Ch. 5

Motivation

A condition within an individual that initiates activity directed toward a goal. Concern with initiation, maintenance, and intensity of behavior.

Closed Loop theory

Adams

Individual differences

Backgrounds, abilities, intelligence, learning styles, and personalities of learners.

Stages of Learning

Cognitive, Associative, and Autonomous Stage.

Middle Period (1940-1970)

Craik focused research on how the brain processes and uses information to determine the motor response.

Normative/Descriptive Period (1946-1970s)

Description of the motor performances of children. Research on how growth and maturation affect performance and the impact of perceptual-motor development.

Nonlocomotor

Examples: bending, stretching, pushing, pulling, twisting, turning, swinging

Manipulative

Examples: throwing, catching, striking, kicking, dribbling, volleying

Locomotor

Examples: walking, running, jumping, hopping, leaping, sliding, skipping, galloping, dodging

Elementary Stage (~ age 3 & 4)

Greater control and rhythmical coordination Temporal and spatial elements are better synchronized. Movements are still restricted, exaggerated, or inconsistent.

Early reflexive & rudimentary movement phases

Hereditary is the primary factor for development. Sequential progression of development but individuals' rates of development will differ.

Dynamical Systems theory

Kelso

Fundamental Motor Skills Classification

Locomotor Nonlocomotor Manipulative

Readiness

Physiological and psychological factors influencing an individual's ability and willingness to learn.

Associative Stage

Practice on mastering the timing of the skill Fewer and more consistent errors

Factors Influencing Learning

Readiness, Motivation, Reinforcement, and Individual differences.

Schema theory

Schmidt

Fundamental movement phase

Skill acquisition based on encouragement, instruction, and opportunities for practice.

Specialized movement phase

Skill refinement.

Closed Skills

Stable, predictable; self-paced. Diving 2 ½ somersault Bowling Driving golf ball off a tee

Motor Learning Concepts

Structure practice sessions to promote optimal conditions for learning. Help learners understand the skill or task. Design practice according to the skill or task to be learned. Whether to teach by the whole or the part method depends on the skill and the learner. Whether speed or accuracy is emphasized in teaching a skill depends on the requirements of the skill. Transfer of learning can facilitate the acquisition of motor skills. Feedback is essential for learning. -Knowledge of results (KR) -Knowledge of performance (KP) Learners may experience plateaus in learning. Develop self-analysis. Leadership influences the amount of learning.

Cognitive Stage

Understanding of the nature and goal of the activity Initial attempts at the skill - gross errors

Reinforcement

Using events, actions, and behaviors to increase the likelihood of a certain response recurring. May be positive or negative.

Open Skills

Variable, unpredictable; externally-paced. Hitting tennis forehand in a match Defending a player during a soccer game Offensive play during rugby game

Thorndike: Law of Effect

When responses were rewarded, the behavior was strengthened.

Fundamental Motor Skills

are the foundation for development of more complex and specialized motor skills used in games, sports, dance, and fitness activities.

Motor behavior

is concerned with the learning or acquisition of skills across the lifespan. Motor learning, Motor control, and Motor development.

Motor Control

neurophysiological and behavioral processes affecting the control of skilled movements.

Motor Development

origins of and changes in movement behavior throughout the lifespan.

Henry - "Memory drum theory"

role of cognitive activity in motor learning.

Phases of Development

Early reflexive & rudimentary movement phases Fundamental movement phase Specialized movement phase Hereditary and environmental factors influence the rate of the aging process.

Present Period (1970-present)

Emergence of motor learning and motor control within physical education programs.

Motor Development Sample Research Questions

How does socioeconomic status affect the development of motor skills? How does early sensory stimulation affect the development of motor skills? What are the changes in motor skill development experienced across the lifespan? What are the developmental stages individuals go through as they acquire fundamental skills? What are the heredity and environmental factors most significantly associated with obesity? At what age can children safely engage in resistance training?

Motor Learning and Motor Control Sample Research Questions

How does the type and frequency of feedback impact skill acquisition? How does the structure of practice influence the retention of skills? What can be done to facilitate the transfer of previous learning to the learning of new skills? How does the aging process affect motor control? How do differences in individuals' learning styles influence their ability to learn motor skills?

Mature Stage (~age 5 or 6)

Increased efficiency, enhanced coordination, and improved control of movements. Greater force production

Dynamical-System Theory

Individual: Heredity, Past Experience, Individual Characteristics, Etc. Task: Demands, Rules, Difficulty, Equipment, Etc. Environment: Teacher Skills & Behavior, Sociocultural Characteristics, Weather, Etc. Human Movement is between all three categories.

Acquisition of Fundamental Skills

Initial Stage, Elementary Stage, and Mature Stage.

Information-Processing Model

Input to Decision to Making to Output to Feedback and loop again.

Initial Stage (~ age 2)

Poor spatial and temporal integration of skill movements. Improper sequencing of the parts of the skill Poor rhythm, difficulties in coordination

Fundamental Motor Skills

Rate of progress in developing these skills varies with each individual. Several fundamental motor skills can be combined to create a specialized movement necessary in an activity. Lack of development of fundamental skills may hinder future participation in activities.

Learning

Relatively permanent change in behavior or performance as a result of instruction, experiences, study, and/or practice. Inferred from changes in performance.

Early Period (1880-1940)

Research focused on how the mind worked, not the production of skills.

Process-Oriented Period (1980s-present)

Research on how cognitive factors influence motor skill acquisition and motor development based on dynamical systems theory.

Maturational Period (1928-1946)

Research on the underlying biological processes guiding maturation. Focus on rate and sequences of motor development from infancy in terms of acquisition of rudimentary and mature movements.

Motor Development

Study of the origins and changes in movement behavior throughout the lifespan. Biological and environmental influences on motor behavior from infancy to old age. Influence of psychological, sociological, cognitive, biological, and mechanical factors on motor behavior. Rate and sequence of development.

Autonomous Stage

Well coordinated and appears effortless Few errors "Automatic" performance allows attention to be directed to other aspects of skill performance

Motor Learning

acquisition of motor skills as a result of practice and experience.