ch 4 psych

motivation to do a behavior

requirement for observational learning

three main ways of learning:

rote, informal, and formal

What is similar about analogical and symbolic representations?

One mental image can have both analogical and symbolic representations

How are concepts and categories similar?

Categories and concepts both control how your brain thinks.

Modeling

Modeling means patterning your behavior after someone else

Symbolic representations are one type of mental image

True

What is the downside of observational learning?

You can be encouraged to behave badly.

What can you do with the Freudian tools for analysis

You can decode the manifest content in your dreams.

Why are concepts and categories helpful when writing?

You can organize your ideas into paragraphs and sentences.

What happens during REM sleep?

Your muscles are paralyzed so you don't act out your dreams.

van Pavlov

demonstrated that he could control animals to act in a new way by pairing two stimuli together. (Anything that causes a response in a human or an animal is a stimulus.) Pavlov is considered the leader of classical conditioning. Pavlov started conditioning his dogs to salivate even when there was nothing to drool over. Pavlov first became interested in conditioning when he noticed a dog salivate at the sight of a lab worker who normally had food for the animals. This time the lab worker didn't have food, but the dog still drooled. Pavlov was very intrigued by the fact that the dog associated the lab worker with food and responded by salivating, even though no food was present. Pavlov described his findings in terms of conditioned stimuli and responses and unconditioned stimuli and responses. For example, if a bell was rung in front of a dog, the dog wouldn't drool. But if you wanted to make a dog drool at the sound of a bell, then you would ring the bell (conditioned stimulus), show the dog a juicy steak (unconditioned stimulus), and let the dog start drooling (unconditioned response) at the sight of the steak. Then repeat the steps over and over. Ring the bell (conditioned stimulus), show a big juicy steak to the dog (unconditioned stimulus), and the dog starts drooling (unconditioned response). Pretty soon, all you have to do is ring the bell (conditioned stimulus) and the dog will start drooling (conditioned response). You don't even need the steak anymore. Once the dog drools at just the sound of the bell, you have conditioned the dog's response.

Bobo Doll Experiment

effects of observational learning on aggression The experiment concluded that children who watched aggressive behavior such as hitting, name calling, or other violent acts were very likely to do the same themselves. >> In the case of boys, they were twice as likely to act aggressively. And boys were twice as likely to act aggressively when the male adult acted aggressively compared to when the boys watched a female adult act aggressively. children learn both good and aggressive behaviors by observing the people around them. important for parents and future parents to realize, given that their children will repeat or imitate their actions quite frequently.

three memory systems

sensory memory short-term memory (sometimes called working memory) long-term memory.

Examples of surface processing include noticing:

the font and size of the letters you are typing that a woman has blonde hair that a phone has buttons for numbers zero to nine that Hawaii is an island that the moon is visible at night that a building is tall that pianos have both black and white keys that the ocean is blue

Classical conditioning requires _____.

the pairing of two stimuli

Dreams are literal interpretations of our experiences during consciousness.

true

What does thinking require you to do?

-mentally absorb your surroundings -make sense of and understand your environment -order and reorder ideas and images

category v. concept

A concept is a big idea. A category is a way to group those big ideas. Concept shifting continental plates book binding running swimming literature Category earthquakes, temblors, aftershocks, Richter Scale ratings hardback, paperback, spiral-bound, three-hole-punched races, relays , marathons, sprints, long-distance strokes, pool sizes, swimsuits fiction, nonfiction, autobiographies, short stories, poems, epics

Albert Bandura, a social psychologist, said that in order for people to observe and model behavior, four things must happen.

A person must: pay attention to the person who is modeling the action; remember the details of what that person did; be able to repeat the action successfully (For example, if you have poor coordination, you might not be able to instantly model a dancer.); be motivated to do the behavior that was just watched. If a person can do all four things, then the modeling has been successful, and observational learning has just occurred.

Analogical Representations.

Analogical representations are mental pictures that have a direct relationship to the actual object you are thinking about. Do cows have their ears on the top or side of their heads? Rather than thinking symbolically about a cow and his ears (tiny, smelly, leather), analogical representations of the cow's ears involve thinking of an actual cow in your head. As you picture the cow, imagine the eyes, nose and mouth, maybe the shape of the head and then position the cow's ears on the top of the head. After a few minutes of hard thinking, perhaps cow ears on the top of the head don't seem right, so your mental picture is adjusted and then you picture the ears on the side of the head. That seems more realistic. Analogical representations are very realistic mental images.

Edward Thorndike from Harvard University

At the turn of the twentieth century, a man named Edward Thorndike from Harvard University began experimenting with cats in his basement. Thorndike wanted to see if a cat would learn how to get out of a box if it performed the right action, so he placed cats in cages called puzzle boxes. Naturally, those felines didn't like being cramped up. They went berserk inside the cages, pawing and hissing and wildly attempting to get out by banging against the sides and knocking against the door. In the process of all this flailing, a cat would accidentally tilt a pole that was inside the cage. The pole caused the door to open, which in turn allowed the cat to escape.

examples of incidental learning—things you just automatically know:

Books are printed in black ink. The sky is blue, and the sun is yellow. Tree leaves are green. Clock hands move in a circle. The left shoe goes on the left foot. Phones have numbers zero through nine. Stamps go in the top right corner of an envelope. Ice is cold; fire on a stove burner is hot. Different tones of voice mean different things: anger, sadness, happiness, joy.

rule of seven

Cognitive psychologists have found that people are able to remember about seven items, numbers, or objects at a time without forgetting. They call this the rule of seven, which simply means that short-term memory allows people to remember up to seven (plus-or-minus-two) items at a time. Anything more than that requires a person to take special effort to accurately remember all those items, and that process involves placing information into your long-term memory

conceptions of...

Conceptions of the self social roles and our self-concept Conceptions of other people the roles of family, friends, and other people and how we feel about them Conceptions of the world our surroundings and environment, like our home, neighborhood, or school and if they're beautiful, peaceful, chaotic, or icky

context

Context. Ah-ha! That's right; you remember that you have a club meeting on Thursday at lunch time. Did you remember this better because you happened to be in the very room where your club meetings are held? This type of memory retrieval is context-dependent, which means that people remember information very well about their surroundings or can even recall past memories simply by being in the very place where the event first happened.

dream meanings

Dream Topic Meaning being chased - feeling threatened by people or your emotions being naked - feeling vulnerable or exposed failing a test - feeling unprepared falling - insecurity drowning - overwhelmed with something in your life flying - freedom and control over your life

What did Freud believe about dreams?

Dreams are important and filled with symbols. The meaning of dreams can be found through free association. The unconscious mind dreams in symbols.

Formal learning

Formal learning occurs in a school system or when you have someone teaching you directly—such as a mentor to a student. Formal learning is organized and purposeful. You are very aware of your actions and thoughts when you are formally learning.

Incidental learning

Incidental learning takes place without any intention, making no effort to memorize. Often, a person isn't even aware of what information the brain just happens to take in.

Informal learning

Informal learning happens as you live your everyday life and become aware of your surroundings. There are situations that are helpful to you on a daily basis, such as looking both ways before crossing a busy street, or playing make-believe with your youngest cousin. Informal learning is loosely structured. In fact, you may not even be aware that you're learning!

Locate the best example of symbolic representation.

Jayne is excited about winter, and she thinks of holidays, families, celebrations, and good food.

interference

Knowing too much information may be the reason you forget it when you try so hard to remember new information. That may seem backwards, but here is the reason behind it: it's a concept called interference. Interference is the biggest reason you forget information.

review lesson 11

Language can influence your actions and shape perceptions. Language is a complicated but necessary method of communication between humans. Language requires a lot of cognitive ability. Language is hierarchical and composed of phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences. The basic unit of meaning is a phoneme. Phonemes combine to create morphemes, or words. Phrases combine to create sentences. Young children commonly acquire language in specific stages of development. These stages of language acquisition are common across cultures. By age four, young children have acquired the basic skills of speech to communicate as adults do. Babbling is the first way that infants learn to use language. Mah and dah are often the first words that one-year-olds learn to speak. Toddlers use telegraphic speech. By age three, and especially age four, children are fully understood in their speech. Animals communicate but they don't use language with words. Animals use gestures and sounds to communicate. Some animals are intelligent enough to communicate with humans in basic ways through sign language. Bees use dancing to communicate to others in the hive.

learning

Learning is a relatively permanent change of behaviors resulting from experience. Learning is different from performance, which is the doing or executing of the behavior that you have learned. You must first learn before you can act-even the very simplest of actions and behaviors require prior learning before we have the ability to—or even the knowledge of how to—act on it. It can change us into different people, teach us new skills, and enable us to make new connections with people in our society. Learning, at its very basis, involves the brain and the way in which the mind takes in information and processes it.

How do emotions affect your memory?

Memories with strong emotional attachments are easier to recall than other memories.

Negative punishment

Negative punishment is similar to regular punishment, but the difference is that if you quit your behavior, your reward will still be present. Marcos was told that if he hit his brother one more time, he wouldn't be allowed to go to the movies. As it is, Marcos still has the privilege of going to the movies. Only if he gets aggressive and hits does he lose his movie privilege.

Effects of Observational Learning

Observational learning can be fantastic or detrimental, depending on what actions you choose to do (remember step 4). Here are some effects of this type of learning. 1- teaches you new actions; 2- can encourage bad behavior; 3- can motivate you to start or stop behaviors; 4- can motivate you to do certain actions more frequently. (For example, if you see that your sister is rewarded for good grades, you too might do your homework more diligently every day rather than skipping a few assignments here and there.) you can easily pick up or drop habits depending on your influences

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Pavlov was a behaviorist who discovered the technique we call classical conditioning. He taught that animals could learn new associations by conditioning them to respond to cues that trigger the senses. Pavlov's work with animal learning had application to humans, as we learned to train our pets or got hungry on Saturdays at noon even though the lunch bell didn't ring.

What does it mean to say that memories are "context dependent"?

People often attach their surroundings to their memories. People remember information best when they're in the original place where they learned it.

short-term memory

Short-term memory is the temporary storage of information in your brain. Sometimes it is called working memory, because your memory is working in the moment to temporarily hold on to the information you remember

What is the importance of getting enough sleep

Sleep deprivation can be detrimental to your health. Adequate sleep helps you to be alert during the day. If you don't get enough sleep, you can get dizzy, hyperactive, or even depressed.

Implicit, Explicit, and Procedural Memories

Some other ways your long-term memory works is through implicit, explicit, and procedural memories. Implicit memory is an unintentional form of memory. It leads to procedural memories, such as tying your shoes or dialing a number on your phone. explicit memories require a conscious remembrance, such as remembering that you put bread in the toaster for breakfast this morning, or that you need to take the dog outside for a walk.

repression

Sometimes, people experience terrible events in their lives, such as physical or sexual abuse, severe emotional trauma, or even living through a horrible car accident. It is possible for your brain to block these events out simply so that you can continue to live a pretty normal day-to-day life. This is called repression —moving difficult information from the conscious to the unconscious mind. This is not to say that the effects of the trauma don't surface from time to time, but the point is that your brain is very efficient at trying to give you the most mental capacity available, and sometimes that means blocking out memories.

Symbolic Representations.

Symbolic representations are mental pictures that have no direct relationship to the actual object you are thinking about. Instead, these mental pictures are connected by themes that are meaningful to you. Anytime you think of words and descriptions for one main concept, you're thinking symbolically. Today as a teenager, when you see a certain red ball, you've had experience enough to know this red ball represents a few things: bouncy, rubbery, air-filled, pop-able, fun, color, school. In fact, do those individual words and descriptions remind you of the red balls used in elementary school to play dodgeball, fistball, or kickball?

Three very notable psychologists from the past and present have contributed to our knowledge on learning.

They are Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, and Albert Bandura.

Long-Term Memory v. short term

You can access it whenever you need it, simply by using a retrieval cue. Note that this is a difference between long-term memory and short-term memory. Short-term memory doesn't need a retrieval cue or something to prompt a memory. But long-term memory does.

lesson 6 terms

acquire to gain or obtain for yourself chunking grouping items into smaller segments encoding the process of placing information into the mind incidental learning learning that occurs without intention intentional learning deliberately placing information into your mind long-term memory permanent storage of information rehearsal a form of practice to keep information in the memory sensory memory momentary storage of information short-term memory temporary storage of information

lesson 7 terms

anterograde amnesia inability to store long-term memories false memory a recovered memory that is not true hippocampus part of the brain that aids long-term memory interference anything that inhibits your brain's ability to remember mnemonic device memory tricks to give you cues and aid your ability to retrieve information recovered memory remembering long-forgotten memories with someone's help repression moving difficult information from the conscious to the unconscious mind retrograde amnesia inability to remember events that happened prior to a brain injury

lesson 2 terms

classical conditioning learning new associations by pairing two stimuli operant conditioning repeating behaviors based on outcome punishment event that creates likelihood that a behavior will be stopped reinforcement an event that encourages behavior to happen again shaping giving reinforcement to the smaller behaviors that eventually make up the new behavior stimulus anything that causes a response

lesson 13 terms

conception your personal interpretation of your senses or thoughts decode to figure out or unscramble hidden meaning interpretation your personal meaning given to places, events, situations, and people latent content the hidden aspects of a dream that you must figure out manifest content the aspects of a dream or fantasy that you remember perception understanding something through your mind or the senses

lesson 12 terms

consciousness awareness of your existence, sensations, thoughts, surroundings deprivation lacking; going without insomnia inability to fall or stay asleep REM rapid eye moment; stage of sleep during which a person dreams

Albert Bandura

father of social learning theory

terms

learning relatively permanent changes of behavior resulting from experience performance carrying out or acting on an expectation or duty rote from memory

What is not a symptom of sleep apnea?

nightmares

Semantic memories include:

playing baseball last season visiting grandpa's house having an eighth-grade crush driving

2 types reinforcement:

positive negative. Both are similar in that they involve the likelihood of increasing behavior.

two methods of processing the information during encoding

surface (shallow) processing deep (elaborate) processing Surface processing involves learning superficial characteristics, and deep processing involves learning the deeper meaning of materials. Unlike incidental and intentional learning, where both bring knowledge into your brain, the way you process information greatly affects how well you can remember information later on. The deeper you process, the better ability you have to remember.

How are the Core-Optional and adaptive sleep theories the same?

wrong- Both believe that sleeping is necessary for healing.

How are morphemes similar to sentences?

wrong- Both have limitations when communicating a single phoneme.

Charles walks from a dimly lit room into the backyard where the sun is shining very brightly. Charles feels the sun's heat and stands to enjoy the feeling of sun's summer rays on his skin. He doesn't mind the heat. He welcomes it! According to Hall's cognitive dream theory, Charles' positive view of the bright sun represents his _____ of the sun.

wrong- interpretation

Your older brother at college is experiencing insomnia. What suggestions can you give him to help overcome this problem?

Go to bed at the same time each night. Keep the bedroom slightly cool, dark, and quiet. Wake up at the same time each morning.

What often makes nightmares more memorable than other dreams?

Nightmares have a more intense emotional impact.

Episodic memories include:

dropping the ball just behind third base accidentally crushing grandpa's glasses actually kissing your eighth-grade crush getting your driver's license

When you are conscious, _____.

-you are awake and alert to your surroundings -your senses can detect aromas, sights, and touches

operant conditioning

This concept of repeating behaviors based on outcome is called operant conditioning. Operant conditioning applies to much more than just smiling at guys. Think of your favorite song and how much you love the way you feel when you hear that song. Surely you've played a song over and over just because you enjoyed hearing it so much. You like the way you feel (outcome) so you keep playing it (behavior). On the other hand, you don't like getting detention (outcome) so you've learned that skipping school is not acceptable behavior. Your choice to come to school (behavior) gives you your freedom (outcome), so you keep attending school.

Vicarious

Vicarious learning means that people learn through the experience of others

Negative reinforcement

Negative reinforcement increases a behavior by taking away something. For Example: You have a splitting headache, so you take pain reliever medicine and now your head feels much better. You want to enjoy your trip to the beach, so you apply sunscreen because you know it will reduce your chance of getting a nasty sunburn.

Alzheimer's

Alzheimer's disease is a condition of the brain that affects memory, thinking, and behavior. Alzheimer's is more common in people over the age of 60, and nearly 5 million Americans have this disease. Sadly, this condition is not reversible. Harmful proteins build up in the brain, and brain cells eventually die off, leaving a person extremely forgetful, unable to remember simple things, confused, and even depressed.

Albert Bandura (1925-present)

Bandura is known as the father of social learning theory. He believes that people learn as they play and interact with people and the world around themselves. Your surroundings influence you, just as you influence your surroundings. Bandura's area of special interest was in examining the ways in which young children followed the influence of older adults. He studied their aggression levels and how likely they were to behave in certain ways.

Chunking

Chunking. One other process that helps your short-term memory is called chunking. Chunking is the process of grouping items into smaller segments. Your brain has an easier time remembering smaller amounts of information. Remember Sperling's experiment? On the first test, people had a difficult time remembering all the letters and numbers. But on the second test, it was very easy for people to remember just a few numbers and letters. So when it comes to chunking, your brain has an easier time remembering lots of information that is grouped into smaller sections. Take the phone number example again. Kenji's phone number is seven digits long, but it is chunked into two groups—three numbers and then four numbers: 555-7867. Look at this lesson you are reading. The ideas you are reading are chunked into paragraphs. Think about when you use your cell phone for texting. Each number on your phone has just three or four letters assigned to that one button.

lesson 12 review

Consciousness is your state of wakeful alertness to the world around you. When you sleep, you are nonconscious. Memories that are easily brought to memory come from the preconscious, according to Freud. Restorative sleep theories believe that people rest so their bodies can heal and repair. Adaptive sleep theories believe that sleep is a function of survival and energy conservation. The Core-Optional sleep theory believes that only a certain amount of sleep is necessary, and the other amount of your night's rest is optional. The sleep cycle has five stages. The first two stages are light sleeping, the second two stages are deep sleeping, and the fifth stage is REM sleep, where dreaming occurs. Sleep deprivation has a lot of negative side effects and is not healthy. Insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea are three major sleep disorders. With insomnia, there are steps you can take to help overcome it.

ways to decode the manifest content of your dreams

Displacement. Desires show their form in something else. For example, in your dream you've waited for the release of your favorite new CD and it's sold out, so you're mad. Then the Grim Reaper just happens to walk by, so you make friends with him and he follows you wherever you go. Your feelings of frustration are displaced, or symbolized, by the Grim Reaper. Projection. Your own desires are pushed onto someone else. Here's a classic example. In your dream, you're hungry and you want to get a bite to eat. Maybe some pizza. You call your best friend, Tawnya, because you know she'll hop on her scooter and meet you at the mall. Just as you leave, your mom stops you. She's wearing a police uniform. "Where are you going?" she barks. To avoid getting into trouble for trying to go hang out on a school night, you suddenly say that it was Tawnya's idea to get food, not yours. The ego is protecting you from getting in trouble to preserve your sense of well-being. You've projected your own idea onto Tawnya to avoid trouble. Symbolism. Actions and urges show up through metaphors. For example, let's suppose that in real life, you're very popular. In your dream, you're at the zoo, actively searching for the lion house. For some reason, you just feel this compelling drive to find the lions. Finally you do, and then the biggest lion lets out a loud roar and all the other animals around stop dead in their tracks and listen. The lion in your dream represents you. What other symbols can you pull from this dream scenario? Condensation. Feelings and urges are hidden inside an event. One night, you have a dream where your anxiety shows itself. You're watching a clock on the wall, and the second hand starts ticking faster and faster. Pretty soon, the clock's hands are moving so fast it's haywire. Time has sped up, according to the clock. That out-of-control clock's rapidly moving hands symbolize increased anxiety.

How does classical conditioning practically apply to people, and not just animals?

Every time Roscoe drives by his favorite burger place, he suddenly wants a cheeseburger. Roscoe remembers the delicious taste of the cheeseburgers and knows that the only time he gets that taste is when he eats at the restaurant. Roscoe has reached a point where he no longer has to walk into the restaurant and eat the cheeseburger to know how good it tastes. Now, whenever Roscoe drives by, he wants the taste of a cheeseburger simply by seeing the restaurant. Women who are on weight loss plans can figure out what their hunger triggers are. If they know that they crave French fries each time they pass a certain snack shop, they can choose to drive a different route to avoid passing it. Like Roscoe, the women in this scenario have already learned to pair the sight of the snack shop with the craving for French fries.

lesson 13 review

Dreams occur during REM sleep. Everyone dreams, but not everyone remembers their dreams. Dreams have significance to people. Ancient cultures placed spiritual meaning on dreams. During our last century, scientists have declared that dreams are a function of the way the brain works. People's dreams and meanings reflect personal interpretation. Some dreams have similar themes, like being chased, failing a test, falling, drowning, being naked, or flying. The Activation-Synthesis dream theory believes that dreams occur because of random nerve firings from the cortex during REM sleep. Calvin Hall's cognitive dream theory involves the brain's memory of conception and perception of objects. The brain takes the meaning of your senses and creates a dream. People dream about conceptions of the self, others, and the world. According to Freud's psychodynamic theory, dreams are a way to see into the unconscious mind and reveal urges and desires. Dreams can be interpreted by using tools to identify displacement, projection, symbolism, and condensation.

review lesson 6

Encoding is the process of bringing information into your mind. Psychologists have determined that you'll remember information better depending on how well you learn it the first time you come into contact with something you need to know. Specifically choosing to learn information is called intentional learning. Incidental learning occurs without any intention or effort. Surface processing involves learning superficial characteristics, and deep processing involves learning the deeper meaning of materials. Every person has three memory systems. These systems are sensory memory, short-term memory (sometimes called working memory), and long-term memory. The sensory memory is responsible for the momentary storage of information. Short-term memory is the temporary storage of information in your brain. Long-term memory is the place where information is permanently stored. Long-term memory has the capacity to hold all sorts of information. Chunking is the process of grouping items into smaller segments. Your brain has an easier time remembering smaller amounts of information. The Primacy-Recency Effect shows that people mostly remember the beginning and ending of information. Semantic memory is memory about general ideas, principles, and facts. Episodic memory is memory about specific events in your life. Retrieving information requires a purposeful effort to remember. Memories are often context-dependent, meaning that people remember information best when they are in the original place where they learned it.

PROCESSING

The ability and degree to which you can remember information easily depends on the way in which you encoded it. For that reason, it's important to note that the very instant that your brain comes into contact with information is crucial. This is the starting point for getting information into memory. Paying attention to what needs to be learned will help you later on when it's time to remember something.

insomnia

Insomnia is the inability to fall or stay asleep. This sleeping abnormality can result from many different triggers; some are emotional and some are physical usually caused by emotional or physical things likes the ACT here are some things you can do on your own to try to prevent or overcome insomnia- Go to bed at the same time each night. Wake up at the same time each morning. Use your bedroom for sleeping only. Read, play, use the computer, or do homework in other rooms. Keep your bedroom slightly cool, dark, and quiet. Don't drink caffeine (sodas, energy drinks, tea) in the evening or just before your bedtime. Don't eat a heavy meal, greasy or spicy foods, or sugary sweets before going to sleep. Exercise, but not before your bedtime. (Exercising stimulates your body.)

Why is encoding important?

It's the way information is first received into the brain.

observational learning

It's the way many people learn how to do something simply by watching what other people do. You don't even have to make behavior changes You simply watch what other people are doing and learn by their examples. Observational learning is sometimes called by different names such as modeling or vicarious learning

Bobo doll experiment

an example of modeling aggression

learning v performance

Learning is a relatively permanent change of behaviors resulting from experience. Learning is different from performance, which is the doing or executing of the behavior that you have learned. Before you can perform, you must learn.

review lesson 1

Learning is a relatively permanent change of behaviors resulting from experience. Learning is different from performance, which is the execution (carrying out) of the behavior that you have learned. Learning requires the use of the neurons and axon connections in the brain. Learning involves watching people, making conscious decisions, letting people teach us, and communicating. Anyone can attempt to learn in one of three main ways: rote, informal, and formal. Three very notable psychologists, past and present, have contributed to our knowledge about learning. They are Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, and Albert Bandura.

memories and emotions

Memories and Emotion. Memories with strong emotional attachments are easier to recall than other memories. The intensity of the emotion arouses the amygdale of the brain and when your memory is encoded, it is also encoded with the feeling of the emotion. Emotions are powerful triggers. You could be watching TV, and the drama on the USA channel is about a little boy whose puppy runs away. It's very emotional and suddenly these emotions trigger the memory of losing a pet when you were younger.

review lesson 3

Observational behavior is how people learn through observing the actions of other people. You can choose to repeat those actions (modeling) or choose not to repeat actions (vicarious learning) but still understand. For observational learning to be successful, four things must happen. >Pay attention to the person who is modeling a behavior. >Remember the details of the behavior. >Repeat the behavior successfully. >Be motivated to do the behavior. You can learn good and bad habits through observational learning. You can be motivated to do something you wouldn't normally consider doing. Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment tested to see if young children would model an adult's aggressive behavior toward a blow-up Bobo doll. The results showed that children do model aggressive behavior and that boys were twice as aggressive as girls. Observational learning can prevent you from taking on bad habits. You can choose your friends wisely for their good influence. Your personal choices of TV and movies will help your behavior.

What is a practical use of classical conditioning?

People on diets can learn to recognize when they have already paired their hunger signals with the sight of a restaurant. People can train their dogs with good behavior. People can housetrain an animal.

Primacy-Recency Effect

Primacy-Recency Effect. Sometimes chunking information just doesn't help you remember information, especially if lots of information is given to you all at once. When your mom rattles off a list of Saturday chores to do, how much do you remember? Well okay, if it's about chores, you probably choose to ignore as much as you can. But let's assume you are an obedient and willing child and you want to do your Saturday chores. Still, when Mom lists thirteen tasks to do, it's actually normal for your brain to only remember information at the beginning or the end of the list. Your short-term memory works like that. The middle gets lost along the way. It's called the primacy-recency effect. How about that?

Semantic and Episodic Memory

Psychologists categorize long-term memory into two types: semantic and episodic. Semantic memory is memory about general ideas, principles, and facts. Episodic memory is memory about specific events in your life. Let's suppose that your very first memory was about a birthday party you had as a kid. This is an example of semantic memory. If you remembered sticking your finger in the frosting of your birthday cake, that's an example of episodic memory.

Punishment

Punishment makes a person very likely to stop doing some behavior. Punishment is more than just being sent to your room. Anything can be considered punishment if it makes you stop doing a behavior.

examples of intentional learning:

Purposely trying to remember the definitions of your weekly English vocabulary words. Memorizing foreign-language words or phrases. Spending several minutes memorizing your girl/boyfriend's number so you can still call in case you forget your cell phone. Taking time to learn a piece of music by heart so you can play it at a recital. Making the effort to learn how to drive a car—pressing the gas pedal, signaling, braking, etc. Making note of where each letter is on the keyboard as you learn to type. Taking notes on the lecture your teacher gives in Biology class. Creating a mental list of the people you want to invite to a party. Rehearsing the words of your speech or oral report. Making the effort to learn all the lines of your character for the school play.

Reinforcement

Reinforcement is the concept that an event increases behavior to happen again. The tilting pole that opens the door reinforces to the cat that this is the action it must perform each time it wants out. A guy smiling back reinforces to Lynda that her initial smile is effective and gives her the grins she wants. The cheering crowd at a softball game lets you know that your home run was noteworthy, so you'll strive for more home runs. Touching a hot plate instantly reinforces the idea that the surface was hot. Taking some aspirin when you have a headache makes the pain go away, so the next time you have a headache, you're likely to take aspirin again.

review lesson 2

Repeating behaviors based on outcome is called operant conditioning. Edward Thorndike experimented with cats to show how operant conditioning worked. Reinforcement is the concept that repeating a certain event will increase the likelihood of a behavior happening again. Reinforcement has two specific types: positive and negative reinforcement. Both involve the likelihood of increasing behavior. Positive reinforcement increases a behavior by giving you something. Negative reinforcement increases a behavior by taking away something. Punishment makes a person likely to stop doing a behavior. Punishment is more than just being sent to your room. Anything can be considered punishment if it makes you stop doing a behavior. A new behavior is created by giving reinforcement to the smaller behaviors that eventually make up the new behavior. This is called shaping. Ivan Pavlov demonstrated that he could control animals to act in a new way by pairing two stimuli together. Pavlov is considered the leader of classical conditioning. He described his findings in terms of conditioned stimuli and responses and unconditioned stimuli and responses.

rote learning

Rote learning is simply memorizing information

What did the first portion of Sperling's test show?

Sensory memory is very sensitive and is quick to forget.

overview lesson 6

The brain has two structures that are important for memory: the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is responsible for executive functions, such as decisions and conscious control. The hippocampus helps your long-term memory. Damage to the hippocampus or prefrontal cortex will cause memory problems. The story of H.M shows that amnesia and short-term memory loss occurs with hippocampus damage. Alzheimer's disease and strokes are two other serious conditions that can impair memory. Too much information in your brain can actually be the reason why you forget information. Some forget memories that are painful and traumatic through repression. Counselors can help an individual recover memories from long ago, but there are concerns with this because some recovered memories are false. You can use little tricks to improve your memory. These are called mnemonic devices. Some of these devices are acronyms, rhyming, imagery, and chunking.

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990).

Skinner was a behaviorist who developed the concept of operant conditioning. He taught that animals and people could learn to do new behaviors depending on whether actions were encouraged or stamped out. Skinner's developments on learning showed that behavior could be shaped and molded into desired actions with just a little help. For example, rewarding a kid for sharing toys by giving him a cookie teaches him that sharing is a desirable behavior.

A teen named Randy Gardner wanted to prove that sleep deprivation has no effect. What did his experiment demonstrate?

Sleep deprivation can be dangerous. Randy became paranoid and forgetful. Randy could not avoid having his behavior affected. (all of the above)

stroke

Stroke is another serious condition that results in extreme disability and is the third leading cause of death in Americans. Fifty percent of strokes are preventable. They occur when a blot clot doesn't allow enough blood to the brain. Brain cells don't receive enough oxygen and they die immediately—leaving a person with devastating results, such as loss of motor skills or the inability to speak or remember things. Strokes that affect the right side of the brain result in short-term memory loss.

What is the biggest difference between analogical and symbolic representations?

Symbolic representations don't have a direct relationship to a specific object, but analogical representations do.

The Story of H.M.

The first type of memory loss he had is called anterograde amnesia. He couldn't store long-term memories anymore. In fact, for the rest of his life, H.M. thought he was twenty-seven years old—his age at the time of the operation. He also could read the same book over and over and not remember what he'd read. H.M. had to write notes to himself to remember that he had already eaten a meal, picked up his dry cleaning, gotten the mail, and so on. He simply was unable to remember anything long-term anymore. the second type of memory loss H.M. had was retrograde amnesia. He was unable to remember many events that had happened in life prior to the operation. His short-term memory was somewhat functional, but his memory abilities were never the same as they were before the surgery. From him and from experiments on animals and on other people, scientists and cognitive psychologists learn that hippocampus damage creates memory difficulties. Long-term memory is severely affected and short-term memory doesn't work well either.

hippocampus

The hippocampus is inside the temporal lobe. The way it's shaped often makes people think of a seahorse. The word hippocampus literally means "curved horse" in Greek (hippos = horse and kampi = curve). The hippocampus is responsible for aiding your long-term memory. It also helps with your spatial perceptions, meaning it helps you see depth and breadth, recognize dimensions, or remember how far up to lift your leg to reach the next stair, just to give a few examples.

prefrontal cortex

The prefrontal cortex is located in the frontal lobe and is responsible for executive functions. Executive functions are the decisions you consciously make and have control over. Your prefrontal cortex is extremely important. Look at all the things this area of the brain helps you do. The prefrontal cortex helps you to: delay gratification (such as watching TV after you finish your homework); understand future consequences (such a knowing that stealing will get you into trouble with the law); determine good and bad, better and best (cheating vs. studying, studying vs. preparing far in advance); suppress urges (such as blurting out an answer in class); behave in socially appropriate ways (like respecting people's personal space); predict outcomes (like choosing which team or strategy will win); determine differences between conflicting thoughts (such as knowing that skipping school would be fun, but that you'd feel guilty if and when you were caught); work toward a goal (such as graduating from high school or applying for college).

Getting Information into Memory

The process of filling your mind, or acquiring information, is called encoding. It's the way you get knowledge into your memory. Psychologists have determined that you'll remember information better based on how well you learn it the very first time you come into contact with something new.

requirements for learning

The process of learning uses the neurons and axon connections in our brain to transfer the electrical impulses that give us the signals to think, act, move, or behave in the way we desire. Learning requires us to be aware of our surroundings and to use our five senses to perceive our world. Learning also requires thinking watching others and learning from their examples when other people teach us things directly Learning requires communication.

sensory memory

The sensory memory is responsible for the momentary storage of information. The information that you immediately see and take into your brain is kept as a memory in the sensory store. Sometimes the sensory store is also referred to as iconic (visual) memory and echoic memory (auditory). The sensory memory is limited to what it remembers in a split second, and it is very quick to forget.

making the process easier

The short-term memory also has ways of making the process of remembering easier. You can actively try one of these processes, such as rehearsing, reciting, creating mnemonic devices. These are helpful when studying for a test or quiz, remembering directions to someone's house, or making a list of birthday presents you want.

Shaping

The whole process teaching Todd to feed himself was a series of small behaviors, such as picking up the spoon, dipping it into the cereal, and bringing it to his mouth. Notice that at every step, little Todd received encouragement. A new behavior is created by giving reinforcement to the smaller behaviors that eventually make up the new behavior. This is called shaping. You can shape almost any behavior. Learning to write was a shaped behavior. First you learned to hold a pencil, then to make some marks, then to write a few letters, then to pair letters together, then to write words, sentences, etc. Through small steps, your teachers encouraged you to do these new tasks. You can shape people's manners or the ways in which they show respect to you. You can shape someone's grooming habits. Just as long as you are able to encourage each individual step, you should have no problem helping to create a new behavior in someone else.

mnemonic devices

There are techniques called mnemonic devices that you can use to help you keep track of the things you learn. These devices are just little memory tricks to give you cues that will aid your ability to retrieve information. acronyms memory tricks involve rhyming, imagery, and chunking overlearning- You practice, memorize, recite, and rehearse over and over and over the very thing you want to remember

damage

These brain structures are important for normal memory; unfortunately, some people have damage to these areas of the brain. The damage can result from accidents or simply aging, as in the case of Alzheimer's disease. Regardless, people who have a damaged prefrontal cortex and/or hippocampus all have the same resulting long-term and spatial problems with their memory.

lesson 10 review

Thinking is an action of the brain that allows you to make sense and understand your surroundings. All the concepts or ideas that you learn are automatically categorized in the brain. Storing information in an orderly way, such as by categories, allows the brain to work with greater efficiency. Thoughts are made from mental images. There are two types of mental images: analogical and symbolic. Symbolic representations are mental pictures that have no direct relationship to the actual object you are thinking about. If you run track and field sprints, running may create a mental image that represents freedom, victory, or even cheetahs (the fastest land mammal). Analogical representations are mental pictures that have a direct relationship to the actual object you are thinking about. If you were asked the shape of a horse's ears, first you would imagine a horse's head and ears and then determine from your mental image if that horse's ears are pointy, rounded, floppy, or upright. A concept is a big idea that represents a category. A category is a way to group ideas. Concepts and categories help you organize information and can help you write better essays. Paragraphs are like concepts, and each sentence is a way to categorize information.

lesson 10 terms

analogical representation mental pictures that have a direct relationship to the actual object you are thinking about category a grouping of concepts concept an idea or thought symbolic representation mental pictures that have no direct relationship to the actual object you are thinking about

Positive reinforcement

increases a behavior by giving you something Because you finished your homework early, you can watch an hour of TV. Because you were on your best behavior this week, mom and dad treat you out for pizza.

terms lesson 3

modeling patterning your behavior after someone else observational learning learning by watching other people vicarious learning through the experience of others without actually doing the action

Learning is a relatively _____ change of behaviors resulting from _____.

permanent, experience

The example of learning to write shows that with a little help, most people can have their behavior_____.

shaped

Examples of deep processing include:

thinking of synonyms for other nouns recognizing that blonde hair often comes about with the help of bleach and other chemicals realizing that each number you push on a phone represents a different pitched sound examining the color pattern on a Monarch butterfly's wing combining certain sounds from piano keys to create harmonious music realizing that sound is a form of energy that travels in waves understanding that the shape of the moon is determined by its phase