CH. 7 psychology

Connecting events is to acquiring mental information as _____ learning is to _____ learning.

associative; cognitive

The violence-viewing effect, with respect to television viewing, seems to stem from at least two factors: _____ and _____.

imitation; desensitization

neutral stimuli

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

Which statement is false with respect to operant conditioning?

Operant conditioning involves respondent behavior.

_____ behavior produces events in the environment, whereas _____ behavior occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus.

Operant; respondent

Ruben is reading the descriptions of some of the psychology courses in his college's course catalog. The description of one course reads in part, "An introduction to the processes whereby new and enduring behavior and information is acquired through experience." This course is MOST likely titled:

The Psychology of Learning.

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Baby May is 12 months of age. Which statement is an example of the MOST sophisticated ability of which May is probably capable?

When her mother turns to look at the television screen, May can also turn and look at the screen.

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

reinforcement schedules

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

conditioned reinforcers

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we learn to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

The first step of classical conditioning, when an NS becomes a CS, is called ______________. When a US no longer follows the CS, and the CR becomes weakened, this is called ______________.

acquisition; extinction

In using operant conditioning principles to train animals to perform tricks, Keller and Marian Breland found that:

an animal's inborn or instinctive behavior patterns could interfere with the operant conditioning of new behaviors.

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

primary reinforcers

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Learning that is not immediately demonstrated in overt behavior is called _____ learning.

latent

Disliking the taste of chili after becoming violently sick a few hours after eating chili

biological predisposotions

The textbook states that "learning is the product of the interaction of biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences." This statement suggests that learning is BEST understood through the:

biopsychosocial model.

Taste aversion is a real-life example of _____ conditioning.

classical

in pavlov's experiments, the tone started as a neutral stimulus, and then became a ____________ stimulus

conditioned

A word of praise is to a delicious meal as a(n) _____ is to _____.

conditioned reinforcer; primary reinforcer

Ever since she foolishly drank too much tequila at a rock concert and vomited all over her best friend, Erin becomes nauseous at the smell or taste of tequila. In the terminology of classical conditioning, the smell of tequila is now a(n) _____.

conditioned stimulus

In classical conditioning, the _____ is an irrelevant event that comes to trigger a conditioned response after association with an unconditioned stimulus.

conditioned stimulus

Dogs have been taught to salivate to a circle but not to a square. This process is an example of _____.

discrimination

With classical conditioning, we learn associations between events we (do/do not) control. With operant conditioning, we learn associations between our behavior and (resulting/random) events.

do not; resulting

Edward L. Thorndike's research with cats demonstrated that behavior changes because of its consequences. Favorable consequences lead to the behavior being repeated, while unfavorable consequences make the behavior less likely. Thorndike referred to this as the law of _____.

effect

_____ behavior produces events in the environment, whereas respondent behavior occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus.

operant

a medevil proverb notes that "a burnt child dreads the fire." in operant conditioning the burning will be an example of

punisher

partial reinforcement schedules

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Thorndike's law of effect was the basis for __________ work on operant conditioning and behavior control.

skinner

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

indistinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Most learning involves the process of association. In classical conditioning, an organism comes to associate:

two stimuli

_____ was the scientist whose experiment with dogs led to the discovery of classical conditioning.

Ivan Pavlov

aquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Which psychologist studied the development of taste aversions and how they could not be explained by the basic principles of classical conditioning?

John Garcia

The idea that an animal's natural behavior patterns did not matter and had little or no effect on the effectiveness of operant conditioning principles was challenged by research conducted by:

Keller and Marian Breland

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

Classical and operant conditioning involve learning through _____, whereas observational learning involves learning through _____.

association; imitation

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Salivating when you smell brownies in the oven

classical conditioning

Taste aversion is a real-life example of which type of learning?

classical conditioning

Lightning is associated with thunder and always precedes it. Thus, when one sees lightning, one often anticipates hearing thunder soon afterward. This is an example of:

classical conditioning.

Marshall ate a hamburger he purchased from his favorite fast-food restaurant. An hour later, his stomach became very upset and he spent the rest of the evening vomiting. A week later, he entered the restaurant and immediately became nauseous when he saw a hamburger. Marshall's nausea when he saw the hamburger is an example of:

classical conditioning.

Kate has a kind of picture in her head of her hometown, a mental representation of its layout and the location of key landmarks such as rivers, buildings, freeways, and parks. This representation is called a(n):

cognitive map

In continuous reinforcement, an organism is reinforced _____, whereas in partial or intermittent reinforcement, an organism is reinforced _____.

every time the desired behavior occurs; sporadically when the desired behavior occurs

Money is to _____ as enjoyment of an activity is to _____.

extrinsic reward; intrinsic reward

In Watson and Rayner's experiment with Little Albert, the _____ was the unconditioned response

fear of the loud noise

In Watson and Rayner's experiment with Little Albert, the _____ was the conditioned response.

fear of the white rat

a restaurant is running a special deal. after you buy four meals at full price, you will get a free appetizer. This is an example of a _______ schedule reinforcement

fixed ratio

After Watson and Rayner classically conditioned Little Albert to fear a white rat, the child later showed fear in response to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat. This illustrates

generalization

Three-year-old Marvin is waiting with his older brother in their pediatrician's examination room. As soon as the nurse, wearing a white uniform, enters the room his older brother screams and cries loudly, which scares Marvin and he begins to scream and cry. The next week when Marvin is going for his first dentist appointment, the dental assistant enters wearing her white uniform and Marvin screams and cries loudly. Marvin's crying in response to the white uniform in the dentist office, just as he did in the pediatrician's office, is an example of:

generalization

John just started his vacation from work and scheduled a tee time with friends to play golf Monday morning. On Monday morning, he started driving his car to work instead of the golf course. Driving his car to work instead of the golf course is an example of:

habitual behavior.

unconditioned response

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

fixed ration schedules

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Learning is defined as "the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring __________ or __________."

information; behaviors

Ty's mother is frustrated that he will not spend the time on his schoolwork that he does practicing and playing baseball. Ty will spend hours practicing in the hot sun every summer day without a coach telling him to do so. Ty's dedication to baseball can be explained by:

intrinsic motivation.

Researchers often find it more challenging to train dolphins rather than dogs, even though dolphins are smarter. One of the reasons for this difficulty is that dolphins have _____ shared evolutionary heritage with humans than dogs, so they condition to stimuli that are different than what will affect dogs and humans.

less

Knowing the way from your bed to the bathroom in the dark

latent learning

Learning that is NOT immediately demonstrated in overt behavior is called:

latent learning

A rat is allowed to explore a maze for several trials. On the last trial, he finds a piece of food at the end of the maze. On the following trial, his speed through the maze increases dramatically. This is an example of:

latent learning.

Watson and Pavlov agreed that:

laws of learning are the same for all animals.

The process of acquiring new and enduring behaviors and information through experience is called ________

learning

observational learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

If a child is watching a favorite sibling getting scolded for misbehavior, a type of brain cell called a _____ is likely to be activated in an empathetic response to this observation.

mirror neuron

Johnny is hammering the nail in with his toy hammer as his father is hammering the deck boards. His behavior is a clear example of:

modeling.

Your dog is barking so loudly that it's making your ears ring. You clap your hands, the dog stops barking, your ears stop ringing, and you think to yourself, "I'll have to do that when he barks again." The end of the barking was for you a

negative reinforcer

In classical conditioning, the _____ stimulus elicits no response before conditioning begins.

neutral

Both Watson and Pavlov believed that psychology should study only _____ and _____ psychological phenomena.

objective; observable

Your little brother getting in a fight after watching a violent action movie

observational learning

Lana is in dental school and is learning the correct way to take an X-ray of the mouth. Her instructor first shows the class a video that demonstrates the proper procedures for taking an X-ray and then demonstrates these same procedures using Lana as a patient. Lana and her class are learning how to take an X-ray of patients' teeth through the use of:

observational learning.

Tamika's cat learned to press a lever so more food would be poured into her food bowl. Tamika's roommate's kitten watched the older cat perform this behavior and within a month the kitten was performing this behavior. This is an example of:

observational learning.

Your dog racing to greet you on your arrival home

operant conditioning

Reinforcing a desired response only some of the times it occurs is called ___________ reinforcement.

partial

Stan has been working nights and weekends to get a project completed at work. He is successful, and a couple of weeks later he comes into work and his boss presents him with a bonus check. This BEST illustrates the value of _____ reinforcement.

positive

_____ reinforcement involves any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

positive

B. F. Skinner believed that _____ was the BEST way to shape desirable behavior.

positive reinforcement

prosocial behaviors

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

According to observational learning theory, when children have _____ models, they imitate the helpful and positive behaviors they observe.

prosocial

Conditioned reinforcers are also called _____ reinforcers.

secondary

One way to change behavior is to reward natural behaviors in small steps, as they get closer and closer to the desired behavior. This process is called

shaping

Garcia and Koelling's _________studies showed that conditioning can occur even when the unconditioned stimulus does not immediately follow the neutral stimulus

taste aversion

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Two forms of associative learning are classical conditioning, in which the organism associates ________, and operant conditioning, in which the organism associates ________.

two or more stimuli; a response and consequence

In Watson and Rayner's experiment with Little Albert, the fear of a loud noise was the _____ response.

unconditioned

Researchers conditioned a flatworm to contract when exposed to light by repeatedly pairing the light with electric shock. The electric shock is a(n):

unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioning seldom occurs when a(n) _____ repeatedly comes before a(n) _____.

unconditioned stimulus; neutral stimulus

the partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after unpredictable time period is a _______________schedule

variable interval

Gamblers and fisherman have a difficult time controlling their need to gamble and fish because of the _____ schedule of reinforcement.

variable-ratio