chap 28 + 32 bio 2 part 1 final exam

As you read in Unit Five, plant bodies also have a hierarchical organization. Although plant anatomy and animal anatomy differ, they are adapted to a shared set of challenges, as shown in Figure 32.3 Solutions in Plants and Animals Multicellular organisms face a common set of challenges. Comparing the solutions that have evolved in plants and animals reveals both unity (shared elements) and diversity (distinct features) across these two lineages. #1: Environmental Response #2: Nutritional Mode #3: Growth and Regulation

#1: Environmental Response All forms of life must detect and respond appropriately to conditions in their environment. Specialized organs sense environmental signals. For example, the floral head of a sunflower and an insect's eyes both contain photoreceptors that detect light. Environmental signals activate specific receptor proteins, triggering signal transduction pathways that initiate cellular responses coordinated by chemical and electrical communication. #2: Nutritional Mode All living things must obtain energy and carbon from the environment to grow, survive, and reproduce. Plants are autotrophs, obtaining their energy through photosynthesis and their carbon from inorganic sources, whereas animals are heterotrophs, obtaining their energy and carbon from food. Evolutionary adaptations in plants and animals support these different nutritional modes. The broad surface of many leaves enhances light capture for photosynthesis. When hunting, a bobcat relies on stealth, speed, and sharp claws. (See Figure 29.2 and Concept 41.1.) Growth and Regulation The growth and physiology of both plants and animals are regulated by hormones. In plants, hormones may act in a local area or be transported in the body. They control growth patterns, flowering, fruit development, and more. In animals, hormones circulate throughout the body and act in specific target tissues, controlling homeostatic processes and developmental events such as molting.

As you read in Unit Five, plant bodies also have a hierarchical organization. Although plant anatomy and animal anatomy differ, they are adapted to a shared set of challenges, as shown in Figure 32.3 Solutions in Plants and Animals Multicellular organisms face a common set of challenges. Comparing the solutions that have evolved in plants and animals reveals both unity (shared elements) and diversity (distinct features) across these two lineages. #4: Transport #5: Absorption #6: Reproduction #7: Gas Exchange

#4: Transport All but the simplest multicellular organisms must transport nutrients and waste products between locations in the body. A system of tubelike vessels is the common evolutionary solution, while the mechanism of circulation varies. Plants harness solar energy to transport water, minerals, and sugars through specialized tubes (left). In animals, a pump (heart) moves circulatory fluid through vessels (right). #5: Absorption Organisms need to absorb nutrients. The root hairs of plants (left) and the villi (projections) that line the intestines of vertebrates (right) increase the surface area available for absorption. #6: Reproduction In sexual reproduction, specialized tissues and structures produce and exchange gametes. Offspring are generally supplied with nutritional stores that facilitate rapid growth and development. For example, seeds have stored food reserves that supply energy to the young seedling, while milk provides sustenance for juvenile mammals. #7: Gas Exchange The exchange of certain gases with the environment is essential for life. Respiration by plants and animals requires taking up oxygen (O2) and releasing carbon dioxide (CO2). In photosynthesis, net exchange occurs in the opposite direction: CO2 uptake and O2 release. In both plants and animals, highly convoluted surfaces that increase the area available for gas exchange have evolved, such as the spongy mesophyll of leaves (left) and the alveoli of lungs (right).

Organ Systems in Mammals (see and read chart)

(see and read chart)

1) define root (4 things) 2) what kind of plant will have this specific type of root 3) define this specific type of root (2 things) 4) this specific type of root has what advantage for the plant? 5) in plant with this specific type of root, what is restricted?

1) A root is an 1. organ 2. anchors a vascular plant in the soil 3. absorbs minerals and water 4. often stores carbohydrates. 2) Tall, erect plants with large shoot masses generally have a main vertical root, the taproot, 3) taproot - 1. penetrates the soil deeply 2. helps prevent the plant from toppling 4) A taproot, although energetically expensive to make, allows the plant to be taller, thereby giving it access to more favorable light conditions and, in some cases, providing an advantage for pollen and seed dispersal (definition of dispersal from google - action or process of distributing things or people over a wide area) 5) In plants with taproots, the role of absorption is restricted largely to the tips of lateral roots, which branch off from the taproot

1) A typical plant must ________from ________ and ________ from ________. 2) The ability to acquire these resources efficiently is traceable to

1) A typical plant must absorb water and minerals from below the ground surface and CO2 and light from above. The ability to acquire these resources efficiently is traceable to the evolution of three basic organs—roots, stems, and leaves.

1) regulator - define 2) example (see pic) 3) conformer - define 4) example (see pic) 5) last way

1) An animal is a regulator for an environmental variable if it uses internal mechanisms to control internal change in the face of external fluctuation. 2) The river otter in Figure 32.10 is a regulator for temperature, keeping its body at a temperature that is largely independent of that of the water in which it swims. 3) In contrast, an animal is a conformer for an environmental variable if it allows its internal condition to change in accordance with external changes. 4) The largemouth bass in Figure 32.10 conforms to the temperature of its lake. As the water warms or cools, so does the bass's body. 5) An animal may regulate some internal conditions and allow others to conform to the environment. For example, even though the bass conforms to the temperature of the water in which it lives, it regulates the solute concentration in its blood and interstitial fluid, the fluid that surrounds body cells. pic description: The river otter regulates its body temperature, keeping it stable across a wide range of environmental temperatures. The largemouth bass allows its internal environment to conform to the water temperature.

1) ______ have two major systems for ______ and _____ to _____ 2) name the two systems

1) Animals have two major systems for coordinating and controlling responses to stimuli 2) endocrine and nervous system

define thermoregulation

1) As a physiological example of homeostasis, we'll examine thermoregulation, the process by which animals maintain their body temperature within a normal range.

1) As a ______ example of ______, we'll examine thermoregulation, (define) 2) explain importance of thermoregulation 3) read

1) As a physiological example of homeostasis, we'll examine thermoregulation, the process by which animals maintain their body temperature within a normal range. 2) Body temperatures outside this range can reduce the efficiency of enzymatic reactions, alter the fluidity of cellular membranes, and affect other temperature-sensitive biochemical processes, potentially with fatal results. 3) In talking about thermoregulation, we will need to talk about heat. Formally, heat is defined as thermal energy in transfer from one body of matter to another. Here, however, we will use the term heat to refer simply to thermal energy.

3 types of muscle tissue, explain each other

1) Attached to bones by tendons, skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is responsible for voluntary movements. The arrangement of contractile units along the cells gives them a striped (striated) appearance. 2) Cardiac muscle, which is also striated, forms the contractile wall of the heart. 3) Smooth muscle, which lacks striations and has spindle-shaped cells, is found in the walls of many internal organs. Smooth muscles are responsible for involuntary activities, such as churning of the stomach and constriction of arteries.

Lipid-soluble hormones

1) Bind to receptors inside cells 2) When bound by the hormone, the hormone-receptor complex moves into the nucleus 3) There, the receptor alters transcription of particular genes

1) tissues - define 2) next to tissues - define 3) something abt these ^^^ 4) next to this ^^ - define 5) example of this - explain w/ function

1) Cells are organized into tissues, groups of cells with a similar appearance and a common function. 2) organs - different types of tissues are further organized into functional units 3) (The simplest animals, such as sponges, lack organs or even true tissues.) 4) Groups of organs that work together, providing an additional level of organization and coordination, make up an organ system 5) Thus, for example, the skin is an organ of the integumentary system, which protects against infection and helps regulate body temperature.

Circulatory Adaptations for Thermoregulation 1) read 2) vasodilation 3) vasoconstriction 4) countercurrent exchange

1) Circulatory systems provide a major route for heat flow between the interior and exterior of the body. Adaptations that regulate the extent of blood flow near the body surface or that trap heat within the body core play a significant role in thermoregulation. 2) In response to changes in the temperature of their surroundings, many animals alter the amount of blood (and hence heat) flowing between their body core and surface. Nerve signals that relax the muscles of the vessel walls result in vasodilation, a widening of superficial blood vessels (those near the body surface). As a consequence, blood flow in the outer layer of the body increases. In endotherms, vasodilation usually warms the skin and increases the transfer of body heat to the environment. 3) The reverse process, vasoconstriction, reduces blood flow and heat transfer by decreasing the diameter of superficial vessels. 4) In many birds and mammals, reducing heat loss from the body relies on countercurrent exchange, the transfer of heat (or solutes) between fluids that are flowing in opposite directions. In a countercurrent heat exchanger, arteries and veins are located adjacent to each other (Figure 32.14). As warm blood in the arteries moves outward from the body core, it transfers heat to the colder blood in the veins returning from the extremities. Because blood flows through the arteries and veins in opposite directions, heat is transferred along the entire length of the exchanger, maximizing the rate of heat exchange. pic explanation: A countercurrent heat exchange system traps heat in the body core, thus reducing heat loss from the extremities, particularly when they are immersed in cold water or in contact with ice or snow. In essence, heat in the arterial blood emerging from the body core is transferred directly to the returning venous blood instead of being lost to the environment.

Connective Tissue 1) define 2) within the _____ are ______ (3) 3) In _____, the many forms of connective tissue include (6)

1) Connective tissue consists of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix, often forming a web of fibers embedded in a liquid, jellylike, or solid foundation. 2) Within the matrix are 1. cells called fibroblasts, which secrete collagen 2. and other matrix proteins, 3. and macrophages, which engulf foreign particles and cell debris. In vertebrates, the many forms of connective tissue include 1. loose connective tissue, which holds skin and other organs in place; 2. fibrous connective tissue, found in tendons and ligaments; 3. adipose tissue, which stores fat; 4. blood, which consists of cells and cell fragments suspended in a liquid called plasma; 5. cartilage, which provides flexible support in the spine and elsewhere; and 6. bone, a hard mineral of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions in a matrix of collagen.

(see pic) 1) endocrine cells _____. from there, _____ 2) in contrast, _____, such as ____, _____

1) Endocrine cells and glands secrete hormones directly into the surrounding fluid. From there, the hormones enter the circulatory system. 2) In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, have ducts that carry enzymes or other secreted substances into body cavities or onto body surfaces.

A Simple Neuroendocrine Pathway

1) For many hormones, secretion is triggered when the nervous system detects and processes a stimulus In vertebrates, neuroendocrine signaling involves the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, found at its base The pituitary is actually two glands: The posterior pituitary is an extension of the hypothalamus that stores and secretes hormones synthesized by the hypothalamus The anterior pituitary is an endocrine gland that synthesizes and secretes hormones positive feedback from the book: 1) a control mechanism in which the response reinforces the stimulus, leading to an even greater response. 2) Whereas a negative-feedback loop prevents excessive pathway activity, a positive-feedback loop helps drive a process to completion. 3) Positive feedback plays a central role in several processes associated with reproduction, including the uterine contractions of childbirth. example: oxytocin signaling ) As an example, consider the regulation of milk release during nursing in mammals. When an infant suckles, it stimulates sensory neurons in the nipples, generating nerve impulses that reach the hypothalamus. This input triggers the release of the hormone oxytocin from the posterior pituitary. Oxytocin in turn stimulates the mammary glands, which respond by secreting milk.

1) Heat for thermoregulation can come from (2) \2) endothermic - 2 that are + define 3) exothermmic - 3 that are + define 4) However, endothermy and ectothermy are not _____. For example, 5) explain endotherms (from lecture slides) 6) explain exotherms (from lecture slides) 7) compare endotherms and ectotherms (from lecture slides)

1) Heat for thermoregulation can come from either internal metabolism or the external environment. 2) Heat for thermoregulation can come from either internal metabolism or the external environment. 3) Humans and other mammals, as well as birds, are endothermic, meaning that they are warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism. 4) In contrast, amphibians, many fishes and nonavian reptiles, and most invertebrates are ectothermic, meaning that they gain most of their heat from external sources. 5) However, endothermy and ectothermy are not mutually exclusive. For example, although a bird is mainly endothermic, it may warm itself by basking in the sun on a cold morning, much as an ectothermic lizard does. 6) Endotherms can maintain a stable body temperature in the face of large fluctuations in environmental temperature 7) Ectotherms may regulate temperature by behavioral means such as seeking out shade or basking in the sun 8) Ectotherms generally need to consume less food than endotherms because their heat source is largely environmental. Endotherms (like humans) need to consume a lot more food because we need to generate the body heat and to maintain it. Ectotherms seek their heat from the outside, so they are more energy efficient.

1) Heat for thermoregulation can come from (2) 2) endothermic - 2 that are + define 3) exothermmic - 3 that are + define 4) However, endothermy and ectothermy are not _____. For example, 5) explain endotherms 6) explain exotherms

1) Heat for thermoregulation can come from either internal metabolism or the external environment. 2) Humans and other mammals, as well as birds, are endothermic, meaning that they are warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism. 3) In contrast, amphibians, many fishes and nonavian reptiles, and most invertebrates are ectothermic, meaning that they gain most of their heat from external sources. 4) However, endothermy and ectothermy are not mutually exclusive. For example, although a bird is mainly endothermic, it may warm itself by basking in the sun on a cold morning, much as an ectothermic lizard does. 5) Endotherms can maintain a stable body temperature even in the face of large fluctuations in the environmental temperature. In a cold environment, an endotherm generates enough heat to keep its body substantially warmer than its surroundings. In a hot environment, endothermic vertebrates have mechanisms for cooling their bodies, enabling them to withstand temperatures that are intolerable for most ectotherms. 6) Many ectotherms can adjust their body temperature by behavioral means, such as seeking out shade or basking in the sun (Figure 32.12b). Because their heat source is largely environmental, ectotherms generally need to consume much less food than endotherms of equivalent size—an advantage if food supplies are limited. Overall, ectothermy is an effective and successful strategy in most environments, as shown by the abundance and diversity of insects and other ectotherms.

Hox Gene Expression in Embryonic Development 1) what are Hox genes 2) In vertebrates, the genes have been duplicated into four ______: 3) genes within these ______ are ______ 4) read and understand

1) Hox genes are highly conserved genes encoding transcription factors that determine the course of embryonic development in animals. 2) In vertebrates, the genes have been duplicated into four clusters: HoxA, Hox-B, Hox-C, and Hox-D. 3) Genes within these clusters are expressed in certain body segments at certain stages of development. 4) Shown here is the homology between Hox genes in mice and humans as indicated with orange, pink, blue and green shading, occurs in the same body segments in both the mouse and the human.

1) simple endocrine pathway - define 2) how it works (2 steps) 3) example - explain

1) In a simple endocrine pathway, endocrine cells respond directly to an internal or environmental stimulus by secreting a particular hormone. 2) 1. The hormone travels in the bloodstream to target cells, where it interacts with its specific receptors. 2. Signal transduction within target cells brings about a response. 3) The activity of endocrine cells in the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine, provides a useful example of a simple endocrine pathway. During digestion, the partially processed food that enters the duodenum contains highly acidic digestive juices secreted by the stomach. Before further digestion can occur, this acidic mixture must be neutralized. Endocrine cells called S cells, found in the lining of the duodenum, recognize the low pH of the partially digested food arriving from the stomach. The S cells respond by secreting the hormone secretin into the bloodstream. Secretin in turn triggers release of bicarbonate from the pancreas, a gland located behind the stomach. The bicarbonate travels along ducts leading to the duodenum. There, the bicarbonate neutralizes the acidic contents, raising pH and allowing digestion to proceed. Note that the p increase that results from secretin signaling eliminates the stimulus and thus shuts off the endocrine pathway. Secretin signaling is thus an example of a pathway under negative-feedback control.

A Simple Endocrine Pathway

1) In a simple endocrine pathway, there is a stimulus 2) endocrine cells respond directly to that stimulus by secreting a particular hormone 3) the hormone circulates throughout the body via the blood in the circulatory system 4) the hormones reach a target cell 5) (i think) the hormones aren't active at the beginning, they become active after some processing of the protein which leads to the ressponse. 6) the pathway cannto alwayd be in an excited stage so negative feedback will occur. from the book on negative feedback: 1) Typically, the control process involves negative feedback, also called feedback inhibition, a control circuit or loop that reduces, or "damps," the stimulus. 2) In the case of insulin, for example, the secreted hormone triggers a reduction in the blood glucose level, which in turn eliminates the stimulus for further insulin release. 3) Because negative feedback prevents excessive pathway activity, this type of control is common in endocrine pathways that keep physiological systems within normal limits example: secretin signaling Digestive juices in the stomach are extremely acidic and must be neutralized before the remaining steps of digestion take place Coordination of pH control in the duodenum relies on an endocrine pathway The release of acidic stomach contents into the duodenum stimulates endocrine cells there to secrete the hormone secretin This causes target cells in the pancreas to raise the pH in the duodenum from book explaining this example: 3) The activity of endocrine cells in the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine, provides a useful example of a simple endocrine pathway. During digestion, the partially processed food that enters the duodenum contains highly acidic digestive juices secreted by the stomach. Before further digestion can occur, this acidic mixture must be neutralized. Endocrine cells called S cells, found in the lining of the duodenum, recognize the low pH of the partially digested food arriving from the stomach. The S cells respond by secreting the hormone secretin into the bloodstream. Secretin in turn triggers release of bicarbonate from the pancreas, a gland located behind the stomach. The bicarbonate travels along ducts leading to the duodenum. There, the bicarbonate neutralizes the acidic contents, raising pH and allowing digestion to proceed. Note that the p increase that results from secretin signaling eliminates the stimulus and thus shuts off the endocrine pathway. Secretin signaling is thus an example of a pathway under negative-feedback control.

1) simple neuroendocrine pathway - define 2) example 3)

1) In a simple neuroendocrine pathway, the stimulus is received by a sensory neuron that in turn stimulates a neurosecretory cell. 2) As an example, consider the regulation of milk release during nursing in mammals. When an infant suckles, it stimulates sensory neurons in the nipples, generating nerve impulses that reach the hypothalamus. This input triggers the release of the hormone oxytocin from the posterior pituitary. Oxytocin in turn stimulates the mammary glands, which respond by secreting milk. 3) Oxytocin is one of just two posterior pituitary hormones. The other, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also called vasopressin

A Countercurrent Heat Exchanger (SEE PIC) 1) define countercurrent exchange 2) In a countercurrent heat exchanger, 3) example to relate to

1) In many birds and mammals, reducing heat loss from the body relies on countercurrent exchange, the transfer of heat (or solutes) between fluids that are flowing in opposite directions. 2) In a countercurrent heat exchanger, arteries and veins are located adjacent to each other (Figure 32.14). As warm blood in the arteries moves outward from the body core, it transfers heat to the colder blood in the veins returning from the extremities. Because blood flows through the arteries and veins in opposite directions, heat is transferred along the entire length of the exchanger, maximizing the rate of heat exchange. 3) (that's why when u eat lunch or dinner you feel cold bc food is going into your stomach to digest and extract nutrients, so you have less blood available on the skin surface to keep you warm) pic: 1) Arteries carrying warm blood to the animal's extremities are in close contact with veins conveying cool blood in the opposite direction, back toward the trunk of the body. This arrangement facilitates heat transfer from arteries to veins along the entire length of the blood vessels. 2) Near the end of the leg, where arterial blood has been cooled to far below the animal's core temperature, the artery can still transfer heat to the even colder blood in an adjacent vein. The blood in the veins continues to absorb heat as it passes warmer and warmer blood traveling in the opposite direction in the arteries. 3) As the blood in the veins approaches the center of the body, it is almost as warm as the body core, minimizing the heat loss that results from supplying blood to body parts immersed in cold water. pic explanation: A countercurrent heat exchange system traps heat in the body core, thus reducing heat loss from the extremities, particularly when they are immersed in cold water or in contact with ice or snow. In essence, heat in the arterial blood emerging from the body core is transferred directly to the returning venous blood instead of being lost to the environment.

(see pic) 1) root hairs - define 2) Most _______ plant roots also form ________, ______ 3) Many plants have _____ adaptations with specialized functions. Some of these arise from _____, and others ________, _________. 4) 3 adaptations of _______ (explain)

1) In most plants, the absorption of water and minerals occurs primarily near the tips of elongating roots, where vast numbers of root hairs, thin, finger-like extensions of root epidermal cells, emerge and increase the surface area of the root enormously. 2) Most terrestrial plant roots also form mycorrhizal associations, symbiotic interactions with soil fungi that increase a plant's ability to absorb minerals. 3) Many plants have root adaptations with specialized functions. Some of these arise from the roots, and others are adventitious, developing from stems or, in rare cases, leaves. 4) 3 adaptations of roots 1. Some modified roots add support and anchorage. 2. Others store water and nutrients 3. absorb oxygen from the air. pic is of root hairs of a radish

1) endocrine system - what happens 2) nervous system - what happens 3) both systems do what

1) In the endocrine system, signaling molecules released into the bloodstream by endocrine cells are carried to all locations in the body. 2) In the nervous system, neurons transmit signals along dedicated routes connecting specific locations in the body. 3) Both systems enable information flow among cells, tissues, and organs.

1) nerve impulses - define 2) nerve impulses can act on (4) 3) Unlike the endocrine system, the nervous system _____ 4) for example, ____ 5) read

1) In the nervous system, signals called nerve impulses travel to specific target cells along communication lines consisting mainly of extensions called axons. 2) Nerve impulses can act on other neurons, on muscle cells, and on cells and glands that produce secretions. 3) Unlike the endocrine system, the nervous system conveys information by the particular pathway the signal takes. 4) For example, a person can distinguish different musical notes because each note's frequency activates neurons in the ear that connect to slightly different regions of the brain. 5) Communication in the nervous system usually involves more than one type of signal. Nerve impulses travel along axons, sometimes over long distances, as changes in voltage. In contrast, passing information from one neuron to another often involves very short-range chemical signals. Overall, transmission in the nervous system is extremely fast: Nerve impulses take only a fraction of a second to reach the target and last only a fraction of a second.

see pic for comparison of 2 types of ____ 1) vascular plant focused on in this chapter + 2 reasons why 2) 2 types of this specific vascular plant + define both

1) In this chapter, we focus on vascular plants, mainly angiosperms (flowering plants) because they are the primary producers in many ecosystems and are of great agricultural importance. Taxonomists split angiosperms into two major clades: 1. Monocots typically have a single cotyledon (seed leaf) 2. eudicots typically have two. Monocots and eudicots have other structural differences

Neuroendocrine Signaling For many hormones, secretion is triggered when the nervous system detects and processes a stimulus. 1) In ______, such neuroendocrine signaling involves the (2) 2) define 3) first part + define 4) second part + define

1) In vertebrates, such neuroendocrine signaling involves the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, found at its base. 2) The pituitary is actually two glands fused together. 3) One is the posterior pituitary, which is an extension of the hypothalamus. The posterior pituitary stores and secretes hormones synthesized in the hypothalamus. 4) In contrast, the anterior pituitary is an endocrine gland that both synthesizes and secretes hormones.

1) det opint 2) sensor 3) response

1) Like a home heating system, the homeostatic control systems of animals maintain a variable, such as body temperature or solute concentration, at or near a particular value, or set point. 2) A fluctuation in the variable above or below the set point serves as the stimulus detected by a sensor. 3) The sensor signals a control center, which triggers a response, a physiological activity that helps return the variable to the set point.

Nervous Tissue 1) define 2) neurons + define 3) neuron does what (2 things) 4) Nervous tissue also contains _____ + define (what's their function) 5) read

1) Nervous tissue functions in the receipt, processing, and transmission of information. 2) Specialized cells called neurons are the basic units of the nervous system. 3) 1. A neuron receives nerve impulses from other neurons via its cell body and multiple extensions called dendrites. 2. Neurons transmit impulses to neurons, muscles, or other cells via extensions called axons, which are often bundled together into nerves. 4) Nervous tissue also contains support cells called glial cells, or simply glia. The various types of glia help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons and in some cases modulate neuron function. 5) In many animals, a concentration of nervous tissue forms a brain, an information-processing center.

Epithelial Tissue 1) definne 2) covers and lines what 3) functions as a ____ against ___ (3) 4) another function 5) explain epithelium 6) something about epithelium (explain all)

1) Occurring as sheets of closely packed cells 2) epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities. 3) Epithelial tissue functions as a barrier against mechanical injury, pathogens, and fluid loss. 4) It also forms active interfaces with the environment. 5) For example, the epithelium (plural, epithelia) that lines the intestines secretes digestive juices and absorbs nutrients. 6) All epithelia are polarized, meaning that they have two different sides. The apical surface faces the lumen (cavity) or outside of the organ and is therefore exposed to fluid or air. The basal surface is attached to a basal lamina, a dense mat of extracellular matrix that separates the epithelium from the underlying tissue.

1) Plants, like most animals, are composed of ______(3)______ 2) define first thing 3) define second thing

1) Plants, like most animals, are composed of organs, tissues, and cells. 2) An organ consists of several types of tissues that together carry out particular functions. 3) A tissue is a group of cells consisting of one or more cell types that together perform a specialized function.

1) small plants are at risk of what? 2) because of this, explain next type of root (define) 3) In plants that have ______ roots, including most ________,_____(explain how they function, mention + define important term italicized) 4) good thing about these types of roots (w/ example)

1) Small plants or those that have a trailing growth habit are particularly susceptible to grazing animals that can potentially uproot (uproot google definition - pull (something, especially a tree or plant) out of the ground) the plant and kill it. 2) Such plants are most efficiently anchored by fibrous roots, thin, interweaving roots that spread out below the soil surface. 3) In plants that have fibrous roots, including most monocots, the primary root that emerges from the germinating seed dies early on and does not form a taproot. Instead, many small roots emerge from the stem. Such roots are said to be adventitious, a term describing a plant organ that grows from an unusual source, such as roots arising from stems or leaves. Each root forms its own lateral roots, which in turn form their own lateral roots, thereby creating a thick mat of slender roots. 4) Because this mat of roots holds the topsoil in place, plants such as grasses that have dense fibrous roots are especially good at preventing soil erosion.

skip 1) small plants ______ 2) such plants are most ______ 3) define this second specific type of root 4)

1) Small plants or those that have a trailing growth habit are particularly susceptible to grazing animals that can potentially uproot the plant and kill it. 2) Such plants are most efficiently anchored by fibrous roots 3) fibrous roots - thin, interweaving roots that spread out below the soil surface. 4) In plants that have fibrous roots, including most monocots, the primary root that emerges from the germinating seed dies early on and does not form a taproot. Instead, many small roots emerge from the stem. Such roots are said to be adventitious, a term describing a plant organ that grows from an unusual source, such as roots arising from stems or leaves. Each root forms its own lateral roots, which in turn form their own lateral roots, thereby creating a thick mat of slender roots. Because this mat of roots holds the topsoil in place, plants such as grasses that have dense fibrous roots are especially good at preventing soil erosion.

1) define neurons 2) 2 functions of neurons 3) define glia/glial cells 4) 2 functions of glia/glial cells

1) Specialized cells called neurons are the basic units of the nervous system. 2) 1. A neuron receives nerve impulses from other neurons via its cell body and multiple extensions called dendrites. 2. Neurons transmit impulses to neurons, muscles, or other cells via extensions called axons, which are often bundled together into nerves. 3) Nervous tissue also contains support cells called glial cells, or simply glia. 4) 1. The various types of glia help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons 2. and in some cases modulate neuron function.

hormones 1) define 2) specific hormones - explain 3) say what's in bold + read the rest

1) The signaling molecules broadcast throughout the body by the endocrine system are called hormones (from the Greek horman, to excite). 2) Different hormones cause distinct effects, and only cells that have receptors for a particular hormone respond 3) Depending on which cells have receptors for that hormone, the hormone may have an effect in just a single location or in sites throughout the body. It takes many seconds for hormones to be released into the bloodstream and carried throughout the body. The effects are often long-lasting, however, because hormones can remain in the bloodstream for minutes or even hours.

1) The stimuli that cause _______ cells and glands to release _______ are varied 2) In some cases, ___ + example 3) In other cases, the ____ 4) hypothalamus 5) Finally, _____

1) The stimuli that cause endocrine cells and glands to release hormones are varied. 2) In some cases, organic molecules or ions trigger the endocrine response. For example, a high level of glucose in the blood stimulates the pancreas to secrete insulin, a hormone that causes a decrease in the blood glucose level. 3) In other cases, the nervous system provides the stimulus for hormone release, a type of control called neuroendocrine signaling. 4) The hypothalamus, an almond-sized region of the brain, controls most neuroendocrine signaling in mammals. 5) Finally, some hormones are secreted in response to other hormones. Hormones that regulate other hormones are essential for growth, metabolism, and reproduction

1) The two major communication systems of the body (______ and _______) differ in (4) 2) All these differences reflect 3) The endocrine system is especially well adapted for 4) The nervous system is well suited for 5) Although the ______ of the _____ and ______ systems are distinct, the two systems often _________

1) The two major communication systems of the body (nervous and endocrine) differ in signal type, transmission, speed, and duration. 2) All these differences reflect adaptation to different functions. 3) The endocrine system is especially well adapted for coordinating gradual changes that affect the entire body, such as growth, development, reproduction, metabolic processes, and digestion. 4) The nervous system is well suited for directing immediate and rapid responses to the environment, such as reflexes and other rapid movements. 5) Although the general functions of the endocrine and nervous systems are distinct, the two systems often work in close coordination

Structure and Function in Animal Tissues 1) organ systems of ______ are built from _____ 2) _______ tissues can be grouped into four categories:

1) The very specialized, complex organ systems of animals are built from a limited set of cell and tissue types 2) Animal tissues can be grouped into four categories: 1. Epithelial (lining of external and internal structures) 2. Connective (bone, cartilage) 3. Muscle (smooth, skeletal, cardiac) 4. Nervous (neurons, glia)

Water Soluble Hormones

1) These hormones cannot pass through the plasma membrane of target cells 2) Instead, they bind to cell-surface receptors, triggering events leading to a cellular response 3) The intracellular response is called signal transduction from book: The series of changes in cellular proteins that converts the extracellular signal to a specific intracellular response is called signal transduction. A signal transduction pathway typically has multiple steps, each involving specific molecular interactions 4) A signal transduction pathway typically has multiple steps

Regulation of a signaling process involves not only its initiation but also its termination. How is an endocrine pathway turned off? 1) define it 2) example 3) Because ______, this type of control is common in ____

1) Typically, the control process involves negative feedback, also called feedback inhibition, a control circuit or loop that reduces, or "damps," the stimulus. 2) In the case of insulin, for example, the secreted hormone triggers a reduction in the blood glucose level, which in turn eliminates the stimulus for further insulin release. 3) Because negative feedback prevents excessive pathway activity, this type of control is common in endocrine pathways that keep physiological systems within normal limits

Muscle Tissue 1) _______ have three types of muscle tissue: 2) All muscle cells consist of

1) Vertebrates have three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. 2) All muscle cells consist of filaments containing the proteins actin and myosin, which together enable muscles to contract. 3) Attached to bones by tendons, skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is responsible for voluntary movements. The arrangement of contractile units along the cells gives them a striped (striated) appearance. 4) Cardiac muscle, which is also striated, forms the contractile wall of the heart. 5) Smooth muscle, which lacks striations and has spindle-shaped cells, is found in the walls of many internal organs. Smooth muscles are responsible for involuntary activities, such as churning of the stomach and constriction of arteries.

how do we create nitrogenous waste?/ Forms of nitrogenous waste

1) We consume proteins and nucleic acids, both of which contain nitrogen. amino acids have the amine part which is a nitrogen. it has to be deaminated (from google - to remove the amino group from (a compound/molecule)) and becomes ammonia. the nitrogenous bases of nucleic acid also become ammonia. the ammonia then needs to be converted. ammonia can be converted into urea or uric acid. 2) Many animal species produce a fluid waste by refining a filtrate derived from body fluids Key functions of most excretory systems: Filtration: Filtering of body fluids Reabsorption: Reclaiming valuable solutes Secretion: Adding nonessential solutes and wastes from the body fluids to the filtrate Excretion: Releasing processed filtrate containing nitrogenous wastes from the body from the book: (urea and uric acid) Most terrestrial animals and many marine species cannot afford to lose the amount of water necessary to routinely excrete ammonia. Instead, they mainly excrete a different nitrogenous waste, urea. In vertebrates, urea is the product of an energy-consuming metabolic cycle that combines ammonia with carbon dioxide in the liver. The main advantage of urea for nitrogenous waste excretion is its very low toxicity. Insects, land snails, and many reptiles, including birds, excrete uric acid as their primary nitrogenous waste. Uric acid is relatively nontoxic and does not readily dissolve in water. It therefore can be excreted as a semisolid paste with very little water loss. However, uric acid is even more energetically expensive to produce than urea. from the book: Because most metabolic wastes must be dissolved in water to be excreted from the body, the type and quantity of an animal's waste products may have a large impact on osmoregulation. In this regard, some of the most significant waste products are the nitrogenous breakdown products of proteins and nucleic acids (Figure 32.18). When proteins and nucleic acids are broken apart for energy or converted to carbohydrates or fats, enzymes remove nitrogen in the form of ammonia (NH3). Ammonia is very toxic, in part because its ion, ammonium (NH4+), interferes with oxidative phosphorylation. Although some animals excrete ammonia directly, many species expend energy to convert it to a less toxic compound, either urea or uric acid, prior to excretion. from the book: Animals across a range of species produce a fluid waste by the process outlined in Figure 32.19. First, blood, coelomic fluid, or hemolymph is brought in contact with a transport epithelium. In most cases, hydrostatic pressure (blood pressure in many animals) drives filtration. Cells, as well as proteins and other large molecules, cannot cross the epithelial membrane and remain in the body fluid. In contrast, water and small solutes, such as salts, sugars, amino acids, and nitrogenous wastes, cross the membrane, forming a solution called the filtrate. Selective reabsorption returns useful molecules and water from the filtrate to the body fluids. Valuable solutes such as glucose, vitamins, and amino acids are reabsorbed by active transport. Nonessential solutes and wastes are left in the filtrate or undergo selective secretion into the filtrate by active transport. Finally, the processed filtrate is released from the body as urine during excretion.

positive feedback 1) define 2) Whereas a negative-feedback loop ______, a positive-feedback loop ______ 3) Positive feedback plays a central role in several processes associated with ________, including ________

1) a control mechanism in which the response reinforces the stimulus, leading to an even greater response. 2) Whereas a negative-feedback loop prevents excessive pathway activity, a positive-feedback loop helps drive a process to completion. 3) Positive feedback plays a central role in several processes associated with reproduction, including the uterine contractions of childbirth.

chordate (both definitions from quizlet)

1) any animal of the phylum Chordata having a notochord or spinal column 2) Animals with a notochord, most have a backbone.

1) homeostssis - define 2) In achieving homeostasis, ______ 3) example 4) another example 5) read and see pic to understand

1) homeostasis, which means the maintenance of internal balance. 2) In achieving homeostasis, animals maintain a "steady state"—a relatively constant internal environment—even when the external environment changes significantly. 3) The steady body temperature of a river otter and the stable concentration of solutes in a freshwater bass are examples of homeostasis 4) Many animals exhibit homeostasis for a range of physical and chemical properties. For example, humans maintain a fairly constant body temperature of about 37°C (98.6°F), a blood pH within 0.1 pH unit of 7.4, and a blood glucose concentration that is predominantly in the range of 70-110 mg per 100 mL of blood. 5) Before exploring homeostasis in animals, let's first consider a nonliving example of a control system for achieving a steady state (Figure 32.11). Let's assume you want to keep a room at 20°C (68°F), a comfortable temperature for normal activity. You set a control device—the thermostat—to 20°C. A thermometer in the thermostat monitors the room temperature. If the temperature falls below 20°C, the thermostat responds by turning on a radiator, furnace, or other heater. Once the room temperature reaches 20°C, the thermostat switches off the heater. If the temperature then drifts below 20°C, the thermostat activates another heating cycle. If the temperature instead rises above 20°C, the thermostat activates a cooling mechanism, such as by turning on an air conditioner. pic description: Regulating room temperature depends on a sensor/control center (a thermostat) that detects temperature change and activates mechanisms that reverse that change.

emergent properties 1) define 2) function of them

1) new properties that arise from successive levels of structural and functional organization (defintion from quizlet - properties that emerge with each step upward in the hierarchy of life, owing to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases.) 2) Cells form a working animal body through their emergent properties

Balancing Heat Loss and Gain (see pic) Thermoregulation depends on an animal's ability to control the exchange of heat with its environment. That exchange can occur by any of four processes (aka different mechanisms for heat exchange):

1) radiation, evaporation, convection, and conduction (Figure 32.13). In each, heat is transferred from an object of higher temperature to one of lower temperature 1. Radiation is the emission of electromagnetic waves by all objects warmer than absolute zero. Here, a lizard absorbs heat radiating from the distant sun and radiates a smaller amount of energy to the surrounding air. 2. Evaporation is the removal of heat from the surface of a liquid that is losing some of its molecules as gas. Evaporation of water from a lizard's moist surfaces that are exposed to the environment has a strong cooling effect. 3. Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of air or liquid past a surface, as when a breeze contributes to heat loss from a lizard's dry skin or when blood moves heat from the body core to the extremities. 4. Conduction is the transfer of heat between molecules of objects in contact with each other, as when a lizard sits on a hot rock.

Balancing Heat Loss and Gain Thermoregulation depends on an animal's ability to control the exchange of heat with its environment. That exchange can occur by any of four processes: (SEE PIC)

1) radiation, evaporation, convection, and conduction (Figure 32.13). In each, heat is transferred from an object of higher temperature to one of lower temperature. (SEE PIC)

1) which organs form a _____ system and a _____ system? 2) define the second system 3) ______ plants rely on which systems for survival? 4) describe first system 5) conversely to the _____ system, the ____ system ____ SEE PIC FOR BOTH SYSTEMS

1) roots, stems, and leaves form a root system and a shoot system 2) shoot system - consists of stems and leaves. 3) vascular plants rely on both systems for survival. 4) Roots are almost never photosynthetic; they starve unless photosynthates, the sugars and other carbohydrates produced during photosynthesis, are imported from the shoot system. 5) Conversely to the root system, the shoot system depends on the water and minerals that roots absorb from the soil. DESCRIPTION OF PIC: The plant body is divided into a root system and a shoot system, connected by vascular tissue (purple strands in this diagram) that is continuous throughout the plant. The plant shown is an idealized eudicot.

Vertebrate Diversity: SEE CHART 1) what is common for all chordates 2) what came after this^^ + function 3) what came after this^^ + function 4) read

1) vertebral column 2) next is development of jaws which helps catch and ingest prey 3) next were lung and lung derivates which helped animals migrate from the ocean to land 4) next were fins, etc. (see chart)

Pneumatophores (see pic) (read bc have a chart) 1. also known as ____ 2. these roots are produced by ____ like _____ that inhabit _____ 3. something abt them

1. also known as air roots 2. these roots are produced by trees like mangroves, that inhabit tidal swamps summary: they project above the surface to get oxygen By projecting above the water's surface at low tide, they enable the root system to obtain oxygen, which is lacking in the thick, waterlogged mud

Organ Systems in Animals Approximate order of evolution (just read)

1. integumentary system 2. digestive system 3. nervous system 4. muscular system 5. reproductive system 6. skeletal system 7. respiratory system 8. circulatory system 9. excretory system 10. endocrine system 11. immune and lymphatic systems

Acclimatization

Acclimatization—a physiological adjustment to environmental changes— contributes to thermoregulation in many animal species. In birds and mammals, acclimatization to seasonal temperature changes often includes adjusting insulation—growing a thicker coat of fur in the winter and shedding it in the summer, for example. These changes help endotherms keep a near constant body temperature year-round. Acclimatization in ectotherms often includes adjustments at the cellular level. Cells may produce variants of enzymes that have the same function but different optimal temperatures. Also, the proportions of saturated and unsaturated lipids in membranes may change; unsaturated lipids help keep membranes fluid at lower temperatures (see Figure 5.5). Some ectotherms that experience subzero body temperatures produce antifreeze proteins that prevent ice formation in their cells. These compounds enable certain fishes to survive in Arctic or Antarctic water as cold as −2°C (28°F).

plants respond to challenges and opportunities in their local environment by _______. animals typically respond by ______ read the rest

All adult lions, for example, have four legs and are roughly the same size, but oak trees vary in the number and arrangement of branches. This is because plants respond to challenges and opportunities in their local environment by altering their growth. In contrast, animals typically respond by movement. Illuminating a plant from the side, for example, creates asymmetries in its basic body plan. Branches grow more quickly from the illuminated side of a shoot than from the shaded side, an architectural change that benefits photosynthesis. Changes in growth and development are critical in facilitating the plant's acquisition of resources from the local environment. Vegetative growth—the production of roots, stems, and leaves—is one stage in a plant's life. Most plants also undergo growth relating to sexual reproduction. In angiosperms, reproductive growth is associated with producing flowers

Regulating and Conforming (lecture slides)

An animal may regulate some internal conditions and not others For example, a fish may conform to surrounding temperature in the water, but it regulates solute concentrations in its blood and interstitial fluid (the fluid surrounding body cells)

The systems that perform the basic excretory functions vary. We'll examine examples from invertebrates and vertebrates. Invertebrates

As illustrated in Figure 32.20 (see pic), flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes), which lack a coelom or body cavity, have excretory systems called protonephridia. Protonephridia consist of a network of dead-end tubules that branch throughout the body. Cellular units called flame bulbs cap each branch. Each flame bulb, consisting of a tubule cell and a cap cell, has a tuft of cilia projecting into the tubule. During filtration, the beating cilia draw the interstitial fluid through the flame bulb, releasing filtrate into the tubule network. (The moving cilia resemble a flickering flame, hence the name flame bulb.) The processed filtrate moves outward through the tubules and empties as urine via external openings. Because the urine excreted by freshwater flatworms is low in solutes, its production helps to balance the osmotic uptake of water from the environment. Natural selection has adapted protonephridia to different tasks in different environments. In the freshwater flatworms, protonephridia serve chiefly in osmoregulation. However, parasitic flatworms that are isoosmotic to the surrounding fluids of their host organisms have protonephridia that primarily function in the disposal of nitrogenous wastes. In insects and other terrestrial arthropods, the filtration step is absent. Instead, the transport epithelium of organs called Malpighian tubules secretes certain solutes and wastes into the lumen of the tubule. The filtrate passes to the digestive tract, where most solutes are pumped back into the hemolymph, and water is reabsorbed by osmosis. Nitrogenous wastes are eliminated as nearly dry matter along with the feces, conserving water. Indeed, this excretory system was a very important adaptation for arthropod colonization of land.

As you read in Unit Five, plant bodies also have a hierarchical organization. Although plant anatomy and animal anatomy differ, they are adapted to a shared set of challenges, as shown in Figure 32.3 Solutions in Plants and Animals Multicellular organisms face a common set of challenges. Comparing the solutions that have evolved in plants and animals reveals both unity (shared elements) and diversity (distinct features) across these two lineages.

Environmental Response All forms of life must detect and respond appropriately to conditions in their environment. Specialized organs sense environmental signals. For example, the floral head of a sunflower and an insect's eyes both contain photoreceptors that detect light. Environmental signals activate specific receptor proteins, triggering signal transduction pathways that initiate cellular responses coordinated by chemical and electrical communication. Nutritional Mode All living things must obtain energy and carbon from the environment to grow, survive, and reproduce. Plants are autotrophs, obtaining their energy through photosynthesis and their carbon from inorganic sources, whereas animals are heterotrophs, obtaining their energy and carbon from food. Evolutionary adaptations in plants and animals support these different nutritional modes. The broad surface of many leaves enhances light capture for photosynthesis. When hunting, a bobcat relies on stealth, speed, and sharp claws. (See Figure 29.2 and Concept 41.1.) Growth and Regulation The growth and physiology of both plants and animals are regulated by hormones. In plants, hormones may act in a local area or be transported in the body. They control growth patterns, flowering, fruit development, and more. In animals, hormones circulate throughout the body and act in specific target tissues, controlling homeostatic processes and developmental events such as molting. Transport All but the simplest multicellular organisms must transport nutrients and waste products between locations in the body. A system of tubelike vessels is the common evolutionary solution, while the mechanism of circulation varies. Plants harness solar energy to transport water, minerals, and sugars through specialized tubes (left). In animals, a pump (heart) moves circulatory fluid through vessels (right). Absorption Organisms need to absorb nutrients. The root hairs of plants (left) and the villi (projections) that line the intestines of vertebrates (right) increase the surface area available for absorption. Reproduction In sexual reproduction, specialized tissues and structures produce and exchange gametes. Offspring are generally supplied with nutritional stores that facilitate rapid growth and development. For example, seeds have stored food reserves that supply energy to the young seedling, while milk provides sustenance for juvenile mammals. Gas Exchange The exchange of certain gases with the environment is essential for life. Respiration by plants and animals requires taking up oxygen (O2) and releasing carbon dioxide (CO2). In photosynthesis, net exchange occurs in the opposite direction: CO2 uptake and O2 release. In both plants and animals, highly convoluted surfaces that increase the area available for gas exchange have evolved, such as the spongy mesophyll of leaves (left) and the alveoli of lungs (right).

______ maintains the internal environment in many animals. read the rest

Feedback control Managing an animal's internal environment can present a major challenge. Imagine if your body temperature soared every time you took a hot shower or slurped a steaming bowl of soup. Faced with environmental fluctuations, animals manage their internal environment by either regulating or conforming.

Physiological Thermostats

In humans and other mammals, the sensors responsible for thermoregulation are concentrated in the hypothalamus region of the brain. Within the hypothalamus, a group of nerve cells functions as a thermostat, responding to body temperatures outside a normal range by activating mechanisms that promote heat loss or gain At body temperatures below the normal range, the thermostat inhibits heat loss mechanisms while activating mechanisms that either save heat, including vasoconstriction of vessels in the skin, or generate heat, such as shivering. In response to elevated body temperature, the thermostat shuts down heat retention mechanisms and promotes cooling by vasodilation of vessels in the skin, sweating, or panting. In the course of certain bacterial and viral infections, mammals and birds develop fever, an elevated body temperature. Experiments have shown that fever reflects an increase in the biological thermostat's set point. Indeed, one hypothesis is that fever enhances the body's ability to fight infection, although how fever is beneficial remains a subject of debate.

Excretory Processes (see pic)

In most animals, both osmoregulation and metabolic waste disposal rely on transport epithelia, one or more layers of epithelial cells specialized for moving particular solutes in controlled amounts in specific directions. Transport epithelia are typically arranged in complex tubular networks with extensive surface areas. Some transport epithelia face the outside environment directly, while others line channels connected to the outside by an opening on the body surface. Animals across a range of species produce a fluid waste by the process outlined in Figure 32.19. First, blood, coelomic fluid, or hemolymph is brought in contact with a transport epithelium. In most cases, hydrostatic pressure (blood pressure in many animals) drives filtration. Cells, as well as proteins and other large molecules, cannot cross the epithelial membrane and remain in the body fluid. In contrast, water and small solutes, such as salts, sugars, amino acids, and nitrogenous wastes, cross the membrane, forming a solution called the filtrate. Selective reabsorption returns useful molecules and water from the filtrate to the body fluids. Valuable solutes such as glucose, vitamins, and amino acids are reabsorbed by active transport. Nonessential solutes and wastes are left in the filtrate or undergo selective secretion into the filtrate by active transport. Finally, the processed filtrate is released from the body as urine during excretion. pic description: Most excretory systems produce a filtrate by pressure-filtering body fluids and then modify the filtrate's contents. This diagram is modeled after the vertebrate excretory system.

In the endocrine system, _____ (SEE PIC)

In the endocrine system, signaling molecules released into the bloodstream by endocrine cells reach all locations in the body

In the nervous system, (SEE PIC)

In the nervous system, neurons transmit signals along dedicated routes, connecting specific locations in the body •

read ig

Just as viewing the body's organization from the "bottom up" (from cells to organ systems) reveals emergent properties, a "top-down" view of the hierarchy reveals the multilayered basis of specialization. Consider the human digestive system. Each organ has specific roles. In the case of the stomach, one role is to initiate protein breakdown. This process requires a churning motion powered by stomach muscles, as well as digestive juices secreted by the stomach lining. Producing digestive juices, in turn, requires highly specialized cell types. One cell type secretes a protein-digesting enzyme, a second generates concentrated hydrochloric acid, and a third produces mucus, which protects the stomach lining.

Now that we've considered thermoregulation as an example of homeostasis, we'll turn to another example, the maintenance of salt and water balance in body fluids. (SEE PIC)

Maintaining the fluid environment of animal tissues requires that the relative concentrations of water and solutes be kept within fairly narrow limits. In addition, ions such as sodium and calcium must be maintained at concentrations that permit normal activity of muscles, neurons, and other body cells. Homeostasis thus requires osmoregulation, the general term for the processes by which animals control solute concentrations in the interstitial fluid and balance water gain and loss (from dr. sata - how much solutes are regulated). (SEE PIC) shows salt water vss. fresh water fish

Now that we've considered thermoregulation as an example of homeostasis, we'll turn to another example, the maintenance of salt and water balance in body fluids.

Maintaining the fluid environment of animal tissues requires that the relative concentrations of water and solutes be kept within fairly narrow limits. In addition, ions such as sodium and calcium must be maintained at concentrations that permit normal activity of muscles, neurons, and other body cells. Homeostasis thus requires osmoregulation, the general term for the processes by which animals control solute concentrations in the interstitial fluid and balance water gain and loss. In safeguarding their internal fluid environment, animals must deal with a hazardous metabolite produced by the dismantling of proteins and nucleic acids. Breakdown of nitrogenous (nitrogen-containing) molecules releases ammonia, a very toxic compound. Several different mechanisms have evolved for excretion, the process that rids the body of nitrogenous metabolites and other metabolic waste products. Because systems for excretion and osmoregulation are structurally and functionally linked in many animals, we will consider both of these processes here.

Multiple Effects of Hormones

Many hormones elicit more than one response. Consider, for example, epinephrine. Also called adrenaline, epinephrine is secreted by the adrenal glands, which lie atop the kidneys (see Figure 32.5). When you are in a stressful situation, perhaps running to catch a bus, the release of epinephrine rapidly triggers responses that help you chase the departing bus: raising the glucose level in the blood, increasing blood flow to muscles, and decreasing blood flow to the digestive system. A hormone can elicit distinct responses in particular target cells if those cells differ in the receptor protein they express or in the molecules activated by the receptor upon hormone binding. In the liver, epinephrine binds to a β−type epinephrine receptor in the plasma membrane of target cells. This receptor activates the enzyme protein kinase A, which regulates enzymes of glycogen metabolism, causing release of glucose into the bloodstream (Figure 32.9a). In blood vessels supplying skeletal muscle, the same kinase activated by the same receptor inactivates a muscle-specific enzyme. The result is smooth muscle relaxation, vasodilation, and hence increased blood flow (Figure 32.9b). In contrast, intestinal blood vessels have an α−type epinephrine receptor. Rather than activating protein kinase A, the α receptor triggers a distinct signaling pathway involving different enzymes. The result is smooth muscle contraction, vasoconstriction, and restricted blood flow to the intestines. pic description: Epinephrine, the primary "fight-or-flight" hormone, produces different responses in different target cells. Target cells with the same receptor exhibit different responses if they have different signal transduction pathways and/or effector proteins; compare (a) with (b). Target cells with different receptors for the hormone often exhibit different responses; compare (b) with (c).

Hormone Solubility

Many hormones, including secretin, ADH, and oxytocin, are soluble in water but not in lipids. For this reason, they are unable to pass through the plasma membranes of target cells. Instead, they bind to cell-surface receptors, triggering events at the plasma membrane that result in a cellular response. The series of changes in cellular proteins that converts the extracellular signal to a specific intracellular response is called signal transduction. A signal transduction pathway typically has multiple steps, each involving specific molecular interactions There are also hormones that are lipid-soluble, including the sex hormones estradiol and testosterone (as well as thyroid hormone). The major receptors for steroid hormones are located in the cytosol rather than on the cell surface. When a steroid hormone binds to its cytosolic receptor, a hormone-receptor complex forms, which moves into the nucleus. There, the receptor portion of the complex alters transcription of particular genes.

read only

Many organs have more than one physiological role. If the roles are distinct enough, we consider the organ to belong to more than one organ system. The pancreas, for instance, produces enzymes critical to the function of the digestive system but also regulates the level of sugar in the blood as a vital part of the endocrine system.

read

Natural selection favors those variations in a population that increase relative fitness. The evolutionary adaptations that enable survival vary among environments and species, but they frequently result in a close match of form to function.

Characters of Chordates (SEE PIC) (just read, make sure to print)

Notochord: flexible rod that provides skeletal support; notochord became an interstitial disk between skeletal bones Dorsal, hollow nerve cord: unique structure that develops into the brain and spinal cord; other animals have a ventral solid nerve cord. Post-anal tail: muscular tail that extends posterior to the anus; in other animals, the digestive tract runs the whole length of the body. Pharyngeal slits or clefts: in adults, structures that function in suspension feeding, as gills, or as the anus; parts of the head. Also have: mouth: to intake anus: excrete waste muscle segments

read this

Numerous adaptations that enhance thermoregulation have evolved in animals. Mammals and birds, for instance, have insulation that reduces the flow of heat between an animal's body and its environment. Such insulation may include hair or feathers as well as layers of fat formed by adipose tissue, such as a whale's thick blubber.

An animal can maintain water balance in two ways.

One is to be an osmoconformer: to be isoosmotic with its surroundings. All osmoconformers are marine animals. The second way to maintain water balance is to be an osmoregulator: to control internal osmolarity independent of the environment. Osmoregulators are found in a wide range of environments, including fresh water and terrestrial habitats that are uninhabitable for osmoconformers The opposite osmoregulatory challenges of marine and freshwater environments are illustrated in Figure 32.17. For the marine cod (see Figure 32.17a), the ocean is a strongly dehydrating environment. Constantly losing water by osmosis, such fishes balance the water loss by drinking large amounts of seawater. In ridding themselves of salts, they make use of both their gills and kidneys. In the gills, specialized chloride cells establish ion gradients that enable secretion of salt (NaCl) into seawater. In the kidneys, excess calcium (Ca2+) , magnesium (Mg2+) , and sulfate (SO42−) ions are excreted with the loss of only small amounts of water. Because the freshwater perch lives in an environment with a very low osmolarity, it faces the problem of gaining water by osmosis (see Figure 32.17b). The perch and many other freshwater animals rely on excreting large amounts of very dilute urine and drinking almost no water to maintain water balance. In addition, they replenish salts lost by diffusion and in the urine by eating and by taking up salt across the gills. For land animals, the threat of dehydration is a major regulatory problem. Although most terrestrial animals have body coverings that help prevent dehydration, they lose water through many routes: in urine and feces, across their skin, and from the surfaces of gas exchange organs. Land animals maintain water balance by drinking and eating moist foods and by producing water metabolically through cellular respiration.

The three basic plant organs are

Roots, Stems, and Leaves

hormones (SEE PIC)

Signaling molecules broadcast throughout the body by the endocrine system are called hormones

Anterior Pituitary Pathways (see pic)

The anterior pituitary synthesizes and secretes a diverse set of hormones, each regulated by one or more hormones from the hypothalamus. Anterior pituitary hormones range in function from reproduction and growth to metabolism and stress responses. Some, such as growth hormone, regulate cells outside the endocrine system. Others, such as thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), regulate endocrine glands. Anterior pituitary hormones that target endocrine tissues often form part of a hormone cascade. Such a cascade is kicked off when the nervous system conveys a stimulus to the hypothalamus. In response, the hypothalamus secretes a factor that regulates release of a specific anterior pituitary hormone. This hormone in turn stimulates an endocrine organ to secrete yet another hormone, which exerts effects on specific target tissues. Figure 32.8 outlines such a hormone cascade pathway, using the specific example of thyroid regulation.

The _____(2)____ systems act ____ and ______ in _______

The endocrine and nervous systems act individually and together in regulating animal physiology

all from the book 1) regulator - define 2) example (see pic) 3) conformer - define 4) example (see pic) 5) last way

all from the book 1) An animal is a regulator for an environmental variable if it uses internal mechanisms to control internal change in the face of external fluctuation. 2) The river otter in Figure 32.10 is a regulator for temperature, keeping its body at a temperature that is largely independent of that of the water in which it swims. 3) In contrast, an animal is a conformer for an environmental variable if it allows its internal condition to change in accordance with external changes. 4) The largemouth bass in Figure 32.10 conforms to the temperature of its lake. As the water warms or cools, so does the bass's body. 5) An animal may regulate some internal conditions and allow others to conform to the environment. For example, even though the bass conforms to the temperature of the water in which it lives, it regulates the solute concentration in its blood and interstitial fluid, the fluid that surrounds body cells. pic description: The river otter regulates its body temperature, keeping it stable across a wide range of environmental temperatures. The largemouth bass allows its internal environment to conform to the water temperature.

buttress roots (read bc have a chart)

because of moist conditions in the tropics, root systems of many of the tallest trees are surprisingly shallow. aerial roots that look like buttresses, such as seen in Gyranthera caribensis in Venezuela, give architectural support to the trunks of trees

The basic morphology of vascular plants reflects their evolutionary history as terrestrial organisms that inhabit and draw resources from two very different environments—

below the ground and above the ground.

anatomy

biological form

physiology

biological function

The Human Endocrine System

come back after watch lecture

The specialized and complex organ systems of animals are built from a limited set of cell and tissue types. For example, lungs and blood vessels have different functions but are lined by tissues that are of the same basic type and that therefore share many properties. Animal tissues are commonly grouped into four main types:

epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous

hormone cascade pathway

from quizlet: when a hormone stimulates the release of a series of other hormones, the last of which activates a nonendocrine target cell from quizlet: Signals to the brain > stimulates hypothalamus > secretes a hormone that stimulates/inhibits release of anterior pituitary hormone > acts on another endocrine organ> stimulates secretion hormone> effects specific target tissues from the book: Such a cascade is kicked off when the nervous system conveys a stimulus to the hypothalamus. In response, the hypothalamus secretes a factor that regulates release of a specific anterior pituitary hormone. This hormone in turn stimulates an endocrine organ to secrete yet another hormone, which exerts effects on specific target tissues.

Thermostatic Function of the Hypothalamus in Human Thermoregulation/Physiological Thermostats (SEE PIC)

from the book: In humans and other mammals, the sensors responsible for thermoregulation are concentrated in the hypothalamus region of the brain. Within the hypothalamus, a group of nerve cells functions as a thermostat, responding to body temperatures outside a normal range by activating mechanisms that promote heat loss or gain At body temperatures below the normal range, the thermostat inhibits heat loss mechanisms while activating mechanisms that either save heat, including vasoconstriction of vessels in the skin, or generate heat, such as shivering. In response to elevated body temperature, the thermostat shuts down heat retention mechanisms and promotes cooling by vasodilation of vessels in the skin, sweating, or panting. In the course of certain bacterial and viral infections, mammals and birds develop fever, an elevated body temperature. Experiments have shown that fever reflects an increase in the biological thermostat's set point. Indeed, one hypothesis is that fever enhances the body's ability to fight infection, although how fever is beneficial remains a subject of debate. (SEE PIC)

storage roots (see pic) (read bc have a chart)

many plants, such as the common beet, store food and water in these type of roots.

Because form and function are correlated, anatomy often provides clues to _________.

physiology

"strangling" aerial roots (see pic) (read bc have a chart)

strangler fig seeds germinate in the crevices of tall trees. aerial roots grow to the ground, wrapping around the host tree and objects such as this Cambodian temple. Shoots grow upwards and shade out the host tree, killing it.

Embryonic Development

tbh just read the chart and look at the differences differentiation creates all the different tissues and organs that function differently

Animals have two major systems for coordinating and controlling responses to stimuli:

the endocrine system and the nervous system

For an animal's tissues and organ systems to perform their specialized functions effectively,

they must act in concert with one another.

How the Human Kidney Concentrates Urine: Regional Functions of the Transport Epithelium (see pic) To explore how filtrate is processed into urine, we'll follow the filtrate along its path through a nephron (Figure 32.22). Each circled number refers to the processing in transport epithelia as the filtrate moves through the cortex and medulla of the kidney.

• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) makes the collecting duct epithelium temporarily more permeable to water • An increase in blood osmolarity above a set point triggers the release of ADH, which helps to conserve water • Decreased osmolarity causes a drop in ADH secretion and a corresponding decrease in permeability of collecting ducts What is being filtered: 1) H2O 2) Salts (NaCl and others) 3) HCO3- 4) H+ 5) Urea 6) Glucose, amino acids 7) Some drugs GOING FROM THE CORTEX to the outer medulla to the inner medulla, the concentration (osmoregularity of thew fliud/solute concentration of the fluid) increases