Chapter 01 - Human Anatomy & Physiology (Planes and Sections), Human Anatomy and Physiology Lab, Human anatomy and physiology Exam 3, Human Anatomy and Physiology Tissue Review, Human Anatomy and Physiology Review, Essentials of Human Anatomy and Phy...

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Brachial

Arm

Vein

Carries blood to the heart

Median Plane or Midsagittal Plane

Divides the body or organ into equal right and left parts.

reproductive system

Reproduce offspring- produce male sex cells (sperm) and female sex cells (oocytes)

The body of a Vertebrae

The largest portion of a single vertebrae

Umbilical

Navel (Bellybutton)

Temporal process of the Zygomatic Bone

Part of the Zygomatic Bone that reaches towards the Temporal Bone, Anterior

Shaft

Projects from the skin, extends about halfway down the portion of the hair embedded in the skin

Step five of sensory impulses from the ear?

Vibrations pass through the vestibular membrane and enter endolymph of cochlear duct

Fovea centralis

depression in macula lutea; sharpest vision -only cones

thin rim of cytoplasm with bulging nucleus. cell type= adipocytes (signet ring cells). em= stored oil.

description of adipose tissue:

cell type= osteocytes in cavities called lacunae. em= calcium salts. haversian system.

description of bone tissue:

branching striated, uninucleated cells, intercalated discs.

description of cardiac muscle tissue:

cells=fibroblasts. em= collagen fibers

description of dense fibrous tissue:

chondrocytes = cell type. em = collagen fibers. most abundant cartilage tissue.

description of hyaline cartilage:

neurons and supporting cells

description of nervous tissue:

single layer of cells of different heights. ciliated.

description of psuedostratified columnar epithelium:

one layer of cubed-shape cells

description of simple cuboidal epithelium:

one layer of flat shape cells with a "tile floor appearance". simplest of epithelium

description of simple squamous epithelium:

spindle-shaped cells arranged closely to form sheets. no striations.

description of smooth muscle tissue:

2 or more layers of column-shaped cells

description of stratified columnar epithelium:

2 or more flat cell layers. most common stratified tissue.

description of stratified squamous epithelium:

Killer T cells

destroy infected cells

control center

determines the set point at which the variable is maintained processes the signal and sends instructions

Perioxisomes

detoxify alcohol, free radicals, and other harmful substances

Kidneys

bean-shaped structures that are located at the back of the abdominal cavity just under the diaphragm

greenstick fracture type

bone breaks incompletely, only one side of the shaft breaks, the other side bends, common in children

Efferent

bring signals from CNS to sensory organs and muscles

Afferent

bring signals from sensory organs and muscles to the CNS

Types of free nerve ending in skin receptors?

pain, warm receptors, cold receptors

Macrophages

phagocytes that alert T cells to the presence of foreign substances

-protects organs -provides levers for muscles -stores calcium -blood cell formation

function of bone tissue:

all functions

function of dense fibrous tissue:

protect, support, bind

function of hyaline cartilage:

secrete and absorb. goblet cells secrete mucus to lubricate digestive tract.

function of simple columnar epithelium:

protect and secrete

function of stratified cuboidal epithelium:

Greater wings of the Sphenoid bone

A Basin or bowl underneath the upper ridge of the Sphenoid Bone

Sulcus/Sulci

A groove on the surface of the brain

Fibroblast

A sigle cell that produces all of the fibers of areolar connective tissue, the most abundant cell type in connective tissue proper, make and secrete the protein subunits of fibers

Solution

A solution is a liquid mixture (or a compound) in which a solute gets easily dissolved in a solvent.

protein

A three dimensional polymer made of monomers of amino acids.

Oligodendrocytes

-only in CNS -myelinates axons in CNS -"white" in CNS white mater due to myelination -1 oligodendrocyte myelinates multiple axons in CNS -does not form a neurilemma

Cell body

(soma) contains the nucleus of the neuron

List the important neurotransmitters

- Acetylcholine - Dopamine - Norepinephrine - Serotonin - Glutamate - GABA - Endorphine - Adenosine/ATP - Nitric oxide

What does a chemical synapse consist of?

- Axon terminal (presynaptic neuron) which has synaptic knobs that contain vesicles with neurotransmitters - fluid filled synaptic cleft - postsynaptic cell

List the tissue types

- Muscle - Nervous - Epithelial - Connective

What are glial cells? Function?

- support cells - non excitable - nourish, support, protect neurons

3 hormones secreted from islet cells of pancreas

-Alpha cells -> glucagon -Beta cells -> insulin -Delta cells -> somatostatin -inhibits the release of glucagon and insulin

Medulla Oblongata

-Ascending (afferent) and descending (efferent) spinal cord nerve fibers connecting to brain pass through.

Diabetes mellitus type 1

-Autoimmune disease -destruction of beta cells. lack of insulin synthesized -must check glucose levels several times daily -need external source of insulin several times a day -normal plasma glucose levels = fasting: 70-99 mg/dL -<140 mg/dL 1-2 hours after meals

Pons

-Contains nuclei, sensory and motor fibers - relays info to and from cortex to cerebrum and medulla -Function 1. voluntary skeletal muscle movement 2. with medulla inner ear equilibrum 3. with medulla control of breathing

White matter

-Within CNS -Within brain -connects areas of gray matter -Within spinal cord

Adaptation

-ability of nervous system to become less responsive to a maintained stimulus (ex: foul odor)

Iris

-acts as reflexively activated diaphragm to vary pupil size -colored part of eye -central opening= pupil, allows light to enter

Superficial

-acute (sharp and brief) -info brought to CNS by myelinated axons

Interneurons

-aka associate neruons -only in CNS -multipolar -linker neurons

Dendrites (afferent)

-branching extensions of cellular membrane -information "in" toward CNS

Motor (efferent) Neurons

-outflow from brain and spinal cord CNS -innervate muscle or glands effectors

Appendicular skeleton

126 bones, bones of arms, feet, legs, hands, hips and shoulders

2

2

3

3

4

4

Greater trochanter

A bony prominence on the proximal lateral side of the femur, just below the hip joint.

Osmosis

A flow of water across a selectively permeable membrane moving down its concentration gradient

Superior

Above

B Lymphocytes

B cells - produce antibodies

Sternal

Breastbone area

Atlas

C1 (Cervical 1) The top Cervical vertebrae. The Greek god that held up the world like this holds up your head

Mention 3 peptide hormones

Calcitonin, Insulin, Glucagon

Cartilaginous

Cartilaginous joints contain cartilage and allow very little movement; there are two types of cartilaginous joints: synchondroses and symphyses.

Which part of the brain interprets sensory information?

Cerebrum

nucleic acid

DNA and RNA, stores genetic information

What process should the DNA within a cell undergo before cell replication?

DNA should replicate so that daughter cells have the same amount of DNA material after cell division

Oblique Plane

Divides the body or organ at a diagonal.

Give an example of positive feedback

During labor, the child presses on and distends muscle of the cervix, triggering the release of oxytocin, which causes muscles in the uterus to contract, leading to more dilation of the cervix, which triggers more release of oxytocin

Plasma Cells

Egg shaped cells that secrete protein molecules called antibodies, which bind to foreign molecules and microorganisms, marking them for destruction

Phalanges

Fingers and toes

Digital

Fingers, toes

How does the Na+/K+ pump work to establish the resting potential?

For every two K+ ions pumped in, three Na+ ions are expelled. (Relative negative charge inside the cell)

Interphase can be further divided into?

G1, S, and G2

Interphase

G1= centrioles begin replicating S=DNA is replicated G2=Final Preparations for mitosis completed

Anterior lobe hormones

GH, PRL, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH

Pubic

Genital region

What happens differently in the gray matter and the white matter?

Gray matter (nuclei): here processing of information occurs in CNS. there are unmyelinated cell bodies and synapses White matter (tracts): consists of myelinated axons that function in the transmission of info between brain regions and between the CNS and the PNS.

intertubercular groove

Groove on the proximal end of the Humerus

What is the ECM made of?

Ground substance with fibers of collagen or elastin. There are also fibronectin proteins and cellular adhesion molecules (e.g. integrins)

Tissue

Groups of similar cells that work together to perform a common function

canaliculi

Hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal

Compact bone

Hard, dense bone tissue that is beneath the outer membrane of a bone

Ulna

Has a "U" in it

Coxal

Hip

Hypertonic Solution

Hypertonic comes from the Greek "hyper," meaning over, and "tonos," meaning stretching. In a hypertonic solution the total molar concentration of all dissolved solute particles is greater than that of another solution, or greater than the concentration in a cell.

Major endocrine gland

Hypothalamus

Oxytocin and antiuretic hormone synthesized in?

Hypothalamus

What controls the Autonomic Nervous System through the brain stem?

Hypothalamus

Hypotonic Solution

Hypotonic comes from the Greek "hypo," meaning under, and "tonos," meaning stretching. In a hypotonic solution the total molar concentration of all dissolved solute particles is less than that of another solution or less than that of a cell.

Cell Cycle

IPMATC= I Passed My Anatomy Test Cleanly

fibroblasts

In connective tissue, cells that secrete the proteins of the fibers.

Mechanical digestion

Includes grinding or chewing your food when you eat

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Kidney Tubules; ducts and secretory portions of the small glands; ovary surface

Patella

Knee cap

Which heart chamber is the most muscular?

Left ventricle

Crural

Leg

Simple Columnar Epithelium

Lines most of the digestive tract (stomach and rectum); gallbladder

Metacarpals

Mid hand bones between your carpals and fingers

Nasal

Nose Area

Where are the hair cells located?

Organ of corti

T Lymphocytes

T cells, helper T cells, killer T cells, suppressor T cells, and memory T cells

Diaphysis

The long central shaft of a bone is called the....

Obturator Foramen

The only hole on the bone

3

The pelvis is made of how many bones?

Histology

The study of tissues

Chromosomes

These are highly condensed, threadlike rods of DNA

Flagella

These are tail-like structures that use whip-like movements to help the cell move.

Anatomical position

To stand erect with arms at the sides and palms of the hands turned forward

Posterior

Toward the back

Sacrum

Triangular shaped. Starts out growing as five vertebrae and they fuse together as you grow.

cuboidal epithelium

Type of epithelial tissue with cube-shaped cells.

Maxilla

Upper Jaw, large part of nose

Osteoclast

Uses hydrochloric acid to break down bone

Which structure has the lowest blood pressure?

Vein

Carpal

Wrist

Hyoid bone

a U-shaped bone in the neck that supports the tongue.

periosteum

a fibrous, vascular membrane that covers the bone

Trochlea

a smooth, grooved articular process shaped like a pulley

Superior

above or closer to the head

Sensation

awareness sensory info sent to brain. Threshold reached -> Action potential

Posterior

back

depressed fracture type

broken bone portion is pressed inward, typical of skull fracture

Lens fiber

bulk of lens = transparent folded protein fibers (mitosis)

Tracts

bundles of myelinated axons

Blood can be defined as?

composed of water, solutes, and other elements in a fluid connective tissue

carbohydrate

compound made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms; major source of energy for the human body

acid

compound that forms hydrogen ions (H+) in solution

medial malleolus

distal process on medial tibial surface

What are the 3 common properties of muscles

excitability, contraction, and elongate

Myelinated axons

faster action potential

depressions and openings for joint

fossa

Gastric Secretions

gastric acid destroys pathogens

Flat bones

generally thin, and curved. Bones of the skull or scapula

achondroplasia

genetic disease that can lead to shortening of the long bones due to premature closure of the epiphyseal plate.

Meiosis encourages?

genetic diversity

epiphyseal plate

growth plate

Cephalic

head

Caudal

hindquarters

Parts of retina

macula lutea, fovea centralis, optic disc

factors that affect bone remodeling

low blood Ca2+ concentration, parathyroid hormone, mechanical stress

Mandible

lower jaw bone

State the role of Calcitonin

lowers blood Calcium levels

fibrocytes

maintain connective tissue fibers and matrix

Respiratory center

maintains breathing rhythm and adjusts breathing rate and depth

osteoblast

matrix-synthesizing and bone forming cells, fibroblasts and chondroblasts

osteocytes

mature bone cells

Telophase (Animal cells)

membrane is pinched

electrolytes

minerals that carry electrical charges

Define effector

muscles and glans that carry out a response

The temperature of the body is controlled by a

negative feedback system

Eccrine glands

not connected to hair follicles. They're activated by elevated body temperature. They're also located throughout the body and can found on the forehead, neck, and back.

free surface

not in contact with other cells

Composition of gray matter?

nuclei -collection of neuron cell bodies -unmyelinated axons

Each cell consists of? (3)

nucleic acids, cytoplasm, and cell membrane

Allele

one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome. Ex) determines hair color

Ilium

part of the hip bone

Parathyroid

regulates calcium levels in blood

lateral malleolus

process forming the outer ankle

Dendrites

receive impulses from sensory receptors or interneurons and transmit them toward the cell body

Renin

released by kidney- BP regulation

Bartholin's glands

secrete a lubricating fluid

Receptor

sensory cells located in the dermis of the skin

Frontal lobe

short term memory, planning, judgement

Cell body

soma

transitional epithelium

specialized to change in response to increased tension

Follicle stimulating hormone

stimulates spermatogenesis

mesentery

structure that suspends the small intestine from the posterior body wall

diaphysis

the shaft of a long bone

B cells

these cells target specific bacteria for destruction

The right lung has how many lobes?

three lobes

Endocrine Organ System

thyroid, testes, ovaries and pancreas -helps maintain body homeostasis, promotes growth and development; produces hormones

The hypothalamus directs the pituitary gland to secrete __________, which stimulates the thyroid gland to release these hormones as needed via a negative-feedback mechanism

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

Vesicles

vehicle that helps move materials within a cell.

within spinal cord

white matter located external to gray matter

Diabetes

Bodies inability to process sugar due to lack of insulin

Osteoclasts

Bone dissolving cells found on the bone surface. They develop from the same bone narrow stem cells that give rise to the blood cells. -Osteocytes Crush

Ethmoid Bone

Bone in the middle of the face;

osteoporosis

Bone resorption and deposit More severe in spongy bone, bones are porous and thin but bone composition is normal

Osteoblasts

Bone-forming cells. They are roughly cuboidal or angular, and line up in a single layer on the bone surface under the endosteum and periosteum and resemble a cuboidal epithelium.

Skeletal System organs

Major organs include the bones

Trabeculae

Porous supportive structures found in the spongy bone

3 basic types of Muscle Tissue

Skeletal Muscle- the meat or flesh of the body Cardiac- is found only in the heart Smooth- found mainly in the walls of the hollow organs

Ganglia

collections of neuron cell bodies in the PNS

Arrector pili

"Goose bumps" Makes the hair stand straight up

What is the largest solid organ of the body and the largest gland?

liver

The upper respiratory system includes?

• Nose • Nasal cavity • Mouth • Pharynx • Larynx

The airway includes

• Nose • Nasal cavity • Mouth • Pharynx (throat) • Larynx (voice box) • Trachea (windpipe) • Bronchi • Bronchial network

Prophase (Continued)

• Pairs of centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell • Spindle fibers begin to form • Mitotic spindle, formed from cytoskeleton parts, moves chromosomes around within the cell

Functions of Male Reproductive System

• Produce • Maintain • Transfer sperm and semen into female reproductive tract and produce and secrete male hormones

Functions of the female reproductive system

• Produce ova • Transfer ova to fallopian tubes for fertilization • Receive sperm • Provide protect and nourishing environment for developing embryo

Somatic pain

-from skin, muscles, ligaments, joints and viscera -types superficial or deep

Axon (efferent)

-much longer singular membrane extension than dendrite -information "out" toward PNS (via action potentials)

1

1

5 components of reflex arc

1. sensory receptor 2. sensory neuron 3. interneuron 4. motor neuron 5. effector

Pancreas

2 major types secretory tissues -exocrine gland (digestive enzymes) -endocrine gland (hormones)

covalent bond

A chemical bond that involves sharing a pair of electrons between atoms in a molecule

Organ systems

A group of two or more organs working together for a specific job; e.g. the digestive system

Gyrus/Gyri

A ridge or fold on the surface of the brain

Solute

A solute is a substance in which is dissolved in another substance, the solvent.

What happens when a muscle contracts?

Action Potential reaches muscle fiber, calcium ions are released, bind to myosin and actin.

What provides energy necessary for the contraction?

Adenosine triphosphate released from glucose

Peripheral NS

All the nerves of the body

Tarsal

Ankle region

Posterior Pituitary Hormones

Antidiuretic hormone(ADH or vasopressin), and Oxytocin(OT)

The skeletal system is divided into 2 parts. What are they?

Axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton

What's the part between the cell body and the axon? Role?

Axon hillock. Acts as a threshold for nerve signals. If the threshold is strong enough, the signal conducts through the axon

Infraorbital foramen

Bilateral structure; Holes below the eyes

Gluteal

Buttock

basement membrane

Cells at the base of an epithelial layer are attached to this.

Nervous tissue

Cells called neurons form a network through the body that control responses to changes in the external and internal environment. Some send signals to muscles and glands to trigger responses

squamous epithelium

Cells that are like floor tiles.

mediastinum

Centrally located space between the lungs

Define cytokines

Certain substances (including hormones) secreted by the immune system. They can also trigger apoptosis or inhibit cell division.

Chemical digestion

Changes the composition of food (breaks it down to molecular level) by breaking it down such as with stomach acids and enzymes

Buccal

Cheek Area

From lowest to high, give the levels of organization.

Chemical (molecular), cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, and organism

Cartilage

Chond means...

Prophase

Chromatic thickens into chromosomes and nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate.

urinary system

Cleanses the blood. Rids the body of wastes. Maintains salt and water balance.

Compact Bone vs. Spongy Bone

Compact: looks smooth and homogenous Spongy(cancellous): composed of small trabeculae (column) of bones and lots of open space

lymphatic system

Composed of a network of vessels, ducts, nodes, and organs. Provides defense against infection.

Central NS

Composed of brain and spinal cord

Pacinian corpuscle

Connective tissue fibers and cells in dermis

Organ of dynamic equilibrium is called?

Crista ampullaries -located in ampullae of semicircular canals -contains sensory hair cells and supporting cells -hairs/cilia cells stick into a domed gel mass (cupula)

Organ of corti surrounded by?

Endolymph

What is EPO and what does it do?

Erythropoietin is a growth factor that increases erythrocytes in the blood

Kidney

Filters waste from blood

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Function; visceral motor (involuntary). Structure; conducts impulses from the CNS to cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and glands.

Glenoid fossa/cavity

Little depression. The part of the Scapula where the head of the Humorous plugs into

mandible condyle

Located bilaterally on mandible; Big bumps; fits into the mandibular fossa to attach to the temporal bone

Homeostasis

Maintaining a constant internal environment

Liver

Makes bile, detoxifies blood

Oral

Mouth

Pancreas, Liver, Gallbladder

Not part of digestive tract, but aid in digestion

Vertebral

Possible extra credit question: The __________ artery, which is a bilateral structure, travels through the transverse foramen.

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

Rare in the body; small amounts in the urethra

Erythrocytes

Red blood cells (RBCs), also called erythrocytes, are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate organism's principal means of delivering oxygen (O2) to the body tissues—via blood flow through the circulatory system.

Head of the Humerus

Round part of the proximal end of the Humerus

During which stage is DNA replicated?

S phase of interphase

Reaction pathway of impulse

Sensory neuron-> brain -> motor neuron

columnar epithelium

Single layer column shaped cells - lining stomach, small intestine - secrete and absorbs

simple epithelium

Single layer of cells.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Structure; Brain Stem and Spinal Cord. Function; Integrative and control center

Villi

Structures of the small intestine that increases surface are a for absorption

Respiratory system

The body system in which oxygen is brought into the body and carbon dioxide is released; major

Olecranon Fossa

The large, posterior depression on the distal end of the Humerus

Lesser trochanter

The projection on the medial/superior portion of the femur.

Femoral

Thigh

Perpendicular Plate of the Ethmoid

Upper part of nasal septum

Lesser wings of the Sphenoid bone

Upper ridge of the Sphenoid Bone

Lines

What does Linea mean?

synthesis reaction

a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a new compound

Osteosarcoma (bone cancer)

abnormal proliferation of osteoblasts

All preganglionic autonomic fibers release?

actycholine

Plasma cells produce?

antibodies specific to that pathogen

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

Chondrocytes

are the only cells found in healthy cartilage.

Exteroceptors

associated with stimuli at body surfaces

5 types of neuroglial (support) cells

astrocytes, microglia cells, ependymal cells, oligodendrocytes, schwann cells

Smooth muscle tissue provides tension in the

blood vessels, control pupil dilation, and aid in peristalsis.

epithelium

cells covering external and internal surfaces of the body

Thoracic

chest

Normal Bacterial Populations

compete with pathogens in the gut and vagina

Genome

complete set of genes or DNA in an organism

base

compound that produces hydroxide ions (OH+) in solution

Bipolar

cones and rods

Myofibrils

contain 2 protein microfilaments that are thick and thin.

Airways and epinephrine

dilates

frontal plane

divides the body into anterior and posterior portions

The renal/urinary system is capable of?

eliminating excess substances while preserving the substances needed by the body to function

Spinal cord

encased bony structure of vertebrae, which supports and protects it.

kinetic energy

energy of motion

Ovaries

female gonads, produce ova and secrete estrogen and progesterone

depressions and openings for passage

foramen, notch, meatus

Nasal Bones

form bridge of nose

Anterior

front

secrete and absorb

function of simple cuboidal epithelium:

filter and diffuse

function of simple squamous epithelium:

-voluntary control -locomotion -manipulation of environment -facial expressions

function of skeletal muscle tissue:

Pineal gland

has influence on daily biorhythms and sexual activity

transverse plane

horizontal division of the body into upper and lower portions

Transverse plane

horizontal plane divides the patient's body into imaginary upper (superior) and lower (inferior or caudal) halves

Systemic blood pressure and norepinephrine

increases greatly due to vasoconstriction

Systemic blood pressure and epinephrine

increases somewhat due to increased cardiac output

ischemia

lack of blood flow

Goiter

lack of iodine

hypoxia

lack of oxygen but normal blood flow

prone

lying face down

The ___________ bean-shaped organ attached to the body near the peritoneum.

mamalian kidney

osteocyte

mature bone and bone matrix maintenance cells, monitors the mineralized bone matrix

Salty

metal ions (inorganic salts)

Axon is insulated by ________________, and myelin sheath with gaps known as nodes of Ranvier.

oligodendrocytes

Petrous

organ of hearing, portion of temporal bone.

oblique plane

passes through the body at an angle

Increased intensity of stimulation causes?

perception of louder sounds

The lungs are surround by a _____________, which reduces friction between surfaces when breathing

pleural membrane

Antigens are typically?

proteins on the surfaces of bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Drugs, toxins, and foreign particles can also be antigens

diploe (spongy bone) cavities contain ____________.

red marrow

what are the 3 types producing sharp, color vision?

red, green, and blue

Exocrine

secrete digestive enzymes through ducts

Unipolar

sensory neurons from skin

Define spatial summation

stimulation of the same postsynaptic cell by more than one axon terminal at the same time

What breaks down the food and make nutrients available for absorption

stomach acidity

Sensory fibers

synapse with base of taste receptor cells imbedded in the tongue.

short bones

talus

What is the left side of the pancreas called?

the tail

Define refractory period

the time delay between the opening of Na+ channels and the restoration of resting potential

Cerebral cortex

thin layer of gray matter covering the cerebrum

Axon

transmits impulses away from the cell body.

How long can ears tolerate (lawn mower) 91 dB?

two hours of exposure

The left lung has?

two lobes and leaving room for the heart on the left side of the body.

Lacrimal Bone

two paired bones at the corner of each eye

The opening of which transport molecule leads to depolarization?

voltage-gated sodium channels

Skeletal Muscle

voluntary movement -in skeletal muscles attached to bones

Skeletal tissue

voluntary muscles that work in pairs to move various parts of the skeleton. Composed of muscle fibers

Keratin

waxy protein that helps to waterproof the skin

buffer

weak acids or bases that can react with strong acids or bases to prevent sharp, sudden changes in pH

The heart:

• a muscular pump made of cardiac muscle tissue • It has four chambers; each half contains both an atrium and a ventricle • The halves are separated by a valve, known as AV valve and are located between the ventricle and the artery leading away from the heart. • Valves keep blood moving in a single direction and prevent any backwash into the chambers • The heart has its own circulatory system with its own coronary arteries • The heart functions by contracting and relaxing

Irregular bones

• formed between cranial bones • Number, size, and shape vary

Postganflionic parasympathetic fibers release?

Ach cholinergic fibers

AC Joint

Acromioclavicular joint

Elastic connective tissue

Allow recoil of tissue following stretching -walls of large arteries; within certain ligaments

Corpus Callosum

Allows communication between hemispheres.

Palatine process of the Maxilla

Anterior 2/3 of the Maxilla

Patellar

Anterior Knee

Abdominal

Anterior body trunk inferior to ribs

Temporal process of the zygomatic bone

Anterior portion reaches towards the temporal bone

Antecubital

Anterior surface of elbow

Lumbar

Area of back between ribs and hips

Vertebral

Area of spine

Pelvic

Area overlying the pelvis anteriorly

Inguinal

Area where thigh meets body (Groin)

Step seven sensory impulses from the ear?

As a receptor cell depolarizes its membrane becomes more permeable to calcium ions

Cardiac Muscle

As it contracts, cardiac muscle propels blood into the circulation; involuntary control -the walls of the heart

List the different types of glial cells and their function

Astrocytes -support neurons in brain and spinal chord (CNS) Microglia -CNS -defensive phagocytes Ependymal cells -line fluid filled brain cavities Oligodendrocytes -secrete myelin Satellite cells and Schwann cells -peripheral nerves and ganglia

Which heart contraction fills the ventricles?

Atrial contraction

hydrogen bond

Attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom.

Step eleven sensory impulses from the ear?

Auditory cortex of temporal lobes interpret sensory impulses

Step three of sensory impulses from the ear?

Auditory ossicles amplify and transmit vibrations to end of stapes

Deep

Away from the body surface; more internal

Lateral

Away from the midline of the body

Distal

Away from the point of attachment

Why is an action potential a positive feedback system

Because an action potential is self reinforcing and self propagating. each Na channel is triggered to open by the opening of adjacent Na+ channels

Why do myelinated axons exhibit saltatory conduction?

Because voltage gated sodium channels are concentrated in nodes of Ranvier, the action potential jumps through cytoplasm from one node to the next.

Ventral

Belly side

Mental Foramen

Bilateral holes on anterior aspect of mandible

Coronal Suture

Bilateral, separates frontal from parietal bone

Lambdoid Suture

Bilateral; separate parietal from occipital bones

Squamous Suture

Bilateral; side of skull

Pallor

Blanching, Becoming pale-low blood pressure or anemia (during fear, anger, emotional stress)

Polar vs. non-polar

Bonds that are partly ionic are called polar covalent bonds. Nonpolar covalent bonds, with equal sharing of the bond electrons, arise when the electronegativities of the two atoms are equal

Radius

Bone in forearm "on the thumb side", larger in the proximal forearm.

Irregular bones

Bones that do not fall into any of these categories. The vertebrae

Skeletal Organ System

Bones, Cartilages, tendons, ligaments, and joints -Body support and protection from internal organs

How is meiosis similar to mitosis?

Both occur in humans, animals, and plants

Which law says, "for a given mass and constant temperature, an inverse relationship exists between the volume and pressure of gas?"

Boyle's Law. PV= c, where c = constant

Nervous Organ System

Brain, Spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors -allows body to detect changes in its internal and external environment and to respond to such information by activating appropriate muscles or glands

7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar vertebrae

Breakfast at 7. Lunch at 12. Dinner at 5. What is this good for?

digestive system

Breaks down food into smaller molecules. Absorbs these nutrients into the body.

Sternum

Breastbone. Superior portion is the Manubrium. Directly inferior to the Manubrium is the Gladiolus. Directly inferior to the Gladiolus is the Xiphoid process

Third degree burns

Burn where entire thickness of skin is destroyed. The burned area appears blanched (gray-white) or blackened. Skin grafts must be done to repair area.

First degree burns

Burns where only epidermis is damaged. The area becomes red and swollen.

Cervical Vertebrae

C1-C7. First seven vertebrae of the spine. Contain two holes on either side called the Transverse Foramen (only vertebrae that has one) where the vertebral arteries travel through to the head. Much smaller.

Axis

C2 (Cervical 2) The second Cervical vertebrae. Looks at little bit like a UFO. Think Rotation

Which characteristic is part of a person's genotype? Black hair that grows rapidly, being fast runner, CFTR genes that causes cystic fibrosis, or brown eyes that appear hazel in the sunlight?

CFTR genes that causes cystic fibrosis

Vestibulocochlear nerve also known as?

CN VIII

General Characteristics of Connective Tissue

CT is the most abundant tissues in the body, but are never exposed to the environment outside the body *(if it is exposed you have a cut; exposed to surface of blood vessel you form a blood clot) CT includes fat, bone, cartilage, and blood - tissues quite varied in appearance and function *some cells can differentiate into certain CT cells; cannot re-differentiate and become something else Most CT have multiple functions, but no single tissue performs all of these functions

Which muscle tissues are involuntary?

Cardiac and smooth muscle tissues

3 Skin pigments

Carotene, Melanin, Hemoglobin - determine skin color

Artery

Carries blood away from heart

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance that's found in all cells of the body. -Your body needs some cholesterol to make hormones, vitamin D, and substances that help you digest foods.

Proximal

Closer to the point of attachment

Hearing is transmitted along the?

Cochlear branch of vestibulocochlear nerve or CN VII "8"

Which proteins is the extracellular matrix made of?

Collagen or elastin

Clavical

Collar bone. S-shaped. Attaches to the sternum and comes out to form the AC Joint

Ribosome

Composed of RNA and protein; Actual sites of protein synthesis

Epidermis

Composed of epithelial cells, is the outermost protective shield of the body

Simple Epithelial

Consist of one layer of cells attached to the basement membrane

Hair

Consists of dead, keratinized cells Pili Are flexible strands produced by hair follicles and consist largely dead, keratinized cells Shaft- portion in which keratinization is complete Root- where kerantinization is still ongoing

endocrine system

Consists of glands that control many of the body's activities by producing hormones.

Stratum Granulosum

Consists of one to five cell layers in which keratinocytes appearance changes drastically - keratinization begins

Dermis Composition

Consists of papillary & reticular layers Made up of strong, flexible connective tissue

integumentary system

Consists of the skin, mucous membranes, hair, and nail

All cells contain 3 things. These three things are?

DNA, RNA, and synthesize proteins

What forms when thin/thick microfilaments overlap?

Dark bands (striations) forms

Sound measured by?

Decibels (dB) -normal speech = 60 dB -sustained loudness greater than 85 dB destroys hair cells

State the role of Insulin

Decreases blood glucose levels

Deltoid

Curve of shoulder formed by large deltoid muscle

Layers of Epidermis

Deep to superficial 1. Stratum Basal 2. Stratum Spinosum 3. Stratum Granulosom 4. Stratum Lucidum (absent in thin skin) 5. Stratum Corneum

Reticular Layer

Deeper, accounting of about 80% of the thickness of the dermis, is coarse, dense irregular connective tissue Cleavage (tension) lines Flexure lines

Pia mater

Deepest layer -attaches to brain and spinal cord surface -contain blood vessels -supplies nutrition to brain tissue and spinal tissue -contains nerves

What is the function of white blood cells?

Defend the body against infection and remove various waste

Which part of a neuron receives information?

Dendrites

Step six sensory impulses from the ear?

Different frequencies of vibration in endolymph stimulate different sets of receptor cells

Lysosome

Digests proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and transports undigested substances to the cell membrane so they can be removed.

Transverse Plane or Horizontal Plane

Divides the body or organ into a superior and inferior part.

Parasagittal Plane

Divides the body or organ into unequal right and left parts.

What is the major function of the spleen?

Filter unwanted materials from the blood (including old red blood cells) and help fight infections

True ribs

First seven ribs; only ribs that articulate with the Sternum

elastic fibers

Flexible and "stretchy" fibers that add elasticity to tissue

Nuclear envelope

Encloses the structures of the nucleus. Consists of inner and outer membranes made of lipids

Which are the two type of glands that secrete signaling molecules?

Endocrine (ductless) glands: secrete products into circulatory system Exocrine (ducted) glands: secrete products directly into another organ

Which are the 3 main components of the endocrine system?

Endocrine glands, hormones, and receptors on target cells

Which of the following does not contain blood vessels: Hypodermis Hyperdermis Dermis Epidermis

Epidermis - first layer of skin

What are the 4 broad (main) categories of tissues

Epithelial tissue, muscular tissue, connective tissue, and nerve tissue

4 major categories of Tissues

Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous

What are the 7 Categories of Tissues?

Epithelial, muscle, connective, nervous, blood, bone, and cartilage

What are the 2 male reproductive hormones?

Follicle stimulating hormone and Luteinizing hormone

Frontal

Forehead

Frontal Bone

Forehead bone

Osteocytes

Former Osteoblasts that have become trapped in he matrix they deposited. They reside in tiny cavities called lacunae, which are interconnected by slender channels called canuliculi. Osteocytes have multiple functions. Some resorb bone matrix and others deposit it, so they contribute to the homeostatic maintenance of both bone density and blood concentrations of calcium and phosphate ions. They are strain sensors.

Functions of Connective Tissue

Every Train Passes Several Street Dogs A. Establish a structural framework for the body *holds you together B. Transport fluids and dissolved materials from one region of the body to another *blood and lymph C. Provide protection for delicate organs *greater omentum D. Supporting, surrounding, and interconnecting other tissue types E. Storing energy reserves, especially as lipids *far as long term energy F. Defending the body from invasion by microorganisms *White blood cells (bone)

How could a graded potential occur?

Excitatory 1. From the opening of gated sodium channels Inhibitory 2. opening of K+ channels 3. Opening of Cl- channels - So either the loss of positive ions or a gain of negative ions

Sympathetic Division

Function; mobilizes body systems during activity "Fight or Flight"

Motor (Efferent) Division

Function; motor nerve fibers. Structure; conducts impulses from CNS to effectors (muscles and glands)

Sensory (Afferent) Division

Function; somatic and visceral sensory nerve fibers. Structure; Conducts impulses from receptors to the CNS.

Somatic Nervous System

Function; somatic motor (voluntary). Structure; conducts impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles.

Epithelial Tissue

Functions: protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, and sensory reception

Electronegativity

Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons. -The greater the electronegativity difference, the more ionic the bond is

List the function and location of common connective tissue cells

Fibroblasts (connective tissue proper) Adipocytes (fat tissue) Chondrocytes (cartilage) Osteocytes (bone) White blood cells and macrophages (immune, ECM) Mast cells (Histamine release, inflammatory response)

Three structural classes of joints

Fibrous Cartilaginous Synovial

Fibrous

Fibrous joints contain fibrous connective tissue and cannot move; fibrous joints include sutures, syndesmoses, and gomphoses.

Organ

Groups of similar tissues that work together to perform a common function

Rotation of the Head

Head turns left and right

Cardiovascular Organ System

Heart, blood vessels, and blood -Primarily a transport system that carries blood containing oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, ions and hormones and other substances to and from the tissue cells

Calcaneal

Heel of foot

Functions of cell membrane

Helps keep cytoplasm in and substances located outside the cell out. Determines what is allowed to enter and exit.

Neurons

Highly specialized to receive stimuli and to generate electrical signals that may be sent to all parts of the body

foramen magnum

Hole in the inferior aspect of the skull that the spinal cord travels through

Intervertebral foramen

Hole through which the nerves go from the spine to the rest of your body

Point the apex of the Patella away from you and which ever side it falls to, that's the side it is. If it falls to the right, it's the right patella. If it falls to the left, it's the left.

How do know which Patella you're looking at?

Give an example of negative feedback

If blood glucose becomes elevated, the pancreas secretes insulin. Insulin allows glucose to enter cells, lowering blood sugar. (The hormone insulin acts to reduce further effects by inhibiting hormone production)

leukocytes

White blood cells (WBCs), also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders.

Jaundice

Yellow cast- abnormally yellow skin tone usually signifies a liver disorder

double replacement reaction

a chemical change that involves an exchange of positive ions between two compounds

reversible reaction

a chemical reaction in which the products re-form the original reactants

cardiovascular system

a collection of organs that transport blood throughout the body

Bone

a hard tissue that supports and protects softer tissues and organs. Its marrow produces red blood cells.

adipose tissue

a kind of body tissue containing stored fat that serves as a source of energy

set point

a level that the body works to maintain

decomposition reaction

a reaction in which a single compound breaks down to form two or more simpler substances

Acromion process

The highest point on the Scapula

chemical equilibrium

a state of balance in which forward and reverse reactions are taking place at the same rate.

chemical compound

a substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements in definite proportions

Gene

a unit of heredity that is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring

Nervous System organs

Includes the brain, spinal cord, & peripheral nerves

The Fibula

The lateral malleolus is part of what bone?

Phospholipids (fats)

The main structural building blocks of the plasma membrane

Respiratory System Organs

The major organs include nose, trachea, bronchi, lungs, & diaphragm

Proteins: trans-membrane and peripheral

The membrane proteins are of two types Integral (passing through the width of the membrane (act as transport channels) and peripheral (act as recognition sites). These peripheral proteins contain carbohydrates to help in cell to cell recognition. These carbohydrates are called oligosaccharides. If they bind to proteins they become glycoproteins, if they bind to lipids, they become glycolipids.

Diffusion

The movement of molecules from a region of a higher concentration to a lower -Simple diffusion: unasisted diffusion of solutes(dissolved substances) through a selectively permeable membrane. Move from a higher concentration to a lower one -Facilitated Diffusion: substances moved across the membrane by passive transport

Which system has a close working relationship with the endocrine system?

The nervous system

Phospholipids: non-polar and hydrophobic

The nonpolar regions of the molecules, which are referred to as hydrophobic, face the interior of the bilayer, where they are shielded from water.

State the role of Glucagon

Increases blood glucose levels

Optic foramen

Inside the orbit of the eye

Insula

Inter lobe

What is the circulatory system is responsible for?

Internal transport for substances to and from the cells

Step eight sensory impulses from the ear?

Inward diffusion of calcium ions causes vesicles at the base of the receptor cell to release neurotransmitter

Lateral

Is Acetabulum medial or lateral?

Anterior

Is Pubis anterior or posterior?

What is filtration ?

Is a passive process in which water and solutes are forced through a membrane by hydrostatic (fluid) pressure. ex.) fluids and solutes filter out of the capillaries in the kidneys and into the kidney tubules because the blood pressure in the capillaries is greater than the fluid pressure in the tubules.

Carotene

Is a yellow to orange pigment found in certain plant products such as carrots Color most obvious in the palms and soles

Primary function of the spleen

It filters microorganisms and other foreign substances from the blood

homeostasis

It means keeping things constant and comes from two Greek words: 'homeo,' meaning 'similar,' and 'stasis,' meaning 'stable.' Body systems work together to maintain a stable environment -body temp: 37.0 degrees celsius -pH: 7.4 -body glucose: o.1%

Digestive System organs

The organ system that is made up the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Kidney glomeruli; air sacs of lungs; lining of heart

Lumbar Vertebrae

L1-L5. Looks like a moose or triceritops. Mostly allows you to bend forward and backward.

Occipital Condyles

The part of the skull that actually touches the neck bones

External structures of female reproductive system:

Labia major, labia minor, bartholin's glands, and clitoris

Greater tubercle

Larger bump, besides the head, on the proximal end of the Humerus

Superior Articular Facet of the Vertebrae

Larger facets that articulate superiorly with another vertebrae's inferior articular facet.

Olecranon Process

Larger projection on the proximal end of the Ulna

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Largest ducts of the sweat glands, mammary glands, and salivary glands

Cerebrum

Largest part of the brain that is divided into two hemispheres; controls memory storage,speech and thinking

False ribs

Last 5 ribs; do not have any direct articulation with the Sternum; Vertrebrochondral and floating ribs

The fibula is lateral or medial?

Lateral

Fibular

Lateral part of leg

Pterygoid processes

Lateral plate of the sphenoid. Look like a Pterodactyl landing

Transitional Epithelium

Lines the ureters, urinary bladder

Where are the thyroid and parathyroid glands located?

Located in neck just below the larynx

Lateral Epicondyle

Located on the distal end of the Humerus, laterally

Medial Epicondyle

Located on the distal end of the Humerus, on the same side as the Head

External Anatomy of the right later aspect of the skull

Look on other quizlet

Inferior view of the Skull, mandible removed

Look on other quizlet

Semilunar/Trochlear notch of the Ulna

Looks like a "U" located on the proximal end of the Ulnar

Styloid process

Looks like a Stylus

Capitulum

Looks like a smooth baby's head

Connective Tissue Proper

Loose connective Tissue (areolar, adipose, reticular) Dense connective Tissue (dense regular, dense irregular)

Ventricles

Lower chambers of the heart

Coracoid process

Lower notch; C-shaped "C"oracoid. For ligaments and muscles.

Name a supplementary system that cleans up excess fluids and proteins and returns them to the circulatory system

Lymph vascular system

Lymphatic/ Immunity Organ System

Lymphatic vessels, Lymph nodes etc. -picks up fluid leaked from the blood vessels and returns it to the blood -cleanses blood of pathogens and other debris

Name the 5 types of white blood cells

Lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

Nervous Tissue

Made up of two major cell populations.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Main mechanism for specific endocytosis of most macromolecules. The receptors for this process are plasma membrane proteins that bind only to certain substances

Integumentary System organ

Major organ is the skin and includes hair and nails

Circulatory System organs

Major organs include heart & blood vessels

Excretory System organs

Major organs include kidneys, ureters, & bladder

Muscular System organs

Major organs include skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, and cardiac muscles

Meiosis

Makes sex cells w/23 chromosomes

Zygomatic arch

Makes up a little bit of the structure of the eye, attaches to the maxilla and the Temporal Bone. Half of the arch is Temporal Bone and half is Zygomatic Bone.

sphenoid bone

Makes up a part of the orbit of the eye; nasal cavity

Dermis

Makes up the bulk of the skin, is a tough, leathery lawyer composed mostly of dense connective tissue

Reproductive Organ System

Male: Testes, prostate gland, penis etc., which cary sperm to the body exterior Female: ovaries, uterus, vagina etc. -Provide germs cells called eggs; the female uterus houses the developing fetus until birth; mammary glands provide nutrition for infant

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Males sperm- carrying ducts and ducts of large glands; lines trachea; most of the upper respiratory tract

Mandibular fossa

Mandibular condyles fit into the temporal bone here; beneath temporomandibular joint

Hemoglobin

The pinkish hue of fair skin reflects the crimson color of the oxygenated pigment hemoglobin in the red blood cells circulating through the dermal capillaries

Transverse Process of the Vertebrae

The portion of the vertebrae that points out laterally. Remember the Transverse Plane.

Spinous Process of the Vertebrae

The portion of the vertebrae that sticks out posteriorly.

Sural

The posterior surface of lower leg (the calf)

Descending fiber crossover at?

Medulla Oblongata

Brain stem

Medulla oblongata controls heart rate and other involuntary functions

What other cells also contribute to the body's defense with macrophages, T cells, and B cells?

Memory cells, suppressor T cells, and helper T cells

Which germ layer is connective tissue derived from?

Mesoderm (specifically the mesenchyme)

What is the brainstem composed of?

Midbrain, Pons, and Medulla Oblongata

Arachnoid mater

Middle layer (brain and spinal cord). -no blood vessels -subarachnoid space -Contain spinal fluid -blood filtrate; blood pressure is pushing stuff out of blood -600-700 ml/day -140-270 ml in adults (excess drained into vascular system and becomes plasma)

Step four of sensory impulses from the ear?

Movement of stapes at oval window transmits vibrations to perilymph in scale vestibuli

pseudostratified epithelium

Multiple layers due to difference in cell height, but are really one layer.

Muscular Organ System

Muscles attached to the Skeleton -contract and shorten; in doing so, skeletal muscles allow locomotion (running, walking etc.) grasping and manipulation of the environment

Which layer of the heart contains striated muscle fibers for contraction of the heart?

Myocardium

Postganglionic sympathetic fibers release?

NE adrenergic fibers

Talk

Name this specific bone of the foot.

Iliac crest

Name this specific part of the ilium.

Symphysis Pubis

Name this specific region of the pelvic bone. The pointy part

Respiratory Organ System

Nasal Passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs -keeps the bloods continuously supplied with oxygen while removing carbon dioxide

Superficial

Near the surface

Cervical

Neck region

An atom has 5 protons, 5 neutrons, and 6 electrons. What is the electric charge of this atom?

Negative. Because the atoms has MORE electrons than protons, the atom has a negative charge.

Step nine sensory impulses from the ear?

Neurotransmitter stimulates ends of nearby sensory neurons

Some substance may act as a ____ in one situation and a ____ in another situation?

Neurotransmitter, hormone

Osteocyte

Normal cells living in bone. What look like little ponds are actually osteocytes that have built bone around themselves and have created little tunnels for blood vessels to get nutrients.

crista galli

Of the ethmoid bone, where the membranes of the brain are attached; knife edged

Inferior Nasal Conchea

On the lateral wall of the nasal cavity

Melanin

Only one made in the skin - is a polymer made of tyrosine amino acids - its two forms range in color from reddish yellow to brownish black

Digestive Organ System

Oral Cavity, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines -breaks down ingested foods to smaller particles, which can be absorbed into the blood for delivery to blood cells

4 Types of Cells of Bone Tissue

Osteogenic cells osteoclasts osteocytes osteoblasts

Stratum Corneum(Horny Layer)

Outermost epidermal layer, broad zone to 20 to 30 cell layers thick

Mast Cells

Oval cells that lie near the small blood vessels and contain many large secretory granules. (Mast means stuffed full of granules) Contain many chemicals that mediate inflammation, especially in severe allergies--> Histamine, heparin, and proteases

Internal structures of female reproductive system:

Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina

Dense irregular connective tissue

able to withstand tension exerted in many directions, provides structural strength -dermis of the skin, fibrous capsules of organs and joints

General sense receptors

abundant in skin, muscles, joints, viscera -trigger afferent impulses -> CNS for processing

Sour

acids (H+ ions in solution)

Reticular formation of brain and epinephrine

activates

Reticular formation of brain and norepinephrine

activates

Many molecules are not able to diffuse the cell membrane. How can they be moved?

active transport and vesicle

Vasomotor center

acts on smooth muscle of blood vessel walls producing vasoconstriction or vasodilation

Pseudostratified Epithelial

actually a simple columnar epithelial (one layer of cells) -gives a false appearance of stratified

The categories of the respiratory system are?

airway, lungs, and respiratory muscles

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

aka corticotropin -release stimulated by corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) from hypothalamus -stimulates adrenal cortex release of cortisol -a glucocticoid -inhibits protein synthesis which increases blood amino acids levels -stimulates gluconeogenesls >>maintains blood glucose levels between meals -low blood levels cortisol stimulates CRH release causing more cortisol to be released

Visceroceptors

aka interoceptors. Associated with stimuli affecting viscera

Growth Hormone (GH)

aka somatotropin (STH) -stimulates increased rate of mitosis(stimulates growth) -facilitates amino acids into cells(stimulates growth) -increase cell's rate of CHO & fat metabolism(stimulates growth) -release stimulate by protein deficiency and low blood glucose

Examples of steroid hormones

aldosterone, cortisol, estrogen, testosterone, active form of Vitamin D

Basophils

alert body of invasion

Bitter

alkaloids (nicotine, caffeine, morphine)

Which germ later can epithelia be derived from?

all three (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm)

Selective permeability

allows what goes in and outside of the cell

adipocytes

also known as lipocytes and fat cells, are the cells that primarily compose adipose tissue, specialized in storing energy as fat

Where does gas exchange occur in the human body?

alveoli

Umami

amino acid glutamate (MSG = monosodium glutamate)

Examples of nonsteroid hormones

amino acids, peptides, proteins, glycoproteins

The rate of a chemical reaction depends on all of the following except?

amount of mass lost

3 semicircular canals

ampullae = swellings enclosing dynamic equilibrium structures

What is a reflex?

an automatic response without any conscious thought to stimulus via the reflex arc

Golgi Apparatus

Packaging Proteins or other substances for export from the cell into the plasma membrane

Zygomatic process of the temporal bone

Part of the Temporal Bone that reaches towards the Zygomatic Bone, Posterior

Cerebellum

Part of the brain that controls muscle coordination and balance

The immune system protects the body against invading pathogens including:

bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists

Skeletal muscles include muscles commonly called

biceps, triceps, hamstrings, and quadriceps.

Lens of eye

biconvex, transparent, flexible/pliable -held in place by suspensory ligaments -avascular (no blood) so light can come through unimpeded

Autocrine substances

binds to cell receptors and stimulates that cell

Mitosis involves which kind of cells?

body cells

Sympathetic

body's reaction to extreme, stressful, emergency situations

organic components include ____________

bone cells and osteoid

endochondral ossification in a long bone

bone collar forms around the diaphysis of the hyaline cartilage model, cartilage in the center of the diaphysis calcifies and then develops cavities, the periosteal bud invades the internal cavities and spongy bone forms, the diaphysis elongates and a medullary cavity forms and secondary ossification centers appear in the epiphyses, the epiphyses ossify and when completed, hyaline cartilage remains only in the epiphyseal plates and articular cartilages.

osteoblasts

bone forming cells

comminuted fracture type

bone fragments into 3 or more pieces, common in the aged

compression fracture type

bone is crushed, common in porous bones (osteoporotic bones in a fall, crushed vertebra)

osteoclast

bone resorbing and destruction cells, giant multinucleate

osteogenic cell

bone stem cells, found in the membranous periosteum and endosteum, produce osteoblasts

Bones: Osseous tissue

bone supports and protects -bones

axial skeleton

bones of skull, vertebral column, rib cage, protect, support, carry other body parts

appendicular skeleton

bones of the upper and lower limbs and girdles (shoulder and hip bones), locomotion, manipulation

Which body layers can connective tissue be found in?

bones, tendons, ligaments, blood, fat, the underlying layers of the skin, and the interstitial matrix

abdominopelvic cavity

both the pelvic and abdominal cavities

What makes up the CNS?

brain + spinal chord

What are the primary components of the Central Nervous System (CNS)?

brain and spinal cord

What is a nerve made of?

bundles of multiple neurons wrapped by connective tissue

Second degree burns

burns that involve injury to the epidermis and the upper region of the dermis. Skin is red and painful and blisters appear

How are endocrine hormones secreted into the circulatory system?

by exocytosis or by diffusion into capillaries

Control of hormone seretion

by negative feedback regulation

bone deposit

by osteoblast, occurs wherever bone is injured and extra strength is required

bone resorption

by osteoclast, releasing enzymes and hydrochloric acid, which enter the blood stream where they can be used (Ca) or eliminated (dead cell fragments)

Vertebral Foramen

canal through which spinal cord passes

The sequence of contractions is called the

cardiac cycle

Fallopian tubes

carry the mature egg toward the uterus. Fertilization typically occurs in these tubes

Afferent Fibers

carrying sensory impulses of taste

thoracic cavity

cavity housing lungs and heart

Preganglionic neuron

cell body of 1st neuron resides in brain/spinal cord

What has selective permeability with regard to size, charge, and solubility?

cell membrane or plasma membrane

Interphase

cell prepares for division by replicating it genetic and cytoplasmic material.

Describe the cellularity of epithelial cells

cells are in close contact with each other through tight junctions, desmosomes, adherents junctions

Describe the polarity of epithelial cells

cells have apical surface and basal surface. Tight junctions prevent migration of membrane proteins between apical and basal surfaces, thus maintaining polarity

The dermis consists of?

connective tissue - blood vessels, sensory receptors, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands. Including collagen fibers and elastin

Connective Tissue

connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, blood = all which derive from an embryonic tissue called mesenchyme

What does the hypodermis consists of?

connective tissue, which binds the skin to the underlying muscles

Lienorenal ligament

connects kidney to the spleen

Phrenicoclic ligament (middle secretion)

connects left colic flexure to the thoracic diaphragm

Gastrolienal ligament

connects stomach to spleen

Stratified Epithelial

consist of two or more layers of cells

Brain

consists of hind brain, which includes the medulla oblongata, cerebellum, and pons (parts of brain stem)

Cytoskeleton

consists of microtubules that help shape and support the cell

Clitoris

contain erectile tissue and nerve endings for sensual pleasure

Dorsal root ganglia

contain neuron cell bodies of afferent neurons

Otolithic membrane

contains otoliths (calcium carbonate) 1. depending of position of head in space, gravity "pulls" on otoliths 2. movement of otoliths moves otolithic membrane, which pulls on the hair bundle 3. action potential generated in vestibule branch of CN VIII informing brain of new head position in space 4. brain responds w/ motor impulses to skeletal muscles to maintain center of gravity

Retina (inner layer)

contains photoreceptors cell; rods and cones -transparent sheet of tissue continuous w/ optic nerve in back and extending forward as inner lining of eyeball

Penis

contains urethra, can fill with blood and become erect, enabling the disposition of semen and sperm into the female reproduction during sexual intercourse

List the 3 characteristics of muscle tissue

contraction, extensibility, elasticity

Glucagon

control carb metabolism and has opposite effect of insulin by increasing glucose levels (blood sugar levels)

Insulin

control carb metabolism by lowering glucose in blood • Affects fat metabolism and can change liver's ability to release stored fat

Adrenal medulla

controls cardiac function; raises blood sugar and controls size of blood vessels

Compact bone is also known as

cortical bone

Parasympathetic

counteracts effects of sympathetic nervous system

Tympanic membrane

covered by skin on external face, mucous membrane on internal face.

visceral membrane

covers the organs

articular cartilage

covers the surfaces of bones where they come together to form joints

The mitochondria consists of an inner and outer membrane• Between the inner and outer membranes are folds called?

cristae

Cartilage

cushions and provides structural support for body parts. It has a jelly-like base and if fibrous

Centriole

cylinder shaped structures near the nucleus that are involved in cellular division.

The cell is filled with a fluid called?

cytoplasm or cytosol

What is an example of a reflex arc?

Patellar tendon reflex = knee jerk

What mobilizes white blood cells and chemical reactions to stop infection?

Phagocytes and inflammation responses

Ethmoid Bone

Place thumb on perpendicular plate and match index finger on other side of skull

______________ constitutes over half of the blood volume. It is mostly water and serves as a solvent.

Plasma

Vomer

Plow shaped; lower portion of nasal septum

Head of the Femur

Plugs into the Acetabulum of the Os Coxae

Acromial

Point of shoulder

C2 or Axis

Possible extra credit question: epistropheus?

The joint that is created by the superior articulating cassette and the inferior articulating cassette making a joint. Also called a cassette joint

Possible extra credit question: zygapophyseal joint?

Popliteal

Posterior knee area (back of knee)

Linea Aspera

Posterior side of the Femur. The ridgey lines

Olecranal

Posterior surface of elbow

Occipital

Posterior surface of head

Define prostaglandin and its role

Prostaglandins are lipid-soluble messenger molecules derived from fatty acids (e.g. Arachidonic acid). They generate the inflammation response and are involved in vasodilation

External Auditory meatus/canal

Protects via ceruminous glands and hairs (modified sweat glands)

Happens in thin microfilaments

Protein actin

Happens in thick microfilaments

Protein myosin

exchange reaction

decomposition of two substances and, in exchange, synthesis of two new compounds AB + CD -> AD + BC

What does Calcitonin do?

decreases blood calcium by storing calcium in bone tissue

Cell Membrane (plasma membrane)

defines the cell by acting as a barrier.

What does DNA stand for?

deoxyribonucleic acid

cells: fibroblasts, mast cells, microphages. em= collage and elastic fibers

description of areolar tissue:

cell= blood cell (Erythrocytes-carry O2/Leukocytes- fight off infection/Platelets- clotting). em= blood plasma

description of blood tissue:

one layer of column-shaped cells. has goblet cells.

description of simple columnar epithelium:

long, cylindrical, striated, multinucleated cells

description of skeletal muscle tissue:

2 or more layers of cube-shaped cells

description of stratified cuboidal epithelium:

several cell layers: basal cells (cuboidal or columnar) and surface cells (flattened or dome-like)

description of transitional epithelium:

Positive feedback

deviation from set point made greater ex.) breast-feeding, giving birth, blood clots

negative feedback

deviation from set point os resisted/ negated ex.) when shivering we are raising our body temp

The respiratory muscles include?

diaphragm and intercostal muscles

Define resting potential

difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of cell when the neuron is not conducting a nerve impulse. Inside of cell is negative compared to outside.

Lysosomes

digest worm-out cell organelles and foreign substances that enter the cell

Airways and norepinephrine

dilates slightly

Blood vessels and epinephrine

dilates vessels in skeletal muscle, decreasing resistance to blood flow

sagittal plane

divides the body into right and left parts

Sagittal plane

divides the body, or any body part, vertically into right and left sections. The sagittal plane runs parallel to the midline of the body.

Diaphragm

dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.

Spinal nerve

dorsal root and ventral root joined together

Semicircular Canals

dynamic equilibrium

Sweat glands are either _________ or ____________

eccrine glands or apocrine glands

Uterus

egg is implanted in the uterine wall if fertilized

How does the binding of neurotransmitter to postsynaptic cell change membrane potential?

either depolarizes or hyperpolarizes

Excitability

electric gradient which can reverse when stimulated

Labia major and labia minor

enclose and protect vagina

bone growth and bone remodeling

endochondral ossification occurs at the articular cartilages and epiphyseal plates as the bone lengthens

distal epiphysis

ends of a long bone, contain spongy bone

proximal epiphysis

ends of a long bone, contain spongy bone

What is the most superficial layer of skin?

epidermis

What are the 3 layers of the skin

epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis

Internal structures of the Male Reproduction System

epididymis, vans deferens, ejaculatory ducts, urethra, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands.

epiphyseal fracture type

epiphysis separates from the diaphysis along the epiphyseal plate, tends to occur where cartilage cells are dying and calcification of the matrix is occurring.

What's the difference between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters?

excitatory neurotransmitters stimulate the brain whereas inhibitory neurotransmitters balance the excessive simulations without stimulating the brain.

Neurotransmitters

excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP) by opening Na+ channels in the postsynaptic membrane -depolarization of neuron cell membrane

Sebaceous glands and sweat glands are what type of glands found in the skin?

exocrine glands

Bacterial meningitis

extremely serious, requires immediate medical care. Fatal or permanent brain damage will occur

Accessory structures

eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva(pink eye), lacrimal apparatus, extrinsic eye muscles

Why does an action potential travel faster through myelinated axons?

fewer sodium channels over a smaller membrane surface area

Reticular Connective Tissue

fibers form a soft internal skeleton that supports other cell types -lymphoid organs

ligaments

fibrous connective tissue, attach bone to bone, hold structures together and keep them stable

tendons

fibrous connective tissue, attach muscle to bone, muscle to structures, move the bone or structure

Cartilaginous joints

fill the spaces between some bones and restrict movement. Example - between vertebrae

Red blood cells , an important site of red blood cell production ______________________

fills the spongy tissue of many bones.

In general, what do the kidneys do? (other main functions)

filter the blood, reabsorb needed materials, and secrete wastes and excess water in urine.

How many quarts of blood do adult humans have?

five quarts of blood

bone lining cells

flat cells, found on bone surfaces where bone remodeling is not going on, help maintain the bone matrix, periosteal cells are bone lining cells on the external bone surface, endosteal lining cells on the internal bone surface

Mass nerve corpuscle

flat connective tissue cells in a sheath in dermis

Muscles and ligaments support the?

flexible and curved backbone

Renal circulation

flow of blood between heart and kidneys

Pulmonary circulation

flow of blood between the heart and lungs

Portal circulation

flow of blood from digestive system to liver

Systemic circulation

flow of blood to the entire body. It also includes portal circulation and renal circulation

Coronary circulation

flow of blood to the heart tissue

Membranous labyrinth/ canal

fluid/ endolymph

Bony labyrinth/ canal

fluid/ perilymph

Spine of the Scapula

The ridgy portion of the Scapula

Anaphase

The shortest phase of mitosis, anaphase begins abruptly as the centers of the chromosomes split simultaneously

Coranoid Fossa

The smaller, anterior depression on the distal end of the Humerus

Vesicular Transport

fluids containing large particles and macromolecules are transported across cellular membranes inside membranous sacs called vesicles. Like active transport, vesicular transport moves substances into the cell(endocytosis) and out of the cell(exocytosis).

Function of eye lens

focuses light on macula lutea of retina

Centrioles

form the bases of the cilia and flagella and in that role are called the basal bodies. They direct formation of the mitotic spindle during cell division

Hypodermis

The subcutaneous tissue just deep to the skin Not part of the skin, but shares some of skins protective functions Also called, the superficial fascia,because it is superficial to the tough connective tissue wrapping (fascia) of the skeletal muscles, consists mostly of adipose tissue

Solvent

The substance in which the solute is dissolved is called a solvent.

What secretes hormones and is the major site of lymphocyte production?

The thymus

Tibial Plateau

The top, flat portion of the tibia

Metaphase

The two centrosomes are at opposite poles of the cells

Where does the Frontal lobe, Partial lobe, Temporal lobe, and Occipital lobe get their names from

They are named after the bones that protect them.

What is the one thing that all cells have in common?

They have a cell membrane

Petrous portion of temporal bone

Thick portion of the temporal bone; hearing and balance are housed here

Squamous portion of the temporal bone

Thin portion of temporal bone

Papillary Layer

Thin, superficial, is areolar connective tissue in which fine interlacing collagen and elastic fibers from a loosely woven mat that is heavily invested with small blood vessels. Dermal papillae contain capillary loops Friction ridges

Osteoblasts (Blast Build Bone)

This build's up bone; like blasting blocks into place in Minecraft? (Idk... I've never played Minecraft)

Chromatin

This consists of the DNA and protein that make up chromosomes

Action potentials always have the same magnitude regardless of the strength of the stimulus. What happens if you change the strength of the stimulus?

frequency of nerve impulses changes. e.g. if you drop a brick instead of a pen on your foot, more nerve impulses are conducted

Glandular Secretions

from exocrine glands destroy bacteria

anterior/posterior

front/back

The four main lobes of the brain are

frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe

Coronal plane

frontal plane that divides the body, or any body structure, vertically into front and back (anterior and posterior) sections. Runs

insulate and protect

function of adipose tissue:

Muscular System

This system is primarily responsible for internal and external movement of the body

Integumentary System

This system is the body's first layer of defense to fight illnesses

Thyroid Hormones

Thyroxine (T4) and Triodothyronine (T3, 5x stronger -regulate metabolism of CHO, fats, protein -Increases rate -energy released from CHO -protein syntesis -stimulate breakdown of fats -required for normal growth/development -essential for nervous system development and maturation -clinical connection; goiter and cretinism

Alveoli

Tiny air sacs in the lungs that pass oxygen into capillaries through diffusion

Epithelial tissue

Tissues in which cells are joined together tightly. Skin tissue is an example

-cushions/protects body organs -universal packing tissue -glue- holds organs together/in place

function of areolar tissue:

transport system for cardiovascular system (carries oxygen/enzymes/hormones/antibodies)

function of blood tissue:

-involuntary control -propels blood into circulation as it contracts

function of cardiac muscle tissue:

-irritability- able to respond to stimulus -conductivity- able to transmit impulses

function of nervous tissue:

secrete and absorb. cilia trap dust and debris.

function of psuedostratified columnar epithelium:

-involuntary control -propels substances through internal passageways

function of smooth muscle tissue:

protects against abuse and friction

function of stratified squamous epithelium:

stretches readily; slide by one another; change shape

function of transitional epithelium:

Arterial blood pressure

functions by transporting oxygen - poor blood into lungs and oxygen - rich blood to body tissues

DNA

genetic material that stores information about the plant or animal

Embryonic Connective Tissue: Mesenchyme

gives rise to all other connective tissue types -Primarily in embryo

Middle zone (fasciculata)

glucocorticoids/ regulate fat, protein and sugar metabolism and anti-inflammatory -major hormone: cortisol

What is not a product or respiration?

glucose

Peripheral Nervous System

gray matter found here -autonomic nerve system pathways & dorsal root ganglia.

Gray matter in the spinal cord?

gray matter is internal with white matter external

Immune System

To kill pathogens that have invaded the body

Keratinocytes

To produce keratin, the fibrous protein that helps give the epidermis its protective properties

inorganic components include mineral salts or hydroxyapatites in and around collagen fibers in the extracellular matrix.

hardness, resist compression and tension

Fibrous joints

have fibrous tissue connecting bones and no cavity is present

projections for joints

head, facet, condyle

Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the

heart

The three parts that the circulatory system consists of are?

heart, blood, and blood vessels

Calcaneus

heel bone

Helper T cells

help fight infection by producing antibodies and other chemicals

What is the function of the kidney?

helps eliminate water and waste from the body

Thyroid gland

helps regulate metabolism and functions in growth and development

Muscle tissue

helps support and move the body. The three types of muscle tissues are smooth, cardiac, and skeletal.

stages in the healing of a bone fracture

hematoma forms, fibrocartilaginous callus forms, bony callus forms, bone remodeling occurs.

steps of bone repair

hematoma, cartilaginous callus, bony callus, remodeling (osteoclast)

Acetabulum

hip socket

Endocrine system with nervous system regulates?

homeostasis

long bones

humerus

cartilages

hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

Which layer of skin is actually NOT a layer of skin?

hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)

Reticulocytes

immature red blood cells, typically composing about 1% of the red blood cells in the human body

How long can ears tolerate (jet engine take off/pain threshold of sound) 140 dB?

immediate nerve damage can occur

Free nerve endings

in epidermis

Merkel's disc

in epidermis

Where is the interstitial fluid found?

in tissues around the cells

osteomalacia and Ricket

inadequate bone mineralization

Forebrain

includes cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus

Sensory receptor

incoming afferent info from world and body

Metabolic rate and norepinphrine

increase

Define depolarization

increase in membrane potential

What does Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine do?

increase metabolism

Heart and epinephrine

increase rate and force of contraction

Heart and norepinephrine

increase rate and force of contraction

Metabolic rate and epinephrine

increases

Blood vessels and norepinephrine

increases blood flow to skeletal muscles, resulting from constriction of blood vessels in skin and viscera

Meningitis

infection of the meninges -most cases by bacterial or viral infections other causes are injury, cancer, or certain drugs. -begins in ears sinuses or upper respiratory tract

How is a signal carried out through the nervous system?

information reaches receptive region of cell and binds with a ligand gated ion channel. Channel opens and ions enter the cell and alter resting potential

Osteogenesis imperfacta

inherited genetic disorder, lack of proper collagen fibers, brittle bone disease

What happens if both excitatory and inhibitory stimuli are received?

inhibitory stimuli subtracts from the effect of the excitatory stimuli, and the cell will be less likely to depolarize sufficiently to reach threshold

endosteum lines __________________.

inner bone cavities

Renal medulla

inner layer of kidney

Renal pelvis

innermost portion of kidney

What's the role of the Myelin Sheath?

insulation to prevent current loss during propagation of the electrochemical signal and speeds up rate of transmission

Skin

intact epidermis and dermis from a formidable barrier against bacteria

neuronal pools

integrate incoming info from other neuron groups -info can be inhibitory stimulation or excitatory stimulation -if threshold is reached AP is produced -processed info sent to other neurons or effectors

Midbrain

integrates sensory signals and orchestrates responses to these signals

Perception

interpretation of sensory info by cerebral cortex

Cardiac tissue

involuntary and found in heart - striated

Smooth tissue

involuntary muscles found in walls of internal organs such as stomach and intestines

Golgi complex (Golgi apparatus)

involved in synthesizing materials such as proteins that are transported out of the cell. Transportation of proteins.

Ribosomes

involved in synthesizing proteins from amino acids. They are numerous making up about one quarter of the cell.

Nuclear pores

involved in the exchange of material between the nucleus and the cytoplasm

What happens when neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic membrane receptors?

ion channels open and create a graded potential in the postsynaptic cell

The main function of the respiratory system is?

To supply the body with oxygen and rid the body of carbon dioxide

Cranial nerve 1

ist he olfactory nerve =unmyelinated axons -axon bundles travel superiorly thorugh foramen in cribiform plate of ethmoid one -synapse w/olfactory bulb neurons

Vitreous humor

jelly-like fluid filling posterior cavity (you have what you have from birth)

reticular fibers

join connective tissue to adjacent tissues

hyaline cartilage covers _________________.

joint surfaces

Most epidermal cells are ____________?

keratinized

Urinary Organ System

kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra -rids the body of nitrogen-containing wastes including urea, uric acid, and ammonia, which result from the breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids

The urinary system consists of?

kidneys, urinary ducts, and bladder.

Macromolecules

large and complex, play an important role in cell structure and function.

Stratum Lucidum (Clear Layer)

Visible in only thick skin Consists of two or three rows of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes with indistinct boundaries

Skeletal Muscle

Voluntary muscle that Attaches to bones for movement

Step two of sensory impulses from the ear?

Waves of changing pressures cause eardrum to reproduce vibrations coming from sound wave source

supraorbital foramen

What holes or notches are located in the yellow circles? Hint: Means "Above the eye."

Cytosol

liquid material in the cell. Mostly water, but also contains floating molecules

Nucleoplasm

liquid within the nucleus, and is similar to cytoplasm

Intercostal muscles

located between the ribs.

Astrocytes

located in gray and white matter of CNS between neurons and blood vessels -anchors neurons to blood supply, forms blood-brain barrier, between blood in capillaries and brain interstitial fluid -regulates extra cellular fluid -forms scar tissue

-beneath skin -fat deposits in hips/breasts for fuel -eye sockets -kidneys

location of adipose tissue:

entire body. if inflamed, soaks up excess fluid (Edema)

location of areolar tissue:

-blood vessels -heart

location of blood tissue:

in bones

location of bone tissue:

walls of heart

location of cardiac muscle tissue:

-lower layers of skin -form strong/rope-like structures (tendons attach muscles to bones and ligaments attach bones to bones)

location of dense fibrous tissue:

supports external ear

location of elastic cartilage:

vertebral discs

location of fibrocartilage:

-endocrine glands - ductless/secrete hormones (ex; thyroid, adrenals, pituitary glands) -exocrine - secretions empty through ducts to epithelial surface (sweat, oil, liver, pancreas glands)

location of glandular epithelium:

-form supporting structure of larynx -attach ribs to sternum -covers ends of bones at joints -fetal skeleton

location of hyaline cartilage:

-brain -spinal cord -nerves

location of nervous tissue:

-ducts of large glands -most of respiratory tract

location of psuedostratified columnar epithelium:

-stroma in lymph nodes -spleen -bone marrow

location of reticular tissue:

-most of digestive tract -mucous membranes

location of simple columnar epithelium:

-ducts of small glands -ovaries -kidneys

location of simple cuboidal epithelium:

-air sacs of lungs -lines the capillaries

location of simple squamous epithelium:

in skeletal muscles attached to bones

location of skeletal muscle tissue:

walls of hollow organs (stomach, blood vessels, bladder, uterus)

location of smooth muscle tissue:

-male urethra -gland ducts

location of stratified columnar epithelium:

ducts of glands

location of stratified cuboidal epithelium:

-linings of esophagus, mouth, vagina -outer portion of skin

location of stratified squamous epithelium:

-lines ureters/bladder/urethra (accommodates fluctuation of the volume of a liquid in organ)

location of transitional epithelium:

Bones are classified as

long, short, flat, or irregular

areolar tissue

loose connective tissue

avascular necrosis

loss of blood supply to the bone

supine

lying on the back

The lymph vascular system consists of? (3)

lymph capillaries, lymph vessels, and lymph ducts

The immune system includes

lymphatic systems - lymph, lymph capillaries, lymph vessel, and lymph nodes as well as the red bone marrow and numerous leukocytes, white blood cells.

Each node contains?

lymphocytes and plasma cells

The spleen is made up of?

lymphoid tissue

lipid

macromolecule made mainly from carbon and hydrogen atoms; includes fats, oils, and waxes

3 types of white blood cells form the foundation of the body's immune system are:

macrophages, T cells, and B cells

cartilage: elastic

maintains the shape of a structure while allowing great flexibility -external ear

Inner zone (reticularis)

major hormone: testosterone

Taste bud

majority on tongue, some on inner cheeks, soft palate, pharynx, epiiglottis. On papillae

Mitosis

makes daughter cells w/46 chromosomes

osteoid

makes up approximately one third of the matrix, includes ground substance and collagen fibers, both of which are secreted by osteoblasts.

Testes (testicles)

male gonads which produce sperm and testosterone

Ossicles

malleus, incus, stapes (osteosclerosis)

Connective tissue

may be dense, loose, or fatty. It protects and binds body parts

Referred pain

may feel as if coming from a part of body other than part being stimulated because of a nerve pathway created when younger

Cranial

meaning the skull

Cephalad or Cephalic

meaning towards the head.

positive feedback

mechanism of homeostasis feedback that tends to magnify a process or increase its output

negative feedback

mechanism of homeostasis that tends to stabilize a process by reducing its rate or output

Types of sensory receptors

mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors & baroreceptors, nociceptors

The breathing process controlled by the?

medulla oblongata

How are electrochemical signals initiated in neurons or muscle cells?

membrane ion channels (ligand or voltage gated) open and ions rush in/out of cell, resulting in a rapid and reversible change in membrane potential

endosteum

membrane lining the medullary cavity of a bone

pleural membrane

membrane that encloses the lungs within the rib cage

parietal membrane

membrane that lines the wall of a cavity

Which are the 2 types of epithelial tissue?

membraneous: lines external/internal surfaces glandular: form secretory glands

peritoneal membrane

membranes that line the abdominopelvic cavity and cover the organs inside

Describe the basement membrane of epithelial cells

membranous epithelial tissue is connected to underlying connective tissue by a basement membrane, which is an acellular matrix of glycoproteins and collagen fibers

Which part of the brain plays an important part of vision and hearing? It also lies above the pons and medulla oblongata.

midbrain

Outer zone (glomerulosa)

mineralcorticoids/ regulate h2o/ electrolyte balance -major hormone:aldosterone

Aerobic respiration occurs in the?

mitochondria

When does the nuclear division of somatic cells take place during cellular reproduction?

mitosis

The centrosome is involved in which cell divisions?

mitosis and cell cycle

What are the two ways that cells can reproduce?

mitosis and meiosis

Hearing arises from?

modified epithelial cells termed hair cells

Adrenal cortex

monitor blood sugar level; helps in lipid and protein metabolism

Multipolar

most common

What is the nervous tissue made of?

neurons and glial cells

What are efferent (motor) neurons?

neurons that send responses from the CNS to muscle and glands

What are afferent (sensory) neurons?

neurons that transmit sensory information towards the brain and spinal chord

Explain how an action potential occurs

one or more graded potentials results in a net depolarization of the axon hillock to threshold and initiates an action potential in the axon of the neuron. If a graded potential raises membrane potential in the vicinity of the axon hillock to threshold, voltage gated Na+ channels open, allowing influx of Na+

Cardiac center

origination of heart rate changes

intramembranous ossification

ossification centers appear in the fibrous connective tissue membrane, osteoid is secreted within the fibrous membrane and calcifies, woven bone and periosteum form, lamellar bone replaces woven bone, just deep to the periosteum and red marrow appears.

compact bone

osteocytes in lacunae, osteocytes are connected to each other and central canal by canaliculi. Concentric lamellae of bone matrix surrounds central canal, dense, forms diaphysis, made of osteons, in the middle

5 major cell types that populate bone tissue

osteogenic cell, osteoblast, osteocyte, osteoclast

Renal cortex

outer layer of kidney that is composed of approximately one million nephrons (tiny, individual filters of kidneys)

Motor functions

output efferent stimulation to effectors (muscle and glands)

Which two small molecules typically can pass through the cell membrane?

oxygen and water

Posterior lobe axons releases?

oxytocin, antiduretic hormone (ADH or vasophessin)

Anaphase

pairs of chromosomes, called sisters, begin to pull apart, and may bend

Pupillary constriction controlled by?

parasympathetic nerve fibers -stimulates circular muscles

Parathyroid glands secrete ______________,which can increase blood calcium by moving calcium from the bone to the blood

parathyroid hormone

Microtubules

part of the cytoskeleton and help support the cell. They're made of protein.

Molecules that are soluble in phospholipids can usually?

pass through the cell membrane

Transitional Epithelial

peculiar stratified squamous epithelium

Papillae

peg-like projections on tongue surface

External structures of the Male Reproduction System

penis, scrotum, and testes

What types of molecules can neurotransmitters be?

peptides, amino acids, purines, lipids, dissolved gases

Mitochondria

performs various functions such as generating ATP (energy), and is involved in cell growth and death.

What makes up the PNS?

peripheral nerves + ganglia

Synarthrosis

permits little or no mobility. Most synarthrosis joints are fibrous joints (e.g., skull sutures).

Amphiarthrosis

permits slight mobility. ...

longitudinal plane

perpendicular to the transverse plane and can be either coronal or sagittal plane

A membrane is composed of?

phospholipids

Cytokinesis

physical splitting of the cell (including the cytoplasm) into two cells.

Medulla oblongata

piece of the brain stem that connects the spinal cord to the brain. It also has an important role with the autonomous nervous system in the circulatory and respiratory system

Where does bile come from?

pituitary gland

B cells differentiate into?

plasma and memory cells

Which type of cell secretes antibodies?

plasma cells

Cerebellum

plays a role in processing and storing implicit memories

Pituitary gland

plays important role in growth and development. Where FSH comes from

Thymus gland

plays role in immune responses

Proprioceptors

positon sense receptors -associated with stimuli changing relationship to bodys position in space -skeletal muscle(muscle length) -tendons(muscle tension) -joints

Cell differentiation

process that helps to determine the cell type for each cell

Mitochondria

produce cellular energy(ATP); often referred to as the "powerhouse of the cell"

Liver and norepinephrine

produces little effect on blood sugar concentration

Liver and epinephrine

promotes breakdown of glycogen to glucose increasing blood sugar concentration

Memory cells remain in blood stream to?

protect against future infections from same pathogen

receptor

protein that detects a signal molecule and performs an action in response

What is the ground substance made of in the ECM?

proteins, polysaccharides, and glycoproteins (including proteoglycans)

osteoid's ground substance

proteoglycans and glycoproteins

collagen fibers

provides flexibility and strength

Adipose(fat) connective tissue

provides insulation for the body tissues -under skin; around kidneys and eyeballs; in breasts

effector

provides the means for the control center's response to the stimulus

Which blood vessel contains the LEAST-oxygenated blood?

pulmonary artery

spiral fracture type

ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are applied to a bone, common sports fracture

Pancreas islets

raises and lowers blood sugar; active in carbohydrate metabolism

normal range

range of values around the set point that do not cause a reaction by the control center

Define temporal summation

rapid stimulation of the same postsynaptic cell by several nerve impulses in succession

A negative feedback system consists of what 3 components?

receptor, control center, and effector

The spleen filters blood stores of?

red blood cells and macrophages

What is blood composed of?

red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma

Where are Leukocytes, or white blood cells, are produced?

red bone marrow

sites of hematopoiesis include:

red marrow cavities of spongy bone, the diploe of flat bones, medullary cavities in the bones of infants

Cytoplasm

refers to cytosol and the substructures (organelles) found within the plasma membrane, but not within the nucleus

Distal

refers to distance or structures further away from the center of the body. The knee is distal to the hip

What is the simplest act of Nervous System?

reflex

Paracrine substances

released from cell into ISF and act where they were released from.

Memory T cells

remain in blood on alert incase the invader attacks again

4 zones of long bone growth in length

resting, proliferation, hypertonic, calcification, ossification

The flow of blood in heart goes in what direction?

right to left

Name the 4 lobes of the liver

right, left, quadrate, and caudate lobes

What are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum and what is the difference between the two?

rough and smooth. Rough ER has ribosomes and Smooth ER does not.

Mastoid Process

round projection on the temporal bone behind the ear

Nerve pathway

routes impulses travel through nervous system

Scrotum

sac of skin and smooth muscle that houses the testes and keeps the testes at proper temperature for spermatogensis

Vacuoles

sacs used for storage, digestion, and waste removal.

Muscle fibers are composed of repeating contractible units called?

sarcomeres

Apocrine glands

secrete and oily solution containing fatty acids, triglycerides, and proteins.

Endocrine

secrete hormones (ex: insulin) into blood stream

Glandular cells

secrete hormones into bloodstream

Photoreceptors

sense light (visible spectrum), bipolar neurons

Mechanoreceptors

sense mechanical force. responds to touch, pressure, movement, stretching, temperature, itch/vibration.

Nocicepters

sense potentially damaging stimuli that results in tissue damage -> pain

Thermoreceptros

sense temperature changes

Parietal lobe

sensory input, spatial positioning

Name the 3 general functional types of Neurons

sensory, motors, and interneurons

What is a gene?

sequence of DNA

stratified epithelium

several layers of cells

Meiosis involves which kind of cells?

sex cells or gametes

diaphysis

shaft of a long bone, contain compact bone

Neutrophils

short-lived phagocytes that respond quickly to invaders

Contraction

shorten or contract

Motors

signals from CNS to rest of body such as by signaling muscles or glands to respond

What are the three muscle tissue?

skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle

What are the 3 types of muscle tissue?

skeletal, cardiac, and smooth

spongy bone (diploe)

slender trabeculae containing irregular lamellae, which enclose red marrow filled cavities, found in the epiphyses, made of trabeculae, flat bones, head of long bones, red or yellow bone marrow between trabeculae, osteocytes

Unmyelinated axons

slower Action potential

What is the main absorption organ of the digestive tract?

small intestine

Nucleus

small structure that contains chromosomes and regulates the cell

Areolar Connective Tissue

soft packing material that cushions and protects body organs -widely distributed under epithelium of body

CNS & Autonomic nervous system

some NTs -> inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP) by opening Cl- channels in the postsynaptic membrane Hyperpolarization -GABA (gama-aminobutyric acid)

Midbrain

some nuclei and lots of myelinated axons. Functions 1. processing visual and auditory info 2. main motor pathways to skeletal muscles 3. maintains consciousness

Oval window

sound vibrations "into"

Round window

sound vibrations "out of"

Cerebral cortex determines?

source, emotional and motor responses, pain intensity

Neuroglia

special supporting cells that protect, support and insulate the more delicate neurons.

Sesamoid Bones

special type of short bones within tendons. The patellas(kneecap)

Receptor

specialized cell or structure providing info about internal/external environment

Metaphase

spindle moves to the center of the cell. Chromosome pairs align along the center of the spindle structure

flat bones

sternum

2 types of hormones

steroid and nonsteroid that act on specific receptors on "target" cells

Hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland

stimulate other endocrine glands ex: Thyroid releasing hormone -> thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulating release of thyroid hormones (T3 & T4)

Crista Ampullaris

stimulated by rapid rotation movements -semicircular canals are part of temporal bone they move as head moves in space -to begin, fluid movement inside lags behind head movement resulting in the capula bending as it is pulled through fluid stimulating hair cells causing NT release

Internal environment change

stimulates endocrine gland ex: blood glucose and insulin levels

Luteinizing hormone

stimulates testosterone production

Result of crista amupullaries?

stimulation of vestibular branch of CN VIII sending action potential to brain about rotation movements of the head with respect to the body and this is coupled with information is coming in from the eyes and cerebellum

Suppressor T cells

stop or "suppress" the other T cells when the battle is over

The deepest portion of the epidermis is the _____________,which is a single layer of cells that continually undergo division.

stratum basale

Proximal

structures closer to the center of the body. The hip is proximal to the knee

catalyst

substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction

Define an Antigen

substances that stimulate immune system

Sweet

sugar, saccharin, alcohols, some amino acids, some lead salts

Cartilage: hyaline

supports and reinforces -forms most of the embryonic skeleton

extracellular matrix

surrounds and supports the cells

Where is the epithelial tissue located?

surrounds the exterior of the body and lines the walls of body openings, body cavities, glands, organs.

Effector

sweat glands, blood vessels, and muscles (shivering)

Pupillary dilation controlled by?

sympathetic nerve fibers -stimulates radial muscles

What are ganglia?

synapses and collections of cell bodies of the PNS

Postganglionic neuron

synapses with the preganglionic neuron in an autonomic ganglion outside CNS -axon extends to effector organ

Diarthrosis

synovial joint (also known as a diarthrosis) - freely movable.

respiratory system

system responsible for taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide using the lungs

skeletal system

system that supports and protects the body

taste pore

taste bud opening to surface of tongue

Lacrimal Duct

the passageway that drains excess tears into the nose

What is the nucleus responsible for?

the passing on genetic traits between pores, chromatic, and ribosomes

Define summation

the process whereby a single cell responds to multiple nerve impulses. summation can be spatial, temporal, or both

axial skeleton

the skull, vertebral column, & the thorax.

Protein digestion begins where?

the stomach

In the second division of meiosis, the daughter cells are haploid. What does haploid mean?

they contain half the genetic material of the parent cell

Postganglionic axons

thin unmyelinated fibers

Sutural Bones

tiny bones between cranial bones

superficial/deep

toward or at the body surface/ away from the body surface

medial/lateral

toward the midline/ away from the midline or medial plane

Caudad

towards the tail or posterior.

Sensory

transmit signals to central nervous system from sensory receptors associated with touch, pain, temperature, hearing, sight, smell, and taste.

CN (VII)/facial nerve

transmits impulses from anterior 2/3 of tongue

CN (X)/Vagus nerve

transmits impulses from epiglottis and lower pharynx (throat)

CN (IX)/Glossopharyngeal nerve

transmits impulses from posterior 1/3 tongue and pharynx

Blood

transport of respiratory gasses, nutrients, and other substances -within blood vessels

The lymphatic system consists of?

transport vessels and lymphoid organs

Blood

transports oxygen to cells and removes wastes. It also carries hormones and defends against disease

Name the Three Primary Body Planes

transverse plane, sagittal plane, and coronal plane

projections for muscle and ligament

tuberosity, trochanter, crest, process, epicondyle

Endoplasmic reticulum

tubular network that consists of the transport system of a cell

Blood vessels

tubules of different sizes that transport blood

Define synapse fatigue

vesicles at the end of the axon run out of neurotransmitters

Static equilibrium

vestibule. monitoring position of head in space. -inside utricle and saccule -each has a macula w/sensory receptor hair cells

What happens when an action potential arrives at the synaptic knob?

voltage gated calcium channels open triggering vesicles to release neurotransmitter

The opening of which transport molecule leads to repolarization?

voltage gated potassium channels

within brain

white matter located internal to gray matter

muscular system

works with the skeletal system to move our bodies

medullary cavity of the diaphysis contains ________.

yellow marrow

Process is controlled by the genes of each cell among a group of cells called a

zygote

The 8 Major Endocrine Glands + Functions:

• Adrenal cortex • Adrenal medulla • Thyroid gland • Parathyroid • Pancreas islets • Thymus gland • Pineal gland • Pituitary gland

Where is the spleen?

• Behind the stomach and below the diaphragm • Upper left of the abdomen

Endocrine Functions of the Pancreas

• Cells called islets or Langerhans made up of insulin- producing beta cells (50 to 80%) and glucagon - releasing alpha cells • Produces insulin and glucagon

Functions of the large intestine

• Concentrates, mixes, and stores waste material • Attaches to rectum • Nervous system triggers muscles to poop • Speed for waste removal is influenced by volume of fiber and undigested material present

Compact bone

• Consists of tightly packed cells • Strong, dense, and rigid • Haversian canals runs vertically through compact bone. They're surrounded by lamellae (concentric circles on bone tissue) - the spaces between are called lacunae

Spongy (Cancellous) Bone:

• Consists of trabeculae • Lightweight and porous which helps reduce the bone's overall weight • Red blood marrow manufactures red and white blood cells • In long bones, the diaphysis consists of compact bone surrounding the marrow cavity and spongy bone containing red marrow in the epiphyses.

Somatic Nervous System

• Controls 5 senses and voluntary movement of skeletal muscle • Efferent - motor reactions • Afferent - sensory (senses) Together afferent and efferent help operate sense and movement of skeletal muscle

Name the 3 types of circulation

• Coronary circulation • Pulmonary circulation • Systemic circulation

Name the 5 ligaments the liver is secured by:

• Falciform - forms a membrane-like barrier between the right and left lobes • Coronary • Right triangular • Left triangular • Round ligaments

Functions of the respiratory system

• Filters air • Vital in cough production • Functions in sense of smell • Chemoreceptors that is located in the nasal cavity respond to airborne chemicals. • The respiratory system also helps the body maintain acid-base homeostasis • Hyperventilation can increase blood pH during acidosis (low pH) • Slowing breathing during alkalosis (high pH) helps to lower blood pH

Ligaments that support the spleen:

• Gastrolienal ligament • Lienorenal ligament • Phrenicocolic ligament (middle secretion)

What are the parts of the cell membranes? (8)

• Glycoprotein • Glycolipid • Peripheral membrane protein • Phospholipid bilayer • Protein channel • Cholesterol • Filaments of cytoskeleton • Integral membrane protein

Functions of spinal cord

• It's nervous tissue give limb movement and internal organ activity • Nerve tracts descend and ascend from spinal cord to brain

Monocytes - macrophages and dendrite cells

• Largest phagocytes = macrophages in lymphocyte tissue - which engulf and destroy pathogen • Dendritic cells present antigen to T cells

About the Pancreas:

• Located behind stomach • Right side is called the head • Left side is called the tail • Head lies near duodenum (the first part of the small intestine) and the tail ends near the spleen • Made up of exocrine and endocrine tissues

Lymphoid organs include:

• Lymph nodes • Spleen • Appendix • Adenoids • Thymus • Tonsils • Small patches of tissue in the small intestine

Autonomic Nervous System

• Maintains homeostasis within body • Controls functions of internal organs, blood vessels, smooth muscle tissues, and glands

What are the main functions of the stomach?

• Mixing and storing food • Dissolving and degrading food via secretions • Controlling passage of food into the small intestine

Functions of the small intestine

• Most nutrients are absorbed by the small intestine • Enzymes from pancreas, liver, and stomach help with digestion • Bile (stored in gallbladder) breaks down fats • Liming of small intestine covered with villi • Chime - semi-liquid mass of partially digested food

Functions of the Skeletal System

• Movement - action of skeletal muscles on bones moves the body • Mineral storage - bones serve as storage facilities for essential mineral ions • Support - bones act as a framework and support system for the organs • Protection - bones surround and protect key organs in the body • Blood cell protection - red blood cells are produced in the marrow of certain bones

Granulocytes

• Neutrophils - short-lived phagocytes that respond quickly to invaders • Basophils - alert body of invasion • Eosinophils - large, non-living that defend against multicellular invaders

What are the 10 responsibilities of the liver?

• Production of bile • Production of certain blood plasma proteins • Production of cholesterol • Storage of excess glucose in the form of glycogen (that can be converted back to glucose when needed) • Regulation of amino acids • Processing of hemoglobin (to store iron) • Conversion of ammonia • Purification of blood (clears out drugs and other toxins) • Regulation of blood clotting • Controlling infections by boosting immune factors and removing bacteria

Functions of Integumentary System

• Protection - against bacteria, viruses, chemicals from entering the body • Secretion - sebum (oil) that waterproofs the skin and sweat for thermoregulation. Sweat glands also serve as excretory organs and help rid the body of metabolic wastes • Communication - sensory receptors inform brain regarding pain, touch, pressure, and temperature • Manufactures Vitamin D and absorbs certain chemicals and specific medications

Plasma contains

• Proteins • Ions • Glucose • Amino acids • Hormones • Dissolved gas

Integumentary System

• Refers to skin • Includes sebaceous glands, sweat glands, hair, and nails

Long bones

• Relatively long and slender • Examples: various bones of the limbs • Femur (long bone of the thigh) is the largest and heaviest bone in the body

Name the 3 layers of the kidneys

• Renal cortex • Renal medulla • Renal pelvis

The major functions of the lymph vascular system are:

• Return of excess fluid to the blood • Return of protein from the capillaries • Transport of fats from the digestive tract • Disposal of debris and cellular waste

About the Nervous System:

• Senses, interprets, and issues commands as a response to conditions in the body's environment • Process is possible by complex communication system organized as grid of neurons • Messages are sent across the plasma membrane of neurons through a process called action potential

The body's general immune defenses include:

• Skin • Ciliated Mucous Membranes • Glandular Secretions • Gastric Secretions • Normal Bacterial Populations

Short bones

• Small and boxy • Examples: bones of the wrist (carpals) and ankles (tarsals)

Flat bones

• Thin, roughly parallel surfaces • Examples: cranial bones, sternum, ribs, scapulae • Protect underlying soft tissues • Provide surface area for skeletal muscle attachment

The lower respiratory system includes?

• Trachea • Lungs • Bronchial tree

Leukocytes can be classified as

• monocytes (macrophages and dendritic cells) • granulocytes (neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils) • T lymphocytes • B-lymphocytes • natural killer cells

Epiphysis

What is the end of a bone?

Metaphysis

What is the part of a long bone called where the bone starts getting wider, on either end of the Diaphysis?

Vertebrochondral ribs

What is the scientific name for the ribs that go from the vertebrae and tie into the ribs above them via cartilage (chond).

Cyanosis

When hemoglobin is poorly oxygenated, both the blood and the skin of caucasions appear blue

Anaphase (Continued)

When separated, they're called daughter chromosomes. Grooves appear in the cell membrane

isotonic Solution

When two environments are isotonic, the total molar concentration of dissolved solutes is the same in both of them.

Erythema

Reddened skin may indicate embarrassment, fever, hypertension, inflammation, or allergy

What is the simplest nerve pathway?

Reflex Arc. It passes by the brain and is controlled by the spinal cord.

The main function of the lymphatic system is?

Return excess tissue fluid to the blood stream

Vertebrosternal ribs

Ribs that go directly from the vertebrae to the sternum

What is the endocrine system responsible for?

Secreting the hormones and other molecules that help regulate the entire body in both the short and long term

Step ten sensory impulses from the ear?

Sensory impulses are triggered on fibers of the cochlear branch of vestibulocochlear nerve

Reflex pathway of impulse

Sensory neuron-> motor neuron-> brain

Mention 6 amino acid based hormones.

Serotonin, Melatonin, Histamine, Epinephrine (adrenaline), Norepinephrine (noradrenaline), Thyroxine

Stratum Spinosum (Prickly Layer)

Several cell layers thick Contain intermediate filaments-pre keratin filaments

Give 2 examples of steroid hormones and their role

Sex hormones - made by the gonads - estrogen, progesterone, testosterone Adrenocorticoids - secreted by adrenal glands - mineralocorticoids (maintain Na+/K+ levels) - Glucocorticoids (regulate blood glucose levels)

Anterior

Sharper edge of your shin is anterior or posterior?

Scapular

Shoulder blade region

Scapula

Shoulder-blade. The anterior that sits against your ribs is the smooth side.

Which muscle tissue is voluntary

Skeletal tissue

External Occipital Protuberance

Small bump on the posterior aspect of the skull that neck muscles attach to

Coronoid Process of the Ulna

Small projection on the proximal end of the Ulna

Lesser Tubercle

Smaller bump on the proximal end of the Humerus

Inferior Articular Facet of the Vertebrae

Smaller facets that articulate inferiorly with another vertebrae's superior articular facet.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Smooth ER: is a site of steroid and lipid synthesis, lipid metabolism, drug detoxification Rough ER: Provide an area for storage and transport of the proteins made on the ribosomes to other cell areas

Which pump is involved in maintaining resting potentials?

Sodium potassium pump

Step one of sensory impulses from the ear?

Sound wave enter external acoustic meatus

Muscle Tissue

Specialized to contract and produces most types of body movements

Melanocytes

Spider-shaped epithelial cells that synthesize the pigment melanin, are found in the deepest layer of epidermis

Telophase

Spindle disintegrates, the nuclear membrane reform, and the chromosomes revert to chromatin.

3 Categories of Epithelial Tissue

Squamous(scalelike) Cuboidal(Cubelike) Columnar(column-shaped)

What is VEGF and what does it do?

The Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor is a growth factor that promotes growth of new vasculature to supply a tumor.

Absorption

Occurs in Small Intestine; amino acids are moved to blood stream to reform as protein

Cribriform Plate

Perforated holes surrounding the crista galli; olfactory nerves travel from the nasal cavity through the perforated holes of the Cribiform Plate into the brain.

Sound vibrations move?

Perilymph and endolymph

Which Nervous System consists of nerves and ganglia throughout the body and includes sympathetic nerves, which trigger "flight or fight" response, and the parasympathetic nerves which control basic body function?

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Cost = rib; Chond = cartilage; Itis = inflammation. Can be caused by excessive coughing.

Potential extra credit question: What is Costochondritis?

Integrative

Processing what incoming info means and what to do about it. Subconscious and conscious

Smooth Muscle

Propels Substances; involuntary control

Mitosis

Prophase (Late and Early) Metaphase Anaphase TeloPhase Cytokinesis

Root

Remainder of the hair deep within the follicle

How does absorption begin?

Smooth muscles contractions move nutrients into the small intestine

Dens (Odontoid Process)

Stacks with C1. It's the pointy thing on C2. Acts as a rotation for C1 so it can move.

Osteogenic Cells

Stem cells that develop from embryonic mesenchymal cells and then give rise to most other bone cell types. They are found in the endosteum, the inner layer of the periosteum, and in the central canals.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Structure; Cranial and Spinal nerves. Function; Communication lines between the CNS and the rest of the body

Styloid Process of the Ulna

Stylus looking projection on the distal end of the Ulna

Dura mater

Superficial (outer layer). A double layer covering the brain, single in the spinal cord. -Fibrous Connective tissue -blood vessels -nerves -epidural space in spinal cord

Bones

Support, protect, allow for movement, make blood cells, stores minerals

What are the 2 divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)?

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

Three function categories of joints

Synarthrosis Amphiarthrosis Diarthrosis

Thoracic Vertebrae

T1-T12. The next twelve vertebrae following the Cervical Vertebrae. All have ribs attached. Looks like a Giraffe. Point goes straight down. Both vertical and oblique angular segments.

Coccyx

Tail Bone. 3-5 fused vertebrae.

organ of taste is?

Taste bud

What variables does the rate of diffusion depend on?

Temperature, concentration, size

What is the diencephalon composed of?

Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Epithalamus. They enclose the third ventricle

Sella Turcica

The "saddle" located in between the lesser and greater wings of the Sphenoid Bone

Hypophyseal fossa

The "seat" of the Sella Turcica of the sphenoid bone

Another name for skin

The Integumentary System

Ascending fibers crossover at?

The Spinal cord

Nervous system

The body system of specialized cells that carry electrical messages throughout the body

Nucleolus

This structure contained within the nucleus consists of protein. Synthesizes and stores RNA (ribonucleic acid)

Anterior

Toward the front

Medial

Toward the midline of the body

Function of the tympanic membrane?

Transducing sounds (vibrates) waves from outer ear to inner ear.

Nervous Tissue

Transmits electrical signals from sensory receptors and to effectors -brain, spinal cord, and nerves

What is the function of red blood cells?

Transport oxygen to cells

Atria

Upper chambers of the heart

Describe the vein, nerve, and artery found underneath the rib in DESCENDING order.

Vein, Artery, Nerve

Which contraction empties the ventricles, forcing circulation?

Ventricular contraction

General Anatomy of the Vertebrae

Vertebral Body Superior Articular Facet Inferior Articular Facet Spinous Process Transverse Process Vertebral Foramen

Carpals

Wrist Bones

Natural Killer Cells

a lymphocyte able to bind to certain tumor cells and virus-infected cells without the stimulation of antigens, and kill them by the insertion of granules containing perforin.

Taste receptor cell

a modified epithelial cell

Telophase (Plant cells)

a new cell wall begins to form

Cilia

appendages extending from the surface of the cell, which causes the cell to move. They can also result in fluid being moved by the cell

supporting cells

are the origin of modified epithelial cells

Joints are?

areas of contact adjacent to bones

Axillary

armpit

Where are apocrine glands located?

armpits, groin, palms, and soles of the feet

Dense regular connective Tissue

attaches muscles to bones or other muscles -tendons, most ligaments

Occipital lobe

auditory input, processing and output

bones of skeleton

axial and appendicular skeleton

Name the 3 basic parts that a neuron consists of:

axon, dendrites, and cell body

Optic disc

axons exit retina to become optic nerve (CN II) -also contains central artery and vein -"blind spot" no photoreceptor

what comprises the olfactory epithelium?

basal cell, support cell, bipolar neurons, olfactory gland.

Telophase

begins as soon as chromosomal movement stops. The final phase is like prophase in reverse

Where is the pancreas located?

behind the stomach

ventral/dorsal

belly side/ back side

Inferior

below or closer to the feet

Sacral

between hips

Target cells

cells with hormone receptors respond to hormones. (hormones have no effect on other cells)

ionic bond

chemical bond formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another

Define pheromones

chemical signaling molecules that act outside the body to trigger a physiological response in another individual (e.g. sweat)

Middle layer of eye?

choroid, ciliary body, and iris

Ciliated Mucous Membranes

cilia sweep pathogens out of the respiratory tract

Iris consists of what two smooth muscle?

circular muscle group and radial muscle group

Nuclei

collections of neuron w/in the CNS

What is another name for large intestine?

colon

common types of fractures

comminuted, spiral, depressed, compression, epiphyseal, greenstick

Centrosome

comprised of the pair of centrioles located at right angles to each other and surround by protein.

Lens epithelium

confined to anterior lens surface

Synaptic integration

cumulative effect of all signals creates the final effect

How long can ears tolerate (music in earbuds, jackhammer) 115 dB?

damage can occur w/in 1 minute of exposure

How long can ears tolerate (riding motorcycle, handheld drill) 100 dB?

damage can occur w/in 15 mins of exposure

periosteum covers the _______________.

diaphysis

What cells make the connective tissue proper?

fibroblasts

protect and secrete

function of stratified columnar epithelium:

Sebaceous glands are ____________

holocrine glands - which secrete sebum (oily lipids and proteins)

What is the longest phase of the cell cycle?

interphase

Hormone action

is longer lasting than a neurotransmitter action

Components of Osteon

is the microscopic, functional, and repeating unit of compact bone. It consists of a single central canal, its contents, concentric lamellae (matrix), lacunae w/ osteocytes, and canaliculi.

Eosinophils

large, non-living that defend against multicellular invaders

Macula lutea

lateral to optic disc; area of acute, color vision

2 regions of eye lens

lens epithelium and lens fibers

The medulla oblongata monitors the?

level of carbon dioxide in the blood and signals the breathing rate to increase when these levels are too high

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

linings of the esophagus, mouth and vagina

Glycolipid

lipid with carbohydrate attached

How do digestive systems function?

movement, secretion, digestion, and absorption

Long Bones

much longer than they are wide; femur and phalanges and humerus

Heart

muscular pump providing the pressure necessary to keep blood flowing

Vagina

muscular tube that extends from the cervix of the uterus to the outside of the body. Receives the semen and sperm during sexual intercourse and provides a birth canal when needed

Muscle fibers contain bundle of ____________?

myofibrils

proximal/distal

near the trunk or attached end/ farther from the trunk or point of attachment

Medial

nearer to the middle of the body. In anatomical position, the little finger is medial to the thumb

What are mixed nerves?

nerves with afferent/efferent/myelinated/unmyelinated axons

Trabeculae

network of girders with open spaces filled with red bone marrow.

The hypothalamus and pituitary gland coordinate to serve as a?

neuroendocrine control center

within CNS

neuron processes in bundles= tracts

Facilitation

neuron stimulation excitatory but sub-threshold -an immediately subsequent release of NT elevates postsynaptic membrane to threshold -> action potential

Cell cycle

process by which a cell reproduces, which involves cell growth, duplication of genetic material, and cell division.

How do genes work?

protein synthesis

Glycoprotein

protein with carbohydrate attached

the organic portion of matrix is important in _______

providing tensile strength, ability to resist stretch and flexibility (collagen)

Exocrine glands

secrete substances into ducts

Digestive Role of the Pancreas

secretes enzymes to small intestine to help break down many foods, especially fats and proteins

homeostatic mechanisms

self-regulating control systems

Chemoreceptors & Baroreceptros

sense chemical concentration changes in body fluids, or pressure changes

The respiratory system is responsible for?

speech

Cartilage: fibrocartilage

tensile strength with the ability to absorb compressive shock

How the does the structure of the plasma membrane depend on amphiphilic nature of phospholipids?

the amphiphilic molecules arrange themselves into a bilayer, with their hydrophilic phosphate-containing heads facing the water on each side of the membrane and their hydrophobic tails directed twd the center, avoiding water.

What terminates at the synapse?

the axon

Zygomatic bone

the bone beneath the eye that forms the prominence of the cheek

Cytology

the branch of biology concerned with the structure and function of plant and animal cells.

Pinocytosis ("cell drinking")

the cell "gulps" a drop of extracellular fluid containing dissolved molecules

Phagocytosis ("cell eating")

the cell engulfs some relatively large or solid material such as a clump of bacteria, cell debris, or inanimate particles.

hydroxyapatite

the chief crystal of bone, formed from calcium and phosphorus

epiphysis

the end of a long bone

Blood pressure

the fluid pressure generated by the cardiac cycle

What is the right side of the pancreas called?

the head

parathyroid hormone (PTH) control of blood calcium levels

the hormonal controls of bone remodeling serve blood calcium homeostasis. When blood calcium levels decline, PTH is released and stimulates osteoclasts to digest bone matrix, releasing ionic calcium. As blood calcium levels rise, PTH secretion declines.

Control center

the hypothalamus, which is located in the brain

Axon conduction

the larger the diameter = faster conduction

Ischium

the lower, posterior portions of the pelvis The part that you sit on

Spinal nerves

the merger of anterior and dorsal roots -myelinated and unmyelinated axons -usually contain both afferent(sensory) and efferent(motor) axons "mixed nerve"

Synovial joints

the most common, and are freely movable. Found at the shoulders and knees

Digestion begins with?

the mouth - chewing and mixing nutrients with saliva

nervous system

the network of nerve cells and fibers that transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body.

Synovial

the only joints that have a space (a synovial cavity filled with fluid) between the adjoining bones.

External auditory meatus

the opening of the exernal auditory canal of the outer ear

Phospholipids: polar and hydrophilic

the polar regions of the molecules, termed hydrophilic, face outward where they interact with the water inside and outside of the cell.

Define synaptic delay

the slight delay in signal transmission that occurs at a synapse

T cells

these directly attack cells infected by viruses and bacteria

What are neuroglial cells?

they are support cells that surround neurons and provide nutrients, immune support, and appropriate external environment

Preganglionic axons

thin myelinated fibers

Elongate

to make longer or relax

Lateral

to the side and is opposite of medial

Interneurons

transmit signals between neurons. Ex: they receive transmitted signals between sensory and motor neurons

Portal veins

travel between two capillary beds

short bones

typically cubed shaped, contain more spongy than compact bone. The tarsals and carpals

Independent variable

variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment. Are also variables that the experimenter changes to test their dependent variable.

irregular bones

vertebra

Temporal lobe

visual input, processing and output

Vitreous body

vitreous humer & collagenous

Cones

-concentrated in macula lutea(whole area) and fovea(central pit of macula) -concentration declines toward periphery - 3 types producing sharp, color vision

Myelin in the PNS

-formed by schwann cells (insulator) wrapping around axon (forms neurilemma) -gaps between schwann cells= nodes of ranvier -saltatory conduction

Adrenal gland

-location on top of each kidney -2 regions -cortex GFR -medulla

Adrenal Medulla

-sympathetic division of ANS synapses w/its cells -cells are modified post ganglionic neurons -they're known as chromaffin cells -synthesize compounds called catecholamines and 2 major ones are -epinephrine (80%) -norepinephrine (20%) -many effects; a major one = your fight or flight response -similar effects, but there are differences

Ciliary body

-thickened ring of tissue encircling lens -consists of smooth muscles bundles called ciliary muscle -lens shape -posterior surface thrown into radiating folds called ciliary processes -contain capillaries producing aqueous humer by filtration

Sympathetic system

-thorax-lumbar cord origin -"fight or flight" function to perceived threat -promotes adjustments during vigorous physical activity and emergency situations

Function of vitreous humor

-transmits light -keep photoreceptor layer of retina against pigmented retinal layer for nutrition -contributes to intraocular pressure and counteracts pulling forces of extrinsic eye muscles

Conjunctiva

-transparent mucos membrane -produces lubricating mucous -prevents dry eye -lines eyelids as palpebral conjunctiva -folds back over anterior surface of eyeball as bulbar conjunctiva -when eye closed, slit-like space between conjunctiva covered eyeball and eyelids (conjunctival sac)

Thyroid Gland

-vascular structure w/ 2 lobes connected by an isthmus -it is bilateral and inferior to larynx and anterior to trachea

Nervous system

-wired system, specific structural arrangement between neurons and target cells -directly stimulates an endocrine glad ex: adrenal meduall -epinephrine (80%) -norepinephrine (20%)

Endocrine system

-wireless system, no structural connection with one another/target cells -hormones synthesized and released, carried in blood to long distance -specifically of target cell binding -slow and long lasting response -control activities of long duration e.g. growth, reproduction, metabolism, water and electrolyte regulation

Trigger zone

-with in the axon hillock -brith site of action potentials

Nitric Oxide 1- What is it? 2- What is its role?

1- disclosed gas 2- produces second messengers to aid learning and memory. also induces muscle relaxation

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid) 1- What is it? 2- What does it bind to?

1- neurotransmitter derived from glutamate 2- binds to inhibitory receptors

Glutamate 1- What type of molecule is it? 2- What is its function?

1- neurotransmitter derived from glutamic acid 2- primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain

How can hormones be classified as?

1. Amino acid based hormones - water soluble - derivatives of individual amino acids, or polypeptides, or proteins 2. Steroid hormones - insoluble - derived from cholesterol

Functions of Medulla Oblongata?

1. Cardiac center 2. Vasomotor center 3. Respiratory center

Outer ear structures?

1. Pinna or auricle 2. External auditory meatus/canal 3. Tympanic membrane

Dorsal

Back side

Inferior

Below

Os coxae

Besides being known as the pelvis, what else is the entirety of this bone called?

Frontal Plane or Coronal Plane

Divides the body or organ into an anterior and posterior part.

chemical energy

Energy stored in chemical bonds

Integumentary Organ System (Skin)

Epidermal and Dermal Regions -Protects deeper organs from mechanical, chemical, and bacterial injury, and from drying out

Orbital

Eye Area

Antebrachial

Forearm

Parasympathetic Division

Function; conserves energy, promotes "housingkeeping" functions during rest.

Smooth Muscle

Involuntary muscle found in the digestive tract

Cardiac Muscle

Involuntary muscle that makes up the heart

Vertebral column

Made of vertebrae to protect spinal cord

Sagittal Suture

Middle of skull; Separates the two parietal bones

Floating ribs

2 sets of the lowest portion of the 12 sets of ribs that attach only to the vertebrae

Vestibule

2 subdivisions utricle and saccule both encloses static equilibrium structures

Macrophage

"Big Eaters" Oval cells whose surface is ruffled by psuedopods-engulf and devour a wide variety of foreign materials as well as dead cells

Thalamus

"gate keeper"

Refraction

#1 cornea and #2 lens

Which types of tissues does the connective tissue differentiate into from the mesenchyme?

- Connective tissue proper (loose + dense) - cartilage - blood - bone

Describe electrical synapses and their characteristics

- Nerve impulse is transmitted through protein channels (connections) located at gap junctions - bidirectional signal is possible - no synaptic delay - signal can't be amplified

How do depolarization and hyper polarization occur one after another?

- Voltage gated Na+ channel opens and lets Na+ come in (depolarization) - Channel closes - Voltage gated K+ channel opens and K+ leaves cell (repolarization)

How do water soluble polar hormones act differently from steroid hormones?

- Water soluble polar molecules can't cross the plasma membrane. So they bind to receptors on surface and activate intracellular second messengers. - Steroid hormones cross the membrane and bind with receptors in the cell. The complex then travels to nucleus and binds to DNA. (Steroid hormones have to travel through blood with a carrier protein)

What happens to a neurotransmitter once it's released into the synaptic cleft?

- degraded - diffuses out of the cleft - taken up by active transport

What are growth factors and what do they do?

- either proteins or steroid hormones - stimulate the growth and development of tissues or cells

Where do electrical synapses occur?

- embryonic tissues to coordinate development - protective reflex arcs and in the retina and cerebral cortex

Schwann cell

-Myelinates axons in PNS -only glial cell in PNS -myelinates one axons -forms neurilemma

Cornea

-anterior 1/6 outer layer; convex anteriorly from junction w/sclera -crystal clear; lets light into eye -part of light bending (refraction) apparatus of eye -has nerve supply (sensory) no blood vessels -high capacity for regeneration and repair of damage cells -nutrition via osmosis

Brainstem modulates?

-by releasing biochemicals, neuropeptides, which can block pain signals -substance released enkephalins and endorphins

Mechanism of action of nonsteroid hormones

-cAMP (2nd messenger) activates protein kinases -protein kinases add a phosphate group (PO4)^-3 from ATP to substrate proteins called substrate level phosporylation -produces cellular changes lined to the specific nonsteroid hormone -inactivated quickly by phoshodiesterases -continual hormone receptor interaction

Parasympathetic system

-carnio-sacral cord origin -"rest & digest" function -maintenance activities -keeps body energy use as low as possible

Deep

-chronic (diffuse and lasts longer -info brought to CNS by unmyelinated axons -stimulation of receptors in joints, muscles, or dermis, viscera, and hypodermis -sensation: buring, itch, dull ache

Cochlea

-contains organ of corti for hearing -cochlear duct

Sense of vision

-dominant sense 70% of all sensory receptors -visual processing 1/2 of cerebral cortex involved -eyeball spherical w/diameter 2.5 cm

Pharyngotympanic/ auditory/ eustachian tube

-equalizes pressure between middle ear & "outside" - association w/ ear infection.

Mechanism of action of nonsteroid hormones

-for nonsteroid hormones G proteins activates adenylate cyclases (enzyme) -a transmembrane protein/enzyme -adenylate cyclases -catalyzes the RXN of cytoplasmic ATP -> cyclic adensoine monophosphate (cAMP)

Myelin in CNS

-formed by oligodendrocytes -electrically insulates fibers increasing speed of impulse -layers of neuron plasma membrane wraps axon -nucleus and cytoplasm confined to external layer -neurilemma not found w/oligodendrocytes

Ependymal cells

-forms an epithelial-like membrane covering -lines internal spaces (ventricles) of brain and central canal of spinal cord -covers pia mater capillaries -choroid plexus produces cerebrospinal fluid

Sclera (outer layer)

-forms bulk of fibrous coat -glistening white and opaque(light can't get through) -tough, tendon like protects/ shapes eyeball -provides sturdy anchoring site for extrinsic eye muscles -posteriorly continuous w/ dura mater of brain covering optic nerve exiting the eye ball

Visual nerve pathways

-from retina to visual cortex -beginning axons of retinal neurons leave eyes as optic nerve -@ optic chiasm/chiasma medial axons cross and join with lateral fibers to become optic tracts (fibers from lateral sides do not cross over) -most fibers synapse in thalamus -nerve pathways called optic radiations carry impulses to visual cortex of occipital lobe for processing

Hair cell organization of the organ of corti

-hair cells arrayed in rows -hairlike processes from hair cells project and embed into tectorial membrane

Choroid

-highly vascular -supplies nutrition to inner eye -dark brown pigmented membrane -absorbs scattered light keeps inside of eye dark -none where optic nerve leaves eye -anteriorly becomes ciliary body

Multiple Sclerosis

-immunologic, genetic, environmental, and viral causes are all considered to play a role -only oligodendrocytes affected

What happens in olfactory bulbs?

-incoming APs are processed output APs generated -output travels through olfactory tracts to interpreting sensory areas in the temporal lobes and base of frontal lobes

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH or vasopressin)

-increases H2O reabsorption in the kidneys -raises blood pressure due to vasoconstriction -action blocked by alcohol

Thyroid Gland structure

-internally, follicular cells ring a liquid -synthesizes/secretes thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) -liquid pool + follicular cells = thyroid follicle(functional unit) -contains clear, viscous substances called colloid which is filled with iodine -extrafollicular cells surrounded the thyroid follicle -they synthesize and release the hormone calcitonin

Cholesterol (steroid hormone)

-is mother compound -lipid soluble -water insoluble -generally, transported in blood by plasma proteins -released into interstitial fluid in vicinity of target cells -diffuses into target cells

Microglia Cells

-located throughout CNS -phagocytize bacteria and cell debris -astrocytes to forms scar tissue (when necessary)

Parathyroid Glands

-location posterior surface of thyroid gland -4 total, a pair on each side of thyroid gland -produce/secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) **regulates blood ca+

Pituitary gland

-location sella turcica of sphenoid bone -attached to hypothalamus by infundibulum or "pituitary stalk" -2 lobes -anterior: glandular -posterior: axons

Within utricle?

-maculae horizontal -w/ hair cells oriented vertically

Within saccule

-maculae vertical -w/ hair cells oriented horizontally

Diabetes Mellitus type 2

-more common -beta cells produced insulin but body cells lose sensitivity to insulin -insulin cell membrane receptors said to be "masked" -more common in overweight individuals -treatment generally centered on modification of diet and exercise -oral drugs may be used

Warm receptors(adaptive)

-most sensitive above 25 degree celsius/ 77 degree fahrenheit -stimulate nociceptors receptors @ more than 45 degree celsius/ 113 degree fahrenheit (burning sensation)

Cold receptors (adaptive)

-most sensitive temp range 10 degree celsius/50 degree fahrenheit - 20 degree celsius/68 degree fahrenheit -stimulate nocicepter recepter @ less than 10 degree celsius/ 50 degree fahrenheit

Gray matter in the brain?

-mostly on the external/superficial (cerebral cortex) -basal ganglia and cranial nerve nuclei are internal

Converging circuits

-neuronal pool receives inputs from several presynaptic inputs -circuit concentrates outgoing stimulus

Sense of smell or olfaction

-originates in olfactory epithelium -location nasal cavity roof and superior concha each side of nasal septum -contains millions of nonmotile ciliated olfactory receptor cells + 2 other cell types -receptors cells are usual bipolar neurons

Growth Hormone effects

-over secretion in childhood =gigantism -over secretion in adult =acromegaly (large/thick hands and protruding jaw and facial features) -deficiency in childhood = pituitary dwarfism (body proportional and mental development normal)

"Local Hormones"

-paracrine substances -autocrine substances

Special sense receptors

-parts of specialized sensory organs -all located in the head -trigger afferent impulses -> CNS for processing

Nonsteroid hormones mechanism of action

-process termed; signal transduction -the hormone (1st messenger) binds receptor on target cell membrane -> hormone receptor complex -the HRC possesses both binding and activity sites -HRC activates another membrane protein termed a G(guanine) protein = class of protein that act as molecular switches

Taste Hairs

-protrude from taste receptor cells and extend into taste pore -contain the sensory receptors which bind tastent molecule.

Rods

-provide low level light vision (colorless) -much more sensitive to light than cones -provides general outlines/shapes of objects -in greater numbers as you go toward the periphery of the retina

Projection

-same time as sensation occurs -brain instantaneously identifies specific receptors associated with the sensation

Reflex arcs

-simplest nerve pathway -basis for involuntary motor actions (knee/elbow) -rapid, automatic responses to stimuli -specific stimulus always cause same motor response -basis for testing/integrity of circuit

Pacinian Corpuscles

-single sensory fiber wrapped in CT -located in deeper dermal tissues of hands and feet, penis & clitoris, urethra, breast, tendons and ligaments. -Detects deep pressure, high frequency vibration, stretching of tissue

Axon Hillock

-site of cell body where axon begins -axon branching occurs -termed collaterals -terminate at synapses

Perilymph and endolymph?

-stimulates embedded hair cells -different frequencies of sound stimulate different hair receptor cells

Pigmented epithelial layer

-stores vitamin A (important for vision) -absorb scattered light

Oxytocin (CT)

-stretching of uterine and vaginal walls stimulates release -mechanism of positive feedback in pregnancy -smooth muscle contraction in uterus walls -contraction breast myoepithelial cells associated with milk producing gland -given to mother post birth to constrict uterine blood vessels preventing blood loss

Sensory (afferent) Neurons

-there are different types of sensory receptors -respond to one type of change in internal/external environment -sensory receptors located in dendrite zone -sends info to CNS (spinal cord and brain)

Diverging circuits

1 afferent impulse triggers responses to increasing number of neurons

Serotonin 1- What type of molecule is it? 2- What does it bind to? 3- What is it involved in? 4- Which drug increase serotonin?

1- monoamine neurotransmitter derived from tryptophan 2- inhibitory receptors 3- peristalsis, blood clotting, vasoconstriction 4- antidepressants, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, cocaine, amphetamines

Dopamine and Norepinephrine 1- What type of molecule are they? 2- What functions are they involved in? 3- What happens with low dopamine levels? 4- What happens with high dopamine levels? 5- Which drugs increase dopamine and norepinephrine levels?

1- monoamine neurotransmitters derived from Tyrosine 2- memory, reward, motivation, voluntary movement, arousal (norepinephrine), fight or flight response 3- Attention deficit disorder 4- Schizophrenia 5- amphetamines, cocaine, antidepressants

Acetylcholine 1- What type of molecule is it? 2- What degrades it? 3- What does it degrade into? 4- What happens if neurotoxins inhibit its activity? 5- What does it bind to? 6- What does it stimulate?

1- neurotransmitter 2- acetylcholinesterase 3- acetate and choline 4- causes tetanus and muscle spasms, or even Alzheimer's 5- excitatory receptors 6- Muscle contraction

Endorphins 1- What are they? 2- What is their function? 3- Which drugs bind to the same receptors?

1- peptide neurotransmitters 2- natural opiates. inhibit release of GABA, increase the production of dopamine, and decrease pain sensitivity

Adenosine and ATP 1- What are they? 2- What's the role of Adenosine? 3- What's the role of ATP? 4- How does caffeine acts as an adenosine antagonist?

1- purine molecules that function as neurotransmitters 2- binds to inhibitory receptors in the brain, facilitating sleep 3- released by sensory neurons in response to injury, initiating a pain response 4- blocks adenosine receptors in the brain and acts as a stimulant by reducing the inhibitory effects of adenosine

What are the 2 mechanisms hormones activate/stimulate target cells?

1. Direct gene activation 2. Second messenger system

List the 5 characteristics of epithelial tissue

1. High rate of regeneration 2. Cellularity 3. Avascularity 4. Polarity 5. Basement membrane

3 types of control of hormone secretion

1. Hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland 2. Nervous system 3. Internal environment change

The 11 Major Organ Systems are?

1. Integumentary system 2. Respiratory system 3. Cardiovascular system 4. Endocrine system 5. Skeletal system 6. Muscular system 7. Digestive system 8. Excretory system 9. Immune system 10. Nervous system 11. Reproductive system

Stages of mitosis

1. Interphase 2. Prophase 3. Metaphase 4. Anaphase 5. Telophase 6. Cytokinesis

Main parts of the brain

1. Left & Right Cerebral Hemispheres 2. Cerebellum 3. Diencephalon 4. Brainstem 5. Four Ventricles

List the 12 organ systems

1. Nervous system 2. Endocrine system 3. Circulatory system 4. Lymphatic system 5. Immune system 6. Digestive system 7. Urinary system 8. Skeletal system 9. Muscular system 10. Respiratory system 11. Intergumentary system (skin) 12. Reproductive system

Middle ear structures

1. Ossicles 2. oval window 3. muscles; stapedius & tensor tympani 4. pharyngotympanic/auditory/eustachian tube 5. round window

The 4 functions of the Mitochondria are?

1. Production of cell energy (ATP) 2. Cell signaling 3. Cellular differentiation 4. Cell cycle and growth regulation

Functions of the Thyroid gland

1. Regulate metabolism 2. Functions in growth and development 3. Secretes the hormones thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin

Which are the 3 types of fibers that occur in the ECM? State them and describe their properties.

1. White fibers - made of collagen - tough but flexible 2. Yellow fibers - made of elastin - elasticity and flexibility - found in lungs, blood vessels, dermis of skin... 3. Reticular fibers - composed of thin collagen fibers

Major hormone influences

1. cell membrane permeability or potential 2.synthesis, activation or deactivation of proteins or regulatory molecules. ex: enzymes 3. cell secretory activity 4. cell mitosis

Steroid hormones uses Direct Gene Activation

1. diffuses through target cell membrane 2. binds to specific protein receptor molecules w/in nucleus 3. hormone-receptor complex binds specific sequences of target cell's DNA -producing transcription as a specific gene. result; mRNA synthesized 4. mRNA enters cytoplasm 5. mRNA binds w/ ribosomes and translation -> protein -produces effects associated w/ the steroid hormone

Main taste nerve pathways

1. medulla oblongata 2. then to thalamus and then to 3. gustatory cortex in insula lobe and frontal lobe

What functions does the endocrine system help regulate?

1. metabolism 2. development/ growth 3. electrolyte, h2o and nutrient homeostasis 4. body's defenses 5. reproduction

Adrenal Cortex

1. outer zone (glomerulosa) 2. middle zone (fasciculata) 3. inner zone (reticularis)

Which are the 3 components off the propagation of a nerve impulse?

1. resting potential 2. graded potential 3. action potential

Causes of Visceral pain?

1. stretching of tissue beyond "normal" 2. ischemia 3. increase in concentration of irritating chemicals 4. smooth muscle spasms

taste senesation

1. sweet 2. sour 3. salty 4. bitter 5. umami

Inner ear structures

1. three Semicircular canals 2. Vestibule 3. cochlea 4. bony labyrinth/canal 5. membranous labyrinth/canal

Meissner's Corpuscle characteristics

1. unmyelinated nerve process ends in connective tissue sheath 2. Provides light/fine -adapts radpidly -basis for reading braille text 3. abundant in thick hairless/ glabrous skin -expecially in lips, fingertips -also found in palms, soles, nipples, external genitalia

Functions of the nervous system

1.Sensory receptor 2. Integrative 3. Motor functions

What is the final result in meiosis? How many cells are there?

4 daughter cells

Parathyroid glands

4 small glands embedded on the posterior (back) of thyroid

Axial skeleton

80 bones, including skull, sternum, ribs, vertebral column (spine) and hyoid bone

calcium homeostatis of blood

9-11 mg/100 ml

Mucus

= solvent -traps and dissolves odorants (chemicals

Prophase

Early- the chromatin condenses, forming barlike chromosomes Late- The nuclear envelope breaks up, allowing the spindle to interact with the chromosomes

Circulatory System

The body system responsible for carrying materials through out the body

Integumentary System

The body system that covers and protects the body from the environment

Excretory system

The body system that helps rid the body of wastes, toxins, and excess water

Skeletal System

The body system that protects and supports the body

Muscular System

The body system that supports the body and enables it to MOVE

Digestive System

The body system that takes in, breaks down, and absorbs nutrients that are necessary for growth

basal surface

The bottom layer of epithelial tissue that attaches to the basement membrane

No pain receptors in?

The brain

Marrow Cavity

The cavity that hangs out in the Diaphysis region of a bone?

What's the difference between Mitosis and Meiosis?

The cells during Meiosis divide twice, and during the second division, interphase does not occur.

Define graded potential

The change in potential in a localized area of the cell. its magnitude depends on the strength of the stimulus

Stratum Basal

The deepest epidermal layer, is attached to the underlying dermis along a wavy border line that resembles corrugated cardboard.


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