ch. 6
who proposed the social learning theory
albert bandurra believed that observational learning involved more than just imitation and that internal mental states must be involved
The ________ theory explains that the immediate associations involved in a conditioned taste aversion are a result of adaptation that helps us learn to avoid foods that are potentially harmful
evolutionary
under partial what is fixed vs variable
fixed: number of responses between reinforcements or the amount of time between reinforcements is set and unchanging variable: the number of responses between reinforcements or the amount of time between reinforcements varies or changes
Learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it is called ________ learning.
latent
In Pavlovs classical conditioning, the term conditioned is approximately synonymous with the word ________.
learned
In classical conditioning, the association that is learned is between a ________.
neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus
In ________ reinforcement, the person or animal is not reinforced every time a desired behavior is performed.
partial
fixed ratio schedule
predictable and produces a high response rate, with a short pause after reinforcement (ex. eyeglass saleswoman)
vicarious punishment
process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior
variable ratio
reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (gambling)
general processes in classical conditioning: spontaneous recovery
the return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period
habituation
learning not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change as a stimulus is repeated, we learn not to focus our attention on it
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it children may learn behaviors from their parents that they do not demonstrate until they are older a child may learn the route to school from watching his parent drive there but will not deomonstrate this until they can drive themselves or have to get there by bike, walking, etc
________ reinforcers have innate reinforcing qualities.
primary
vicarious reinforcement
process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior
fixed interval
reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (patients take pain relief medication at set times)
variable interval
reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (checking facebook)
fixed ratio
reinforcemtn is delivered after a predictable number of responses (factory workers being paid for every x number of items manufactured)
Which term best describes rewarding successive approximations of a target behavior?
shaping
positive punishment
something is added to decrease the likelihood of a behavior scolding a student for texting in class
positive reinforcement
something is added to increase the likelihood of a behavior ex. high grades, pay checks, praise
negative punishment
something is removed to decrease the likelihood of a behavior taking away a favorite toy when a child misbehaves
negative reinforcement
something is removed to increase the likelihood of a behavior ex. the beeping sound that will only go away when you put your seatbelt on
general proccess in classical conditioning: acquisition
the initial period of learning when an organism learns to connect a neautral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus usually this requires there to be a very short time interval between the NS and the UCS and for the pairing to repeated multiple times sometimes conditioning can occur when the interval is up to several hours and the pairing occurs only once (ex. taste aversion)
partial reinforcement
the organism does not get reinforced everytime they display the desired behavior (tehy are reinforced intermittently) there are several types of partial reinforcement schedules
secondary reinforcers
those that have no inherent value. there value is learnt and becomes reinforcing when linked with a primary reinforcer praise, a secondary reinforcer is linked with affection, a primary reinforcer money is only reinforcing when it can be used to buy other things such as things that satisfy basic needs (food) or other secondary reinforcers tokens are a secondary reinforcer that can be exchanged for other things token economies are used in many settings to encourage correct behavior such as prisons, schools and mental institutions
operant conditioning terminology positive: negative: reinforcement: punishment:
to add something to take something away increasinga behavior decreasing a behavior
the skinner box
to study operant conditioning, skinner placed animals inside an operant conditioning chamber (skinner box) containing a lever that when pressed causes food to be dispensed as a reward
what are the steps in the modeling process for social learning theory
1. attention- focus on the behavior 2. retention- remember what you observed 3. reproduction- be able to perform the behavior 4. motivation- must want to copy the behavior motivatioin depends on what happened to the model
research conducted by edward C tolman found tha tlearning could still occur wihout reinforcement. this introduced the idea that there is a cognitive aspect to learning while studying rats he found that if he put them in a maze to learn their way through it, they would eventually form a cognitive map of it. what is a cognitive map
a mental picture of the layout an environment after 10 sessions int he maze without food as reinforcement, food was placed at the exit and the rats were able to very quickly exit the maze showing that htey had learned the way out. this is called latent learning
classical vs operant conditioning
classical conditioning approach: an unconditioned stimulus (such as food) is paired with a neutral stimulus (such as a bell). the neutral stimulus eventually becomes the conditioned stimulus, which brings about the conditioned response (salivation) operant conditioning approach: the target behavior is followed by reinforcement or punishment to either strengthen or weaken it, so that the learner is more likely to exhibit the desired behavior in the future classical stimulus timing: the stimulus occurs immediately before the response operant simulus timing: the stimulus (either reinforcement or punishment) occurs soon after the response
general processes in classical conditioning: extinction
decrease in the conditioned response when the UCS is no longer presented with the CS if food stops being presented with the sound of the bell then eventually the dog will stop responding to the bell
under partial what is interval vs ratio
interval- the schedule is based on the time between reinforcements ratio- the schedule is based on the number of responses between reinforcements
explain operant conditioning
theory proposed by BF skinner organisms learn to ossociate a behavior and its consequences (reinforcement or punishment) based on the law of effect pleasant consequence/desired result--> behavior is more likely to occur again unpleasant consequence/undesired result--> behavior is less likely to occur again ex. when we show up to work (behavior), we get paid (pleasant consequences) so we continue to show up to work skinner conducted experiements (mainly with rats and pigeons) to determine how learning occurs through operant conditioning
primary reinforcers
those that have innate reinforcing qualities (ex. food, water, sleep, sex, pleasure). the value of these reinforcers doesnot need to be learned
stimulus generalization
when an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus if an individual learns to dislike a specific spider, they will usually then dislike all spiders
stimulus discriminiatoin
when an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar the dog can discriminate between the specific bell sound that signals food and a similar bell sound that does not signal food
learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experiences involves acquiring skills/knowledge through experience involves conscious and unconscious processes
higher-order conditioning
an extablished conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral sitmulus (the second order stimulus) so that eventually the new stimulus also elicits the conditioned response, without the initial conditioned stimulus being presented ex. the cat is conditioned to salivate when it hears the electric can opener the squeky cabinet door (second-order stimulus) is paired with the can opener (CS) the cat salivates (CR) when it hears the squeaky cabinet door (CS) the cat learns to associate the cabinet door with the electric can opener and therefore with food
Classical and operant conditioning are forms of ________ learning.
associative
how does classical conditioning occur
before: unconditioned stimulus (UCS)- stimulus that elicits a reflexive response (fod) unconditioned response (UCR)- a natural unlearned reaction to a stimulus (salivation in response to food) food (UCS) --> salivation (UCR) during: neutral stimulus (NS)- stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response (ringing a bell- does not cause salivation by itself prior to conditioning) the NS and UCS are paired repeatedly Bell(NS) + Food(UCS) --> salivation (UCR) after: conditioned stimulus (CS)- stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus conditioned response (CR)- the behavior cause by the conditioned stimulus Bell (CS) --> salivation (CR)
explain bandura's bobo doll experiment
in a famous study known as the bobo doll experiment, bandura studied modleing of aggressive and violent behvariors children observed adults act aggressively towards a 5 foot bobo doll the adult was then eithe rpunished, praised, or ignored for their behavior the children were then given the opprotunity to play with the bobo doll if the child had seen the adult punished, they were less likely to act aggressively towards the doll if the child had seen the adult praised or ignored, they were more likely to imitate the adult bandura concluded that children watch and learn from the adults around them which can have both prosocial and antisocial consequences
what are the two unlearned behaviors and explain both
instincts and behaviors they are innate behaviors that organisms are born with help organisms adapt to their envionment reflexes: motor/neural reactions to a specific stimulus simpler than instincts involve activity of specific body parts involve primitive centers of the CNS (ex. spinal cord and medulla) ex. human babies are born with a sucking reflex instints: behaviors triggered by a broader range of events (aging, change of seasons, ...) more complex involve movement of the organism as a whole (ex. sexual activity, migration) involve higher brain centers
Which option is the most valid criticism of Watson and Rayners work with little Albert?
it would be unethical by todays research standards
tell me about classical conditioning
ivan pavlov's reseach on the digestive system of dogs unexpectedly led to his discovery of the learning process now known as classical conditioning process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, consquently, to anticipate events pavlov noticed that dogs salivated not only at the taste of food, but also at the footsteps of the lab assistant's footsteps he realized that organisms have 2 types of responses to its environment; unconditioned (unlearned) responses and conditioned (learned) responses in the most famous example, dogs were conditioned to associate the sound of a bell with food. when the dogs heard the bell they anticipated food and began to salivate
who is founder of behaviorism and what did he believe
john B watson used the principles of classical conditioning in the study of human emotion believed that all behavior could be studied as a stimulus-response reaction believed the principles of classical conditioning could be used to condition human emotions conducted a famous study with little albert
What do psychologists call a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience?
learning
shaping
tool used in operant conditioning instead of rewarding only the target behavior, we reward successive approximations of a target behavior behaviors are borken down into many small, achievable steps useful when teaching a complex chain of events commonly used by animal trainers 1. reinforce any response that resembles the desired behavior 2. then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the desired behavior (no longer reinfoce previously reinforced response) 3. then begin to reiforce the response that even more closely resembles the desired behavior 4. continue to do this until only the desired behavior is reinforced
variable interval schedule
unpredictable and produces a moderate, steady response rate (ex. restaurant manager)
variable ratio schedule
unpredictable and yields high and steady response rates, with little if any pause after reinforcement (ex. gambler)
explain little albert
watson exposed little albert to certain stimuli and conditioned to fear them 1. presented with neutral stimuli (rabbit, dog, cotton wool, a white rat) 2. watson then paired these with a loud sound every time little albert touched the stimulus that casued him to feel fear 3. after repeated pairings, little albert became feaful of the stimulus alone, such as the white rabbit although initially conditioned to fear specific stimuli, they were all furry and therefore through stimulus generalization, little albert came to fear furry things, including watson in a santa claus mask
associative learning
when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment
continuous reinforcement
when an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior quickest way to teach a behavior ex. a dog receives a treat every time it sits when told to timing is important- the treat must be presented immediately after sitting in order for the dog to associate the target behavior with the consequence however, if the trainer suddenly stops providing treats, the dog will stop sitting so another type of reinforcement is then used once the behavior is learnt
fixed interval schedule
yields a scallop-shaped response pattern, reflecting a significant pause after reinforcement (ex. surgery patient)