changes that occur throughout one's lifespan. Personality psychology focuses on individuals' unique patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. Industrial and organizational psychology, health psychology, sport and exercise psychology, forensic psychology, and clinical psychology are all considered applied areas of psychology. Industrial and organizational psychologists apply psychological concepts to I-O settings. Health psychologists look for ways to help people live healthier lives, and clinical psychology involves the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic behavioral patterns. Sport and exercise psychologists study the interactions between thoughts, emotions, and physical performance in sports, exercise, and other activities. Forensic psychologists carry out activities related to psychology in association with the justice system.

scientific method

Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the

evolutionary psychology

To be subject to evolution by natural selection, a behavior must have a significant genetic cause.

sensation and perception

When you look at this image, you may see a duck or a rabbit. The sensory information remains the same, but your perception can vary dramatically....

hypothesis

a researcher with a question about how or why something happens will propose a tentative explanation

postdoctoral training program

allows young scientists to further develop their research programs and broaden their research skills under the supervision of other professionals in the field

forensic psychology

area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the justice system

counseling psychology

area of psychology that focuses on improving emotional, social, vocational, and other aspects of the lives of psychologically healthy individuals

clinical psychology

area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior

sport and exercise psychology

area of psychology that focuses on the interactions between mental and emotional factors and physical performance in sports, exercise, and other activities

personality trait

consistent pattern of thought and behavior

Jean Piaget

demonstrated that very young children do not demonstrate object permanence. Object permanence refers to the understanding that physical things continue to exist, even if they are hidden from us. If you were to show an adult a toy, and then hide it behind a curtain, the adult knows that the toy still exists. However, very young infants act as if a hidden object no longer exists.

inductive reasoning

empirical observations lead to new ideas

behaviorism

focus on observing and controlling behavior

psychoanalytic theory

focus on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior

functionalism

focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment

Health psychology

focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors. This particular approach is known as the biopsychosocial model (biological, psychological, social)

Social psychology

focuses on how we interact with and relate to others. Social psychologists conduct research on a wide variety of topics that include differences in how we explain our own behavior versus how we explain the behaviors of others, prejudice, and attraction, and how we resolve interpersonal conflicts.

therapy

have been especially influential in shaping how many clinicians operate. thoughts- behaviors - emotions

deductive reasoning

ideas are tested against the empirical world

Five Factor model

include dimensions of conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion

Forensic psychology

is a branch of psychology that deals questions of psychology as they arise in the context of the justice system.

Counseling psychology

is a similar (to clinical) discipline that focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes in individuals who are considered psychologically healthy.

Industrial-Organizational psychology (I-O psychology

is a subfield of psychology that applies psychological theories, principles, and research findings in industrial and organizational settings. I-O psychologists are often involved in issues related to personnel management, organizational structure, and workplace environment.

Clinical psychology

is the area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior.

dissertation

long research paper about research that was conducted as a part of the candidate's doctoral training

empirical method

method for acquiring knowledge based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities

biopsychosocial model

perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual's health

humanism

perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans

introspection

process by which someone examines their own conscious experience in an attempt to break it into its component parts. Wundt used this

American Psychological Association

professional organization representing psychologists in the United States

developmental psychology

scientific study of development across a lifespan

psychology

scientific study of the mind and behavior

cognitive psychology

study of cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to experiences and actions

biopsychology

study of how biology influences behavior.. interest in hippocampus, etc

personality psychology

study of patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique

ology

suffix that denotes "scientific study of"

theory

the best understanding that we have of that part of the natural world

William James

the first American psychologist who espoused a different perspective on how psychology should operate. James was introduced to Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection and accepted it as an explanation of an organism's characteristics

structuralism

understanding the conscious experience through introspection

Carl Rogers

was also an American psychologist who, like Maslow, emphasized the potential for good that exists within all people (Figure). Rogers used a therapeutic technique known as client-centered therapy in helping his clients deal with problematic issues that resulted in their seeking psychotherapy. Unlike a psychoanalytic approach in which the therapist plays an important role in interpreting what conscious behavior reveals about the unconscious mind, client-centered therapy involves the patient taking a lead role in the therapy session... unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy... developed a client-centered therapy method that has been influential in clinical settings... guinienness, empathy, unconditional positive regard

B. F. Skinner

was an American psychologist (Figure). Like Watson, Skinner was a behaviorist, and he concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences. Therefore, Skinner spoke of reinforcement and punishment as major factors in driving behavior. As a part of his research, Skinner developed a chamber that allowed the careful study of the principles of modifying behavior through reinforcement and punishment.... Skinner box... operant conditioning

Abraham Maslow

was an American psychologist who is best known for proposing a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior (Figure). Although this concept will be discussed in more detail in a later chapter, a brief overview will be provided here. Maslow asserted that so long as basic needs necessary for survival were met (e.g., food, water, shelter), higher-level needs (e.g., social needs) would begin to motivate behavior... heirchy of news

John B. Watson

was an influential American psychologist whose most famous work occurred during the early 20th century at Johns Hopkins University (Figure). While Wundt and James were concerned with understanding conscious experience, Watson thought that the study of consciousness was flawed... Because he believed that objective analysis of the mind was impossible, Watson preferred to focus directly on observable behavior and try to bring that behavior under control... behaviorism

Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler

were three German psychologists who immigrated to the United States in the early 20th century to escape Nazi Germany. These men are credited with introducing psychologists in the United States to various Gestalt principles. The word Gestalt roughly translates to "whole;" a major emphasis of Gestalt psychology deals with the fact that although a sensory experience can be broken down into individual parts, how those parts relate to each other as a whole is often what the individual responds to in perception... "Perceptual phenomena"