Ch. 5 Modifiers

5.1 Introduction

A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies, or changes, another word or expression. When reviewing Gmat sentences, ask yourself the following: Does the sentence make sense if read literally? Is the meaning of the sentence clear, or must we guess what the author intended? Types of Modifiers: Adjectives: The blue plane was sitting on the runway. Adverbs: The little boy jumped up and down excitedly. Prepositional Phrases: The town of Manchester is beautiful. Relative Clauses: The boat that was used in the race is for sale. The Shiba Inu, which is the oldest breed of dog, is so cool! Present Participles: The crying baby needs a nap. Past Participles: The tired runner took a nap. Appositives: The fish, a piranha, swam near my feet. Absolute Phrases: Its sensitive antennae moving back and forth, the ant could smell the sweet chocolate chips.

5.3.3 A Noun Modifier Must Be Placed as Closely as Possible to What It Modifies.

A noun modifier must be placed as closely as possible to what it modifies. Correct: The man who was wearing the red scarf is upstairs. Incorrect: The man is upstairs who was wearing the red scarf.

5.9.1 A Participle on its Own Can Never Be the Main Verb in a Clause

A participle can never on its own function as the main verb (finite verb) in a clause. So, a sentence in which the only verb form is a participle will not be complete. Because participles look like verbs, sometimes a participle can be perceived to be the main verb in a sentence when, in fact, no main verb (finite verb) actually exists. Incorrect: The man, swimming in a sea of uncertainty, a total wreck and completely unsure of what to do next. Although the word "swimming" looks like a verb because it ends in -ing, it is actually a participle modifying the noun "man." Thus, in order for the sentence to be complete, we must add a finite verb, as illustrated below. Correct: The man, swimming in a sea of uncertainty, a total wreck and completely unsure of what to do next, cried. Remember: To avoid mistaking a fragment for a complete sentence, always locate the subject and the finite verb. If we can't find a finite verb in the structure presented, we don't have a sentence. Incorrect: The members of the team, disheartened by the loss. Correct: The members of the team were disheartened by the loss. A sentence can be rendered complete through the insertion of a helping verb before a participle or through changing a participle to a present or past tense verb. Incorrect: The man, swimming in a sea of uncertainty, a total wreck and completely unsure of what to do next. Correct: The man swam in a sea of uncertainty, a total wreck and completely unsure of what to do next.

5.9 Participles and Participial Phrases

A participle is a verb form that functions as a modifier. Participles come in two varieties: present participles, which always end in -ing, and past participles, which usually end in -ed or -en. Present Participle Examples: "jumping," "running," "singing," and "setting" Past Participle Examples: "ruined," "laminated," "spoken," and "swollen" One way a participle can be used in a sentence is as an adjective - simply modifying a noun. Present Participles: "jumping crickets," "singing men," "setting sun," "running dog". Past Participles: "ruined castle," "laminated copy," "spoken word," "swollen foot" The noun associated with a participle can be either (1) the agent doing the action of the participle or (2) the receiver of the effect of the participle. Correct: Within minutes, the swimming sailors had righted the capsized boat. Correct: The completed work of art was admired by the smiling patrons.

5.9.9 Past Participial Phrases Used to Nonrestrictively Modify Nouns

A past participial phrase can be used to nonrestrictively modify a noun. In such a case, the phrase may appear directly before or directly after the noun that it modifies and is separated from the noun and other sentence elements by commas. Correct: At the top of the hill stood a small house, painted white. (painted white, modifying house, providing nonessential information) Correct: Covered in mud, the cyclists skillfully navigated the challenging terrain. Correct: The cyclists, covered in mud, skillfully navigated the challenging terrain. Remember: Be on the lookout for an introductory phrase that begins with a past participle; we may have a misplaced modifier question on our hands. The noun that follows an introductory phrase that begins with a past participle must be the noun that that phrase is meant to modify.

5.3.4 Misplaced Prepositional Phrases

A prepositional phrase is a modifier composed of a preposition, such as "in," "under," "by," or "for," followed by a noun, and possibly some modifiers that modify that noun. A modifying prepositional phrase must always be as close as possible to the word that it modifies. Most of the houses by the lake were built decades ago. Some species of insects live under rocks. The hikers took a break at noon. Pay close attention when you encounter a sentence that contains more than one prepositional phrase, because the order of the phrases matters. Incorrect: Every Saturday afternoon, the men who lived in the senior home on Kimball Avenue played cards in the park under a tree. Correct: Every Saturday afternoon, the men who lived in the senior home on Kimball Avenue played cards under a tree in the park. Remember: In answering Sentence Correction questions, be on the lookout for prepositional phrases that are improperly placed and, thus, modify the wrong things. Such sentences will depart from the meanings that their authors were seeking to express.

5.9.6 Present Participial Phrases that Appear at the Ends of Clauses and Modify Entire Clauses

A present participial phrase can be used to modify an entire preceding clause, in which case the phrase is set off from the preceding clause by a comma and normally has as its agent the subject of the clause that it modifies. Closing present participial phrases often describe: 1) The results of the actions mentioned in the preceding clauses. 2) The causes of the events described in the preceding clauses. 3) Events that are related to the events described in the preceding clause and were occurring while the events described in the preceding clause were occurring. Example: The strong winds blew apart structures and pushed ocean water into the town, turning the buildings on Main Street into piles of debris. Remember: The use of a comma effectively separates the the phrase from the immediate proceeding noun. Without this comma, the phrase must make sense with the proceeding noun only, which may be an illogical trap. (Flowers do not make a soft buzzing sound) Exceptions: 1) One type of exception occurs when a closing participial phrase begins with "including." Often, "including" does not take the subject of the preceding clause as its agent. 2) A second type of exception occurs when the closing participial phrase modifies an actor-action pair that appears between the subject and the closing participial phrase. Example: The video was of a man picking apples, singing as he worked.

5.9.4 Present Participial Phrases that Restrictively Modify Specific Nouns

A present participial phrase can be used to restrictively modify a specific noun. In other words, a present participial phrase can be used to make a noun more specific. Correct: The cat licking its paws is considering taking a nap. Notice that the present participial phrase "licking its paws" serves to restrictively modify the noun "cat," making clear to us that the sentence is not speaking of all cats; it's speaking of a specific cat - the one licking its paws. Remember: We can tell that a present participial phrase modifies the noun that immediately precedes it by noticing that there is no comma between the phrase and the immediately preceding noun.

5.2 Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives can modify only nouns or pronouns. Here are some examples of common adjectives: hard, bright, pretty, thoughtless, spurious, enthusiastic, yellow, tentative, sonorous, new, good. Adverbs can modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Here are some examples of common adverbs: occasionally, often, seldom, always, never, clearly, famously, judiciously, slowly, well. Remember: A word ending in "-ly" typically will ONLY modify a verb, and is therefore an Adverb

5.10 Absolute Phrases

An absolute phrase is a phrase composed of a noun and its modifiers that modifies an entire clause, adding information that is descriptive or explanatory. Correct: His work completed, John headed home for the night. Correct: Jennifer sat waiting in the dentist chair, her arms and legs crossed. They are used in two ways: 1) To add descriptive information to a clause. 2) To add explanatory information to a clause. Correct: The boat sat anchored, its sails billowing in the wind. Absolute Phrase: "its sails billowing in the wind" Effect of Phrase: Adds information describing how the boat was as it sat anchored.

5.8 Appositives

An appositive is an element of a sentence that modifies or further describes another element of a sentence by renaming it. Appositives generally appear on the GMAT in the form of nouns, pronouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses that modify other nouns, pronouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses. Correct: Nisha's house, a bungalow, has solar panels on the roof. (noun phrase) Correct: My sister Lucia is working to preserve the rainforest. (noun) Correct: An amazing example of Renaissance art, the statue dominated the exhibit. (noun phrase) Correct: The ship that Robert designed, the Shenandoah, was built in 1964. (appositive) If, when we replace a noun in a sentence with its modifier, the sentence retains its core meaning, the noun modifier is an appositive. You can check this by replacing the noun being modified with its modifier to identify an appositive. Appositives usually, though not always, appear beside what they modify. Incorrect: My brother, running through the park, Eduardo saw a rare California condor. Correct: Running through the park, my brother Eduardo saw a rare California condor.

5.5 The Possessive Modification Trap

Be on the lookout for a modifying phrase followed by a possessive noun. In such a case, the modification and the resulting sentence may be illogical. Incorrect: Eating the delicious guacamole after having been on a restricted diet for two months, Robert's face showed nothing but enjoyment. The modifying phrase in the sentence above is about Robert, not Robert's face.

5.9.5 Present Participial Phrases that Appear at the Beginning or in the Middle of Clauses, are Nonrestrictive, and Can be Treated as Noun Modifiers for the Purpose of Placement

For the purpose of evaluating placement, a present participial phrase that appears at the beginning or in the middle of a clause and is set off from the rest of the clause by a comma or commas can be treated as a nonrestrictive noun modifier. Example: Sailing with the wind, the clipper ship quickly reached its destination. Example: Two cats, hissing loudly, faced off in the darkness. The commas tell us that this phrase is not a restrictive modifier that tells us which ship the sentence is about. Rather, this modifier provides nonessential information about the ship and how it reached its destination. Thus, removing this modifier from the sentence does not change the sentence's core meaning. Essentially, if the phrase provides critical information about the noun it is modifying (i.e. all team members vs team members with brown hair) then it is necessary to use this modifier offset by commas.

5.8.2 Abstract Appositives

GMAT Sentence Correction questions often contain structures called "abstract appositives," which, rather than rename and modify specific words or phrases, rename and modify entire ideas presented in clauses. Correct: Earth's population of humans is expected to increase substantially over the coming decades, a development that could have significant negative effects on quality of life on the planet. The phrase "a development that could have significant negative effects on quality of life" is an abstract appositive. We can see that it does not rename and modify a specific noun or other specific word or phrase in the sentence. Rather, it renames and modifies the entire idea presented by the clause that precedes it, conveying that the expected increase is a development that could have significant negative effects on quality of life. Choosing the correct answer to a Sentence Correction question generally involves choosing the choice that most effectively conveys a meaning.

5.9.3 How Present Participial Phrases are Used in Sentences

In Sentence Correction questions, participles often appear in participial phrases, which are phrases based on, and usually beginning with, participles. Present participle examples: spinning incessantly, jumping in the grass, successfully navigating the channel Past participle examples: ruined by vandals, lost in a fog, quickly forgotten by many. We can put most present participial phrases into three general categories: (1) Present participial phrases that are used to restrictively modify specific nouns. (2) Present participial phrases that appear at the beginning or in the middle of clauses, are nonrestrictive, and can be treated as noun modifiers for the purpose of placement. (3) Present participial phrases that appear at the end of clauses and usually, but not always, modify the preceding clauses. GMAT Sentence Correction question writers often create flawed sentences by using present participial phrases in illogical ways.

5.4 Dangling Modifiers

In a case of a dangling modifier, the noun that the modifier is supposed to describe is completely absent from the sentence. Such a sentence is always incorrect. Incorrect: Having completed their final exams, parties all over campus began. Since the noun "parties" follows the comma that separates the introductory phrase (which also happens to be a noun modifier), from the main clause, the sentence conveys that it was "parties" that had completed their final exams. Of course, this meaning is ridiculous. Correct: Having completed their final exams, the students partied all over campus. Remember: A noun being modified in a sentence must not be absent from the sentence.

5.7.4 "That," "Who," "Whom," and "Which"

In formal writing, the relative pronoun "that" should refer only to objects or ideas or animals, never people. Similarly, the relative pronoun "which" cannot be used to refer people. The relative pronouns "who" and "whom" are used to refer to human antecedents. Correct: The woman who lives next door to me is a pianist. (A woman is a "who.") Incorrect: The man that plays the violin also has a very good voice. (A man cannot be a "that.") Correct: The person with whom I was speaking is the writer who wrote and produced the movie that we watched last weekend. ("Who" and "whom" are used to refer to people.) Correct: The idea that most excited him turned out to have the worst consequences. (Since an "idea" is a thing, it is referred to by "that.") Incorrect: The person that was speaking is very smart. (A person cannot be a "that.") Incorrect: The girl with which I was speaking was quite funny. ("Which" cannot describe people.) Correct: The girl with whom I was speaking was quite funny. ("Whom" referring to a person)

5.7.3 When Relative Clauses Can Modify Their Antecedents "Remotely"

In most cases in which we see a relative clause in a correct answer to a Sentence Correction question, that clause will directly follow the noun that the clause modifies. There are structures that are considered acceptable or correct in which a relative clause is separated from the noun that it modifies. In such a structure, the relative clause is called a "remote relative clause." There are two ways this can happen: 1) A relative clause may be separated from the noun that it modifies by another modifier, such as a prepositional phrase or an appositive. Correct: The town on the island, which is a sleepy seaside village, attracts many tourists each summer. Essentially, when what is being modified is a noun whose prepositional phrase is necessary to the noun such as the "town on the island" above, then it still works to modify the immediate preceding noun. Correct: Marty has a fruit stand in his town's farmers market that he uses not only to sell fruits and vegetables but also to spread his wisdom of logic and reasoning. Remember: A relative clause may be separated from the noun that it modifies by another modifier, such as a prepositional phrase or an appositive. Remember: A relative clause is understood to modify the shortest logical target. This is important in sentences with multiple relative clauses or multiple nouns. 2) A relative clause may be separated from the noun that it modifies by the main verb of the sentence. In some cases, relative clauses that modify the subjects of sentences are rather long. "Even as we speak, solar panels that will generate power much more efficiently than any panels in use today are being developed." These sentences can be expressed in other forms to avoid separating a sentence's subject and main verb that way. This can be done by putting the main verb of the sentence directly after the subject and before the relative clause that modifies the subject. Even as we speak, solar panels are being developed that will generate power much more efficiently than any panels in use today. These examples are uncommon, but still possible. In order for such a structure to work, the main verb of the sentence has to be in one of certain categories, such as a verb that indicates that a change or development is occurring. Essentially, Certain types of main verbs that indicate arrival, positioning, and coming into being can exist between a relative clause and the noun that it modifies in cases in which there is unlikely to be any confusion and the author would like to avoid putting the main verb after a long intervening relative clause.

5.9.7 The Meaning Conveyed by a Present Participial Phrase Must Fit with the Rest of the Sentence in which the Phrase Appears

Participial phrases always indicate simultaneity; the event described by a participle phrase must occur at the same time as the event described by the clause that the phrase modifies. Incorrect: Working hard for hours, the crew took a break. Since the present participial phrase "working hard for hours" indicates simultaneity, what the above sentence actually conveys is that the crew worked and took a break at the same time. Correct: After working hard for hours, the crew took a break. Using "after" here correctly establishes that the work occurred before the break. Essentially, when a writer utilizes a present participial phrase in discussing events that do not occur at the same time, he or she creates an illogical sentence.

5.9.8 Past Participial Phrases Used to Restrictively Modify Nouns

Past participial phrases, phrases based on past participles (usually "-ed" or "-en" verbs), can be used to restrictively modify nouns. In these situations, the past participial phrase is placed directly before or after the nouns that it modifies and is not separated from the noun by commas. Correct: After the storm, the newspaper published photographs of buildings damaged by floodwaters. Correct: The damaged beyond recognition automobile once belonged to a famous actor.

5.7 Relative Clauses

Relative clauses are clauses that relate to other parts of sentences and begin with relative pronouns. The following example ends with a relative clause: The house is surrounded by trees, which provide shade in summer. Some of the relative pronouns that are most commonly used are "that," "which," "who," "whose," and "whom." As the name implies, relative pronouns are pronouns that show how one thing relates to another in a sentence. Generally speaking, relative clauses must come immediately after the nouns that they modify. (See exceptions: 5.7.3: Remote relative clauses) Because these pronouns are often randomly interchanged in speech, we're used to hearing these relative pronouns used incorrectly. So, we must be cautious when analyzing the use of them in GMAT Sentence Correction questions.

5.3.1 Misplaced Adjectives

The misplacement of modifiers results in errors in meaning, and misplaced modifiers are frequently used in incorrect answer choices in Sentence Correction questions. Misplaced modifier questions can be particularly challenging because even native English speakers often misplace modifiers in their speech and writing. Sentences with such errors may sound correct. Incorrect: On the tables at the event were nutritious trays of fruits and vegetables. (nutritious trays?) Incorrect: The farmer showed up at my house with a fresh crate full of zucchini. (fresh crate?)

5.7.6 Whose

The relative pronoun "whose" can refer to things or people. "Whose" is the English language's only possessive relative pronoun. Correct: The car whose fender I dented belongs to the police chief. Correct: My mother, whose bracelet I borrowed, has always been willing to share. Correct: The dog whose paws are big also has a loving heart. Remember: Who's is only used when it is clear that we need "who is"

5.7.1 "That" versus "Which"

The relative pronouns "that" and "which" refer to nouns that represent things other than people (such as ideas or objects). In other words, never use "that" or "which" to refer to people. Whether "that" or "which" is the better pronoun to use depends on whether the clause that the relative pronoun "that" or "which" introduces is restrictive or nonrestrictive. That: A restrictive relative clause somehow restricts the meaning of the noun that the restrictive relative clause modifies. Accordingly, the information that a restrictive relative clause adds is essential to the meaning of the sentence. Which: A nonrestrictive relative clause, on the other hand, does not restrict the meaning of the noun that it modifies. Thus, a nonrestrictive relative clause adds information to the sentence but is not vital to the sentence's meaning. Remember: To determine whether an underlined clause is restrictive or nonrestrictive, eliminate it from the sentence. If it can be eliminated without the core meaning of the sentence changing, it is nonrestrictive and will use the pronoun "which."

5.6 Squinting Modifiers

When a modifier is placed between two words or expressions, either of which it could modify, the conveyed meaning can be ambiguous. A modifier so placed is called a "squinting modifier." For example: Incorrect: People who train consistently achieve score increases. Notice that the adverb "consistently" is a squinting modifier because it is placed between two verbs, "train" and "achieve," either of which it could be modifying. What is the author seeking to say? Is she describing people who "train consistently," or is she describing what people "consistently achieve?" Remember: For a sentence to be effective, it must be clear what any modifiers in the sentence modify. Be on the lookout for squinting modifiers, which are modifiers between two words or phrases, either of which the modifier could modify.

5.3.6 Misplaced Introductory Modifiers

When an introductory modifier is a noun modifier, the noun that it modifies must appear right after the introductory modifier. If the noun that the opening modifier is meant to modify doesn't appear right after the introductory modifier, then the introductory modifier is misplaced. Incorrect: Tired and hungry, the aroma from the campsite grill cheered the hikers as they climbed the last hill. Correct: Tired and hungry, the hikers were cheered by the aroma from the campsite grill as they climbed the last hill. Essentially, In general, noun modifiers need to be as close as possible to the noun to which it modifies. Be careful of noun modifiers which attempt to modify the use of an expletive "it". This can work in some contexts, but you must ask yourself if the opening noun modifier is truly correct considering what "it" is versus what the sentence is trying to imply. Remember: When an introductory noun modifier is followed by a clause that has "it" as its subject, it may be that the modifier does not logically modify "it." Incorrect: Running fast along the shore, it was clear that the Shiba Inu was having a great time. Correct: Running fast along the shore, the Shiba Inu was clearly having a great time.

5.3.5 Pay Special Attention to Prepositional Phrases of Time

When we encounter prepositional phrases of time, we must take extra care to ensure that their placement does not result in ambiguity, confusion, or an illogical meaning. Incorrect: The board of directors said in 2020 the price of the company's product would need to double. (time is ambiguous) Correct: In 2020, the board of directors said the price of the company's product would need to double. (clear, but check that a meaning of the rest of the sentence is clear) Also Correct: The CEO reported that her company would be selling self-flying cars in 2050. (clear, but keep in mind that this is different in meaning from the previous example)

5.3.2 Misplaced Adverbs

When we evaluate a sentence, we must take care to ensure that any adverbs that the sentence contains are placed logically since, like the incorrect placement of an adjective, the incorrect placement of an adverb can significantly distort the meaning of a sentence. Limiting adverbs limit the scope of what they modify, and include "only," "just," "even," "almost," "merely," "simply," "exactly," "nearly," and "hardly." I only ate fruits and vegetables for two weeks. (Implies eating is all they did) I ate only fruits and vegetables for two weeks. (Implies fruit and vegetables were the only things eaten) I ate fruits and vegetables for only two weeks. (Implies this only lasted for two weeks) On the GMAT, we can often choose the choice that conveys a logical meaning by keeping in mind one simple idea: Generally, the best placement of a limiting adverb is immediately before the word or phrase that it is meant to modify.

5.7.5 "Who" and "Whom"

Whether to use "who" or "whom" depends on whether the relative pronoun is serving as a subject or as an object. The subject pronoun "who" performs the action in a clause, whereas the object pronoun "whom" is acted upon. Correct: People who love other people are the happiest people in the world. Correct: Arnold's sister, whom we all have met, graduated a year early. Commit the following two lists to memory: Subject Pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who Object Pronouns: me, you, him, her, it, us, them, whom Remember: Entities made up of people such as teams, groups, or classes, are considered things when the context treats such an entity as a single unit and, in such cases, are referred to via the use of the relative pronouns "that" or "which."