Chapter 01 - Human Anatomy & Physiology (Planes and Sections), Human Anatomy and Physiology Lab, Human anatomy and physiology Exam 3, Human Anatomy and Physiology Tissue Review, Human Anatomy and Physiology Review, Essentials of Human Anatomy and Phy...
Brachial
Arm
Vein
Carries blood to the heart
Median Plane or Midsagittal Plane
Divides the body or organ into equal right and left parts.
reproductive system
Reproduce offspring- produce male sex cells (sperm) and female sex cells (oocytes)
The body of a Vertebrae
The largest portion of a single vertebrae
Umbilical
Navel (Bellybutton)
Temporal process of the Zygomatic Bone
Part of the Zygomatic Bone that reaches towards the Temporal Bone, Anterior
Shaft
Projects from the skin, extends about halfway down the portion of the hair embedded in the skin
Step five of sensory impulses from the ear?
Vibrations pass through the vestibular membrane and enter endolymph of cochlear duct
Fovea centralis
depression in macula lutea; sharpest vision -only cones
thin rim of cytoplasm with bulging nucleus. cell type= adipocytes (signet ring cells). em= stored oil.
description of adipose tissue:
cell type= osteocytes in cavities called lacunae. em= calcium salts. haversian system.
description of bone tissue:
branching striated, uninucleated cells, intercalated discs.
description of cardiac muscle tissue:
cells=fibroblasts. em= collagen fibers
description of dense fibrous tissue:
chondrocytes = cell type. em = collagen fibers. most abundant cartilage tissue.
description of hyaline cartilage:
neurons and supporting cells
description of nervous tissue:
single layer of cells of different heights. ciliated.
description of psuedostratified columnar epithelium:
one layer of cubed-shape cells
description of simple cuboidal epithelium:
one layer of flat shape cells with a "tile floor appearance". simplest of epithelium
description of simple squamous epithelium:
spindle-shaped cells arranged closely to form sheets. no striations.
description of smooth muscle tissue:
2 or more layers of column-shaped cells
description of stratified columnar epithelium:
2 or more flat cell layers. most common stratified tissue.
description of stratified squamous epithelium:
Killer T cells
destroy infected cells
control center
determines the set point at which the variable is maintained processes the signal and sends instructions
Perioxisomes
detoxify alcohol, free radicals, and other harmful substances
Kidneys
bean-shaped structures that are located at the back of the abdominal cavity just under the diaphragm
greenstick fracture type
bone breaks incompletely, only one side of the shaft breaks, the other side bends, common in children
Efferent
bring signals from CNS to sensory organs and muscles
Afferent
bring signals from sensory organs and muscles to the CNS
Types of free nerve ending in skin receptors?
pain, warm receptors, cold receptors
Macrophages
phagocytes that alert T cells to the presence of foreign substances
-protects organs -provides levers for muscles -stores calcium -blood cell formation
function of bone tissue:
all functions
function of dense fibrous tissue:
protect, support, bind
function of hyaline cartilage:
secrete and absorb. goblet cells secrete mucus to lubricate digestive tract.
function of simple columnar epithelium:
protect and secrete
function of stratified cuboidal epithelium:
Greater wings of the Sphenoid bone
A Basin or bowl underneath the upper ridge of the Sphenoid Bone
Sulcus/Sulci
A groove on the surface of the brain
Fibroblast
A sigle cell that produces all of the fibers of areolar connective tissue, the most abundant cell type in connective tissue proper, make and secrete the protein subunits of fibers
Solution
A solution is a liquid mixture (or a compound) in which a solute gets easily dissolved in a solvent.
protein
A three dimensional polymer made of monomers of amino acids.
Oligodendrocytes
-only in CNS -myelinates axons in CNS -"white" in CNS white mater due to myelination -1 oligodendrocyte myelinates multiple axons in CNS -does not form a neurilemma
Cell body
(soma) contains the nucleus of the neuron
List the important neurotransmitters
- Acetylcholine - Dopamine - Norepinephrine - Serotonin - Glutamate - GABA - Endorphine - Adenosine/ATP - Nitric oxide
What does a chemical synapse consist of?
- Axon terminal (presynaptic neuron) which has synaptic knobs that contain vesicles with neurotransmitters - fluid filled synaptic cleft - postsynaptic cell
List the tissue types
- Muscle - Nervous - Epithelial - Connective
What are glial cells? Function?
- support cells - non excitable - nourish, support, protect neurons
3 hormones secreted from islet cells of pancreas
-Alpha cells -> glucagon -Beta cells -> insulin -Delta cells -> somatostatin -inhibits the release of glucagon and insulin
Medulla Oblongata
-Ascending (afferent) and descending (efferent) spinal cord nerve fibers connecting to brain pass through.
Diabetes mellitus type 1
-Autoimmune disease -destruction of beta cells. lack of insulin synthesized -must check glucose levels several times daily -need external source of insulin several times a day -normal plasma glucose levels = fasting: 70-99 mg/dL -<140 mg/dL 1-2 hours after meals
Pons
-Contains nuclei, sensory and motor fibers - relays info to and from cortex to cerebrum and medulla -Function 1. voluntary skeletal muscle movement 2. with medulla inner ear equilibrum 3. with medulla control of breathing
White matter
-Within CNS -Within brain -connects areas of gray matter -Within spinal cord
Adaptation
-ability of nervous system to become less responsive to a maintained stimulus (ex: foul odor)
Iris
-acts as reflexively activated diaphragm to vary pupil size -colored part of eye -central opening= pupil, allows light to enter
Superficial
-acute (sharp and brief) -info brought to CNS by myelinated axons
Interneurons
-aka associate neruons -only in CNS -multipolar -linker neurons
Dendrites (afferent)
-branching extensions of cellular membrane -information "in" toward CNS
Motor (efferent) Neurons
-outflow from brain and spinal cord CNS -innervate muscle or glands effectors
Appendicular skeleton
126 bones, bones of arms, feet, legs, hands, hips and shoulders
2
2
3
3
4
4
Greater trochanter
A bony prominence on the proximal lateral side of the femur, just below the hip joint.
Osmosis
A flow of water across a selectively permeable membrane moving down its concentration gradient
Superior
Above
B Lymphocytes
B cells - produce antibodies
Sternal
Breastbone area
Atlas
C1 (Cervical 1) The top Cervical vertebrae. The Greek god that held up the world like this holds up your head
Mention 3 peptide hormones
Calcitonin, Insulin, Glucagon
Cartilaginous
Cartilaginous joints contain cartilage and allow very little movement; there are two types of cartilaginous joints: synchondroses and symphyses.
Which part of the brain interprets sensory information?
Cerebrum
nucleic acid
DNA and RNA, stores genetic information
What process should the DNA within a cell undergo before cell replication?
DNA should replicate so that daughter cells have the same amount of DNA material after cell division
Oblique Plane
Divides the body or organ at a diagonal.
Give an example of positive feedback
During labor, the child presses on and distends muscle of the cervix, triggering the release of oxytocin, which causes muscles in the uterus to contract, leading to more dilation of the cervix, which triggers more release of oxytocin
Plasma Cells
Egg shaped cells that secrete protein molecules called antibodies, which bind to foreign molecules and microorganisms, marking them for destruction
Phalanges
Fingers and toes
Digital
Fingers, toes
How does the Na+/K+ pump work to establish the resting potential?
For every two K+ ions pumped in, three Na+ ions are expelled. (Relative negative charge inside the cell)
Interphase can be further divided into?
G1, S, and G2
Interphase
G1= centrioles begin replicating S=DNA is replicated G2=Final Preparations for mitosis completed
Anterior lobe hormones
GH, PRL, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH
Pubic
Genital region
What happens differently in the gray matter and the white matter?
Gray matter (nuclei): here processing of information occurs in CNS. there are unmyelinated cell bodies and synapses White matter (tracts): consists of myelinated axons that function in the transmission of info between brain regions and between the CNS and the PNS.
intertubercular groove
Groove on the proximal end of the Humerus
What is the ECM made of?
Ground substance with fibers of collagen or elastin. There are also fibronectin proteins and cellular adhesion molecules (e.g. integrins)
Tissue
Groups of similar cells that work together to perform a common function
canaliculi
Hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal
Compact bone
Hard, dense bone tissue that is beneath the outer membrane of a bone
Ulna
Has a "U" in it
Coxal
Hip
Hypertonic Solution
Hypertonic comes from the Greek "hyper," meaning over, and "tonos," meaning stretching. In a hypertonic solution the total molar concentration of all dissolved solute particles is greater than that of another solution, or greater than the concentration in a cell.
Major endocrine gland
Hypothalamus
Oxytocin and antiuretic hormone synthesized in?
Hypothalamus
What controls the Autonomic Nervous System through the brain stem?
Hypothalamus
Hypotonic Solution
Hypotonic comes from the Greek "hypo," meaning under, and "tonos," meaning stretching. In a hypotonic solution the total molar concentration of all dissolved solute particles is less than that of another solution or less than that of a cell.
Cell Cycle
IPMATC= I Passed My Anatomy Test Cleanly
fibroblasts
In connective tissue, cells that secrete the proteins of the fibers.
Mechanical digestion
Includes grinding or chewing your food when you eat
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Kidney Tubules; ducts and secretory portions of the small glands; ovary surface
Patella
Knee cap
Which heart chamber is the most muscular?
Left ventricle
Crural
Leg
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Lines most of the digestive tract (stomach and rectum); gallbladder
Metacarpals
Mid hand bones between your carpals and fingers
Nasal
Nose Area
Where are the hair cells located?
Organ of corti
T Lymphocytes
T cells, helper T cells, killer T cells, suppressor T cells, and memory T cells
Diaphysis
The long central shaft of a bone is called the....
Obturator Foramen
The only hole on the bone
3
The pelvis is made of how many bones?
Histology
The study of tissues
Chromosomes
These are highly condensed, threadlike rods of DNA
Flagella
These are tail-like structures that use whip-like movements to help the cell move.
Anatomical position
To stand erect with arms at the sides and palms of the hands turned forward
Posterior
Toward the back
Sacrum
Triangular shaped. Starts out growing as five vertebrae and they fuse together as you grow.
cuboidal epithelium
Type of epithelial tissue with cube-shaped cells.
Maxilla
Upper Jaw, large part of nose
Osteoclast
Uses hydrochloric acid to break down bone
Which structure has the lowest blood pressure?
Vein
Carpal
Wrist
Hyoid bone
a U-shaped bone in the neck that supports the tongue.
periosteum
a fibrous, vascular membrane that covers the bone
Trochlea
a smooth, grooved articular process shaped like a pulley
Superior
above or closer to the head
Sensation
awareness sensory info sent to brain. Threshold reached -> Action potential
Posterior
back
depressed fracture type
broken bone portion is pressed inward, typical of skull fracture
Lens fiber
bulk of lens = transparent folded protein fibers (mitosis)
Tracts
bundles of myelinated axons
Blood can be defined as?
composed of water, solutes, and other elements in a fluid connective tissue
carbohydrate
compound made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms; major source of energy for the human body
acid
compound that forms hydrogen ions (H+) in solution
medial malleolus
distal process on medial tibial surface
What are the 3 common properties of muscles
excitability, contraction, and elongate
Myelinated axons
faster action potential
depressions and openings for joint
fossa
Gastric Secretions
gastric acid destroys pathogens
Flat bones
generally thin, and curved. Bones of the skull or scapula
achondroplasia
genetic disease that can lead to shortening of the long bones due to premature closure of the epiphyseal plate.
Meiosis encourages?
genetic diversity
epiphyseal plate
growth plate
Cephalic
head
Caudal
hindquarters
Parts of retina
macula lutea, fovea centralis, optic disc
factors that affect bone remodeling
low blood Ca2+ concentration, parathyroid hormone, mechanical stress
Mandible
lower jaw bone
State the role of Calcitonin
lowers blood Calcium levels
fibrocytes
maintain connective tissue fibers and matrix
Respiratory center
maintains breathing rhythm and adjusts breathing rate and depth
osteoblast
matrix-synthesizing and bone forming cells, fibroblasts and chondroblasts
osteocytes
mature bone cells
Telophase (Animal cells)
membrane is pinched
electrolytes
minerals that carry electrical charges
Define effector
muscles and glans that carry out a response
The temperature of the body is controlled by a
negative feedback system
Eccrine glands
not connected to hair follicles. They're activated by elevated body temperature. They're also located throughout the body and can found on the forehead, neck, and back.
free surface
not in contact with other cells
Composition of gray matter?
nuclei -collection of neuron cell bodies -unmyelinated axons
Each cell consists of? (3)
nucleic acids, cytoplasm, and cell membrane
Allele
one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome. Ex) determines hair color
Ilium
part of the hip bone
Parathyroid
regulates calcium levels in blood
lateral malleolus
process forming the outer ankle
Dendrites
receive impulses from sensory receptors or interneurons and transmit them toward the cell body
Renin
released by kidney- BP regulation
Bartholin's glands
secrete a lubricating fluid
Receptor
sensory cells located in the dermis of the skin
Frontal lobe
short term memory, planning, judgement
Cell body
soma
transitional epithelium
specialized to change in response to increased tension
Follicle stimulating hormone
stimulates spermatogenesis
mesentery
structure that suspends the small intestine from the posterior body wall
diaphysis
the shaft of a long bone
B cells
these cells target specific bacteria for destruction
The right lung has how many lobes?
three lobes
Endocrine Organ System
thyroid, testes, ovaries and pancreas -helps maintain body homeostasis, promotes growth and development; produces hormones
The hypothalamus directs the pituitary gland to secrete __________, which stimulates the thyroid gland to release these hormones as needed via a negative-feedback mechanism
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Vesicles
vehicle that helps move materials within a cell.
within spinal cord
white matter located external to gray matter
Diabetes
Bodies inability to process sugar due to lack of insulin
Osteoclasts
Bone dissolving cells found on the bone surface. They develop from the same bone narrow stem cells that give rise to the blood cells. -Osteocytes Crush
Ethmoid Bone
Bone in the middle of the face;
osteoporosis
Bone resorption and deposit More severe in spongy bone, bones are porous and thin but bone composition is normal
Osteoblasts
Bone-forming cells. They are roughly cuboidal or angular, and line up in a single layer on the bone surface under the endosteum and periosteum and resemble a cuboidal epithelium.
Skeletal System organs
Major organs include the bones
Trabeculae
Porous supportive structures found in the spongy bone
3 basic types of Muscle Tissue
Skeletal Muscle- the meat or flesh of the body Cardiac- is found only in the heart Smooth- found mainly in the walls of the hollow organs
Ganglia
collections of neuron cell bodies in the PNS
Arrector pili
"Goose bumps" Makes the hair stand straight up
What is the largest solid organ of the body and the largest gland?
liver
The upper respiratory system includes?
• Nose • Nasal cavity • Mouth • Pharynx • Larynx
The airway includes
• Nose • Nasal cavity • Mouth • Pharynx (throat) • Larynx (voice box) • Trachea (windpipe) • Bronchi • Bronchial network
Prophase (Continued)
• Pairs of centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell • Spindle fibers begin to form • Mitotic spindle, formed from cytoskeleton parts, moves chromosomes around within the cell
Functions of Male Reproductive System
• Produce • Maintain • Transfer sperm and semen into female reproductive tract and produce and secrete male hormones
Functions of the female reproductive system
• Produce ova • Transfer ova to fallopian tubes for fertilization • Receive sperm • Provide protect and nourishing environment for developing embryo
Somatic pain
-from skin, muscles, ligaments, joints and viscera -types superficial or deep
Axon (efferent)
-much longer singular membrane extension than dendrite -information "out" toward PNS (via action potentials)
1
1
5 components of reflex arc
1. sensory receptor 2. sensory neuron 3. interneuron 4. motor neuron 5. effector
Pancreas
2 major types secretory tissues -exocrine gland (digestive enzymes) -endocrine gland (hormones)
covalent bond
A chemical bond that involves sharing a pair of electrons between atoms in a molecule
Organ systems
A group of two or more organs working together for a specific job; e.g. the digestive system
Gyrus/Gyri
A ridge or fold on the surface of the brain
Solute
A solute is a substance in which is dissolved in another substance, the solvent.
What happens when a muscle contracts?
Action Potential reaches muscle fiber, calcium ions are released, bind to myosin and actin.
What provides energy necessary for the contraction?
Adenosine triphosphate released from glucose
Peripheral NS
All the nerves of the body
Tarsal
Ankle region
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
Antidiuretic hormone(ADH or vasopressin), and Oxytocin(OT)
The skeletal system is divided into 2 parts. What are they?
Axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton
What's the part between the cell body and the axon? Role?
Axon hillock. Acts as a threshold for nerve signals. If the threshold is strong enough, the signal conducts through the axon
Infraorbital foramen
Bilateral structure; Holes below the eyes
Gluteal
Buttock
basement membrane
Cells at the base of an epithelial layer are attached to this.
Nervous tissue
Cells called neurons form a network through the body that control responses to changes in the external and internal environment. Some send signals to muscles and glands to trigger responses
squamous epithelium
Cells that are like floor tiles.
mediastinum
Centrally located space between the lungs
Define cytokines
Certain substances (including hormones) secreted by the immune system. They can also trigger apoptosis or inhibit cell division.
Chemical digestion
Changes the composition of food (breaks it down to molecular level) by breaking it down such as with stomach acids and enzymes
Buccal
Cheek Area
From lowest to high, give the levels of organization.
Chemical (molecular), cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, and organism
Cartilage
Chond means...
Prophase
Chromatic thickens into chromosomes and nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate.
urinary system
Cleanses the blood. Rids the body of wastes. Maintains salt and water balance.
Compact Bone vs. Spongy Bone
Compact: looks smooth and homogenous Spongy(cancellous): composed of small trabeculae (column) of bones and lots of open space
lymphatic system
Composed of a network of vessels, ducts, nodes, and organs. Provides defense against infection.
Central NS
Composed of brain and spinal cord
Pacinian corpuscle
Connective tissue fibers and cells in dermis
Organ of dynamic equilibrium is called?
Crista ampullaries -located in ampullae of semicircular canals -contains sensory hair cells and supporting cells -hairs/cilia cells stick into a domed gel mass (cupula)
Organ of corti surrounded by?
Endolymph
What is EPO and what does it do?
Erythropoietin is a growth factor that increases erythrocytes in the blood
Kidney
Filters waste from blood
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Function; visceral motor (involuntary). Structure; conducts impulses from the CNS to cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and glands.
Glenoid fossa/cavity
Little depression. The part of the Scapula where the head of the Humorous plugs into
mandible condyle
Located bilaterally on mandible; Big bumps; fits into the mandibular fossa to attach to the temporal bone
Homeostasis
Maintaining a constant internal environment
Liver
Makes bile, detoxifies blood
Oral
Mouth
Pancreas, Liver, Gallbladder
Not part of digestive tract, but aid in digestion
Vertebral
Possible extra credit question: The __________ artery, which is a bilateral structure, travels through the transverse foramen.
Stratified Columnar Epithelium
Rare in the body; small amounts in the urethra
Erythrocytes
Red blood cells (RBCs), also called erythrocytes, are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate organism's principal means of delivering oxygen (O2) to the body tissues—via blood flow through the circulatory system.
Head of the Humerus
Round part of the proximal end of the Humerus
During which stage is DNA replicated?
S phase of interphase
Reaction pathway of impulse
Sensory neuron-> brain -> motor neuron
columnar epithelium
Single layer column shaped cells - lining stomach, small intestine - secrete and absorbs
simple epithelium
Single layer of cells.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Structure; Brain Stem and Spinal Cord. Function; Integrative and control center
Villi
Structures of the small intestine that increases surface are a for absorption
Respiratory system
The body system in which oxygen is brought into the body and carbon dioxide is released; major
Olecranon Fossa
The large, posterior depression on the distal end of the Humerus
Lesser trochanter
The projection on the medial/superior portion of the femur.
Femoral
Thigh
Perpendicular Plate of the Ethmoid
Upper part of nasal septum
Lesser wings of the Sphenoid bone
Upper ridge of the Sphenoid Bone
Lines
What does Linea mean?
synthesis reaction
a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a new compound
Osteosarcoma (bone cancer)
abnormal proliferation of osteoblasts
All preganglionic autonomic fibers release?
actycholine
Plasma cells produce?
antibodies specific to that pathogen
stimulus
any event or situation that evokes a response
Chondrocytes
are the only cells found in healthy cartilage.
Exteroceptors
associated with stimuli at body surfaces
5 types of neuroglial (support) cells
astrocytes, microglia cells, ependymal cells, oligodendrocytes, schwann cells
Smooth muscle tissue provides tension in the
blood vessels, control pupil dilation, and aid in peristalsis.
epithelium
cells covering external and internal surfaces of the body
Thoracic
chest
Normal Bacterial Populations
compete with pathogens in the gut and vagina
Genome
complete set of genes or DNA in an organism
base
compound that produces hydroxide ions (OH+) in solution
Bipolar
cones and rods
Myofibrils
contain 2 protein microfilaments that are thick and thin.
Airways and epinephrine
dilates
frontal plane
divides the body into anterior and posterior portions
The renal/urinary system is capable of?
eliminating excess substances while preserving the substances needed by the body to function
Spinal cord
encased bony structure of vertebrae, which supports and protects it.
kinetic energy
energy of motion
Ovaries
female gonads, produce ova and secrete estrogen and progesterone
depressions and openings for passage
foramen, notch, meatus
Nasal Bones
form bridge of nose
Anterior
front
secrete and absorb
function of simple cuboidal epithelium:
filter and diffuse
function of simple squamous epithelium:
-voluntary control -locomotion -manipulation of environment -facial expressions
function of skeletal muscle tissue:
Pineal gland
has influence on daily biorhythms and sexual activity
transverse plane
horizontal division of the body into upper and lower portions
Transverse plane
horizontal plane divides the patient's body into imaginary upper (superior) and lower (inferior or caudal) halves
Systemic blood pressure and norepinephrine
increases greatly due to vasoconstriction
Systemic blood pressure and epinephrine
increases somewhat due to increased cardiac output
ischemia
lack of blood flow
Goiter
lack of iodine
hypoxia
lack of oxygen but normal blood flow
prone
lying face down
The ___________ bean-shaped organ attached to the body near the peritoneum.
mamalian kidney
osteocyte
mature bone and bone matrix maintenance cells, monitors the mineralized bone matrix
Salty
metal ions (inorganic salts)
Axon is insulated by ________________, and myelin sheath with gaps known as nodes of Ranvier.
oligodendrocytes
Petrous
organ of hearing, portion of temporal bone.
oblique plane
passes through the body at an angle
Increased intensity of stimulation causes?
perception of louder sounds
The lungs are surround by a _____________, which reduces friction between surfaces when breathing
pleural membrane
Antigens are typically?
proteins on the surfaces of bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Drugs, toxins, and foreign particles can also be antigens
diploe (spongy bone) cavities contain ____________.
red marrow
what are the 3 types producing sharp, color vision?
red, green, and blue
Exocrine
secrete digestive enzymes through ducts
Unipolar
sensory neurons from skin
Define spatial summation
stimulation of the same postsynaptic cell by more than one axon terminal at the same time
What breaks down the food and make nutrients available for absorption
stomach acidity
Sensory fibers
synapse with base of taste receptor cells imbedded in the tongue.
short bones
talus
What is the left side of the pancreas called?
the tail
Define refractory period
the time delay between the opening of Na+ channels and the restoration of resting potential
Cerebral cortex
thin layer of gray matter covering the cerebrum
Axon
transmits impulses away from the cell body.
How long can ears tolerate (lawn mower) 91 dB?
two hours of exposure
The left lung has?
two lobes and leaving room for the heart on the left side of the body.
Lacrimal Bone
two paired bones at the corner of each eye
The opening of which transport molecule leads to depolarization?
voltage-gated sodium channels
Skeletal Muscle
voluntary movement -in skeletal muscles attached to bones
Skeletal tissue
voluntary muscles that work in pairs to move various parts of the skeleton. Composed of muscle fibers
Keratin
waxy protein that helps to waterproof the skin
buffer
weak acids or bases that can react with strong acids or bases to prevent sharp, sudden changes in pH
The heart:
• a muscular pump made of cardiac muscle tissue • It has four chambers; each half contains both an atrium and a ventricle • The halves are separated by a valve, known as AV valve and are located between the ventricle and the artery leading away from the heart. • Valves keep blood moving in a single direction and prevent any backwash into the chambers • The heart has its own circulatory system with its own coronary arteries • The heart functions by contracting and relaxing
Irregular bones
• formed between cranial bones • Number, size, and shape vary
Postganflionic parasympathetic fibers release?
Ach cholinergic fibers
AC Joint
Acromioclavicular joint
Elastic connective tissue
Allow recoil of tissue following stretching -walls of large arteries; within certain ligaments
Corpus Callosum
Allows communication between hemispheres.
Palatine process of the Maxilla
Anterior 2/3 of the Maxilla
Patellar
Anterior Knee
Abdominal
Anterior body trunk inferior to ribs
Temporal process of the zygomatic bone
Anterior portion reaches towards the temporal bone
Antecubital
Anterior surface of elbow
Lumbar
Area of back between ribs and hips
Vertebral
Area of spine
Pelvic
Area overlying the pelvis anteriorly
Inguinal
Area where thigh meets body (Groin)
Step seven sensory impulses from the ear?
As a receptor cell depolarizes its membrane becomes more permeable to calcium ions
Cardiac Muscle
As it contracts, cardiac muscle propels blood into the circulation; involuntary control -the walls of the heart
List the different types of glial cells and their function
Astrocytes -support neurons in brain and spinal chord (CNS) Microglia -CNS -defensive phagocytes Ependymal cells -line fluid filled brain cavities Oligodendrocytes -secrete myelin Satellite cells and Schwann cells -peripheral nerves and ganglia
Which heart contraction fills the ventricles?
Atrial contraction
hydrogen bond
Attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom.
Step eleven sensory impulses from the ear?
Auditory cortex of temporal lobes interpret sensory impulses
Step three of sensory impulses from the ear?
Auditory ossicles amplify and transmit vibrations to end of stapes
Deep
Away from the body surface; more internal
Lateral
Away from the midline of the body
Distal
Away from the point of attachment
Why is an action potential a positive feedback system
Because an action potential is self reinforcing and self propagating. each Na channel is triggered to open by the opening of adjacent Na+ channels
Why do myelinated axons exhibit saltatory conduction?
Because voltage gated sodium channels are concentrated in nodes of Ranvier, the action potential jumps through cytoplasm from one node to the next.
Ventral
Belly side
Mental Foramen
Bilateral holes on anterior aspect of mandible
Coronal Suture
Bilateral, separates frontal from parietal bone
Lambdoid Suture
Bilateral; separate parietal from occipital bones
Squamous Suture
Bilateral; side of skull
Pallor
Blanching, Becoming pale-low blood pressure or anemia (during fear, anger, emotional stress)
Polar vs. non-polar
Bonds that are partly ionic are called polar covalent bonds. Nonpolar covalent bonds, with equal sharing of the bond electrons, arise when the electronegativities of the two atoms are equal
Radius
Bone in forearm "on the thumb side", larger in the proximal forearm.
Irregular bones
Bones that do not fall into any of these categories. The vertebrae
Skeletal Organ System
Bones, Cartilages, tendons, ligaments, and joints -Body support and protection from internal organs
How is meiosis similar to mitosis?
Both occur in humans, animals, and plants
Which law says, "for a given mass and constant temperature, an inverse relationship exists between the volume and pressure of gas?"
Boyle's Law. PV= c, where c = constant
Nervous Organ System
Brain, Spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors -allows body to detect changes in its internal and external environment and to respond to such information by activating appropriate muscles or glands
7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar vertebrae
Breakfast at 7. Lunch at 12. Dinner at 5. What is this good for?
digestive system
Breaks down food into smaller molecules. Absorbs these nutrients into the body.
Sternum
Breastbone. Superior portion is the Manubrium. Directly inferior to the Manubrium is the Gladiolus. Directly inferior to the Gladiolus is the Xiphoid process
Third degree burns
Burn where entire thickness of skin is destroyed. The burned area appears blanched (gray-white) or blackened. Skin grafts must be done to repair area.
First degree burns
Burns where only epidermis is damaged. The area becomes red and swollen.
Cervical Vertebrae
C1-C7. First seven vertebrae of the spine. Contain two holes on either side called the Transverse Foramen (only vertebrae that has one) where the vertebral arteries travel through to the head. Much smaller.
Axis
C2 (Cervical 2) The second Cervical vertebrae. Looks at little bit like a UFO. Think Rotation
Which characteristic is part of a person's genotype? Black hair that grows rapidly, being fast runner, CFTR genes that causes cystic fibrosis, or brown eyes that appear hazel in the sunlight?
CFTR genes that causes cystic fibrosis
Vestibulocochlear nerve also known as?
CN VIII
General Characteristics of Connective Tissue
CT is the most abundant tissues in the body, but are never exposed to the environment outside the body *(if it is exposed you have a cut; exposed to surface of blood vessel you form a blood clot) CT includes fat, bone, cartilage, and blood - tissues quite varied in appearance and function *some cells can differentiate into certain CT cells; cannot re-differentiate and become something else Most CT have multiple functions, but no single tissue performs all of these functions
Which muscle tissues are involuntary?
Cardiac and smooth muscle tissues
3 Skin pigments
Carotene, Melanin, Hemoglobin - determine skin color
Artery
Carries blood away from heart
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance that's found in all cells of the body. -Your body needs some cholesterol to make hormones, vitamin D, and substances that help you digest foods.
Proximal
Closer to the point of attachment
Hearing is transmitted along the?
Cochlear branch of vestibulocochlear nerve or CN VII "8"
Which proteins is the extracellular matrix made of?
Collagen or elastin
Clavical
Collar bone. S-shaped. Attaches to the sternum and comes out to form the AC Joint
Ribosome
Composed of RNA and protein; Actual sites of protein synthesis
Epidermis
Composed of epithelial cells, is the outermost protective shield of the body
Simple Epithelial
Consist of one layer of cells attached to the basement membrane
Hair
Consists of dead, keratinized cells Pili Are flexible strands produced by hair follicles and consist largely dead, keratinized cells Shaft- portion in which keratinization is complete Root- where kerantinization is still ongoing
endocrine system
Consists of glands that control many of the body's activities by producing hormones.
Stratum Granulosum
Consists of one to five cell layers in which keratinocytes appearance changes drastically - keratinization begins
Dermis Composition
Consists of papillary & reticular layers Made up of strong, flexible connective tissue
integumentary system
Consists of the skin, mucous membranes, hair, and nail
All cells contain 3 things. These three things are?
DNA, RNA, and synthesize proteins
What forms when thin/thick microfilaments overlap?
Dark bands (striations) forms
Sound measured by?
Decibels (dB) -normal speech = 60 dB -sustained loudness greater than 85 dB destroys hair cells
State the role of Insulin
Decreases blood glucose levels
Deltoid
Curve of shoulder formed by large deltoid muscle
Layers of Epidermis
Deep to superficial 1. Stratum Basal 2. Stratum Spinosum 3. Stratum Granulosom 4. Stratum Lucidum (absent in thin skin) 5. Stratum Corneum
Reticular Layer
Deeper, accounting of about 80% of the thickness of the dermis, is coarse, dense irregular connective tissue Cleavage (tension) lines Flexure lines
Pia mater
Deepest layer -attaches to brain and spinal cord surface -contain blood vessels -supplies nutrition to brain tissue and spinal tissue -contains nerves
What is the function of white blood cells?
Defend the body against infection and remove various waste
Which part of a neuron receives information?
Dendrites
Step six sensory impulses from the ear?
Different frequencies of vibration in endolymph stimulate different sets of receptor cells
Lysosome
Digests proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and transports undigested substances to the cell membrane so they can be removed.
Transverse Plane or Horizontal Plane
Divides the body or organ into a superior and inferior part.
Parasagittal Plane
Divides the body or organ into unequal right and left parts.
What is the major function of the spleen?
Filter unwanted materials from the blood (including old red blood cells) and help fight infections
True ribs
First seven ribs; only ribs that articulate with the Sternum
elastic fibers
Flexible and "stretchy" fibers that add elasticity to tissue
Nuclear envelope
Encloses the structures of the nucleus. Consists of inner and outer membranes made of lipids
Which are the two type of glands that secrete signaling molecules?
Endocrine (ductless) glands: secrete products into circulatory system Exocrine (ducted) glands: secrete products directly into another organ
Which are the 3 main components of the endocrine system?
Endocrine glands, hormones, and receptors on target cells
Which of the following does not contain blood vessels: Hypodermis Hyperdermis Dermis Epidermis
Epidermis - first layer of skin
What are the 4 broad (main) categories of tissues
Epithelial tissue, muscular tissue, connective tissue, and nerve tissue
4 major categories of Tissues
Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous
What are the 7 Categories of Tissues?
Epithelial, muscle, connective, nervous, blood, bone, and cartilage
What are the 2 male reproductive hormones?
Follicle stimulating hormone and Luteinizing hormone
Frontal
Forehead
Frontal Bone
Forehead bone
Osteocytes
Former Osteoblasts that have become trapped in he matrix they deposited. They reside in tiny cavities called lacunae, which are interconnected by slender channels called canuliculi. Osteocytes have multiple functions. Some resorb bone matrix and others deposit it, so they contribute to the homeostatic maintenance of both bone density and blood concentrations of calcium and phosphate ions. They are strain sensors.
Functions of Connective Tissue
Every Train Passes Several Street Dogs A. Establish a structural framework for the body *holds you together B. Transport fluids and dissolved materials from one region of the body to another *blood and lymph C. Provide protection for delicate organs *greater omentum D. Supporting, surrounding, and interconnecting other tissue types E. Storing energy reserves, especially as lipids *far as long term energy F. Defending the body from invasion by microorganisms *White blood cells (bone)
How could a graded potential occur?
Excitatory 1. From the opening of gated sodium channels Inhibitory 2. opening of K+ channels 3. Opening of Cl- channels - So either the loss of positive ions or a gain of negative ions
Sympathetic Division
Function; mobilizes body systems during activity "Fight or Flight"
Motor (Efferent) Division
Function; motor nerve fibers. Structure; conducts impulses from CNS to effectors (muscles and glands)
Sensory (Afferent) Division
Function; somatic and visceral sensory nerve fibers. Structure; Conducts impulses from receptors to the CNS.
Somatic Nervous System
Function; somatic motor (voluntary). Structure; conducts impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles.
Epithelial Tissue
Functions: protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, and sensory reception
Electronegativity
Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons. -The greater the electronegativity difference, the more ionic the bond is
List the function and location of common connective tissue cells
Fibroblasts (connective tissue proper) Adipocytes (fat tissue) Chondrocytes (cartilage) Osteocytes (bone) White blood cells and macrophages (immune, ECM) Mast cells (Histamine release, inflammatory response)
Three structural classes of joints
Fibrous Cartilaginous Synovial
Fibrous
Fibrous joints contain fibrous connective tissue and cannot move; fibrous joints include sutures, syndesmoses, and gomphoses.
Organ
Groups of similar tissues that work together to perform a common function
Rotation of the Head
Head turns left and right
Cardiovascular Organ System
Heart, blood vessels, and blood -Primarily a transport system that carries blood containing oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, ions and hormones and other substances to and from the tissue cells
Calcaneal
Heel of foot
Functions of cell membrane
Helps keep cytoplasm in and substances located outside the cell out. Determines what is allowed to enter and exit.
Neurons
Highly specialized to receive stimuli and to generate electrical signals that may be sent to all parts of the body
foramen magnum
Hole in the inferior aspect of the skull that the spinal cord travels through
Intervertebral foramen
Hole through which the nerves go from the spine to the rest of your body
Point the apex of the Patella away from you and which ever side it falls to, that's the side it is. If it falls to the right, it's the right patella. If it falls to the left, it's the left.
How do know which Patella you're looking at?
Give an example of negative feedback
If blood glucose becomes elevated, the pancreas secretes insulin. Insulin allows glucose to enter cells, lowering blood sugar. (The hormone insulin acts to reduce further effects by inhibiting hormone production)
leukocytes
White blood cells (WBCs), also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders.
Jaundice
Yellow cast- abnormally yellow skin tone usually signifies a liver disorder
double replacement reaction
a chemical change that involves an exchange of positive ions between two compounds
reversible reaction
a chemical reaction in which the products re-form the original reactants
cardiovascular system
a collection of organs that transport blood throughout the body
Bone
a hard tissue that supports and protects softer tissues and organs. Its marrow produces red blood cells.
adipose tissue
a kind of body tissue containing stored fat that serves as a source of energy
set point
a level that the body works to maintain
decomposition reaction
a reaction in which a single compound breaks down to form two or more simpler substances
Acromion process
The highest point on the Scapula
chemical equilibrium
a state of balance in which forward and reverse reactions are taking place at the same rate.
chemical compound
a substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements in definite proportions
Gene
a unit of heredity that is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring
Nervous System organs
Includes the brain, spinal cord, & peripheral nerves
The Fibula
The lateral malleolus is part of what bone?
Phospholipids (fats)
The main structural building blocks of the plasma membrane
Respiratory System Organs
The major organs include nose, trachea, bronchi, lungs, & diaphragm
Proteins: trans-membrane and peripheral
The membrane proteins are of two types Integral (passing through the width of the membrane (act as transport channels) and peripheral (act as recognition sites). These peripheral proteins contain carbohydrates to help in cell to cell recognition. These carbohydrates are called oligosaccharides. If they bind to proteins they become glycoproteins, if they bind to lipids, they become glycolipids.
Diffusion
The movement of molecules from a region of a higher concentration to a lower -Simple diffusion: unasisted diffusion of solutes(dissolved substances) through a selectively permeable membrane. Move from a higher concentration to a lower one -Facilitated Diffusion: substances moved across the membrane by passive transport
Which system has a close working relationship with the endocrine system?
The nervous system
Phospholipids: non-polar and hydrophobic
The nonpolar regions of the molecules, which are referred to as hydrophobic, face the interior of the bilayer, where they are shielded from water.
State the role of Glucagon
Increases blood glucose levels
Optic foramen
Inside the orbit of the eye
Insula
Inter lobe
What is the circulatory system is responsible for?
Internal transport for substances to and from the cells
Step eight sensory impulses from the ear?
Inward diffusion of calcium ions causes vesicles at the base of the receptor cell to release neurotransmitter
Lateral
Is Acetabulum medial or lateral?
Anterior
Is Pubis anterior or posterior?
What is filtration ?
Is a passive process in which water and solutes are forced through a membrane by hydrostatic (fluid) pressure. ex.) fluids and solutes filter out of the capillaries in the kidneys and into the kidney tubules because the blood pressure in the capillaries is greater than the fluid pressure in the tubules.
Carotene
Is a yellow to orange pigment found in certain plant products such as carrots Color most obvious in the palms and soles
Primary function of the spleen
It filters microorganisms and other foreign substances from the blood
homeostasis
It means keeping things constant and comes from two Greek words: 'homeo,' meaning 'similar,' and 'stasis,' meaning 'stable.' Body systems work together to maintain a stable environment -body temp: 37.0 degrees celsius -pH: 7.4 -body glucose: o.1%
Digestive System organs
The organ system that is made up the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Kidney glomeruli; air sacs of lungs; lining of heart
Lumbar Vertebrae
L1-L5. Looks like a moose or triceritops. Mostly allows you to bend forward and backward.
Occipital Condyles
The part of the skull that actually touches the neck bones
External structures of female reproductive system:
Labia major, labia minor, bartholin's glands, and clitoris
Greater tubercle
Larger bump, besides the head, on the proximal end of the Humerus
Superior Articular Facet of the Vertebrae
Larger facets that articulate superiorly with another vertebrae's inferior articular facet.
Olecranon Process
Larger projection on the proximal end of the Ulna
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
Largest ducts of the sweat glands, mammary glands, and salivary glands
Cerebrum
Largest part of the brain that is divided into two hemispheres; controls memory storage,speech and thinking
False ribs
Last 5 ribs; do not have any direct articulation with the Sternum; Vertrebrochondral and floating ribs
The fibula is lateral or medial?
Lateral
Fibular
Lateral part of leg
Pterygoid processes
Lateral plate of the sphenoid. Look like a Pterodactyl landing
Transitional Epithelium
Lines the ureters, urinary bladder
Where are the thyroid and parathyroid glands located?
Located in neck just below the larynx
Lateral Epicondyle
Located on the distal end of the Humerus, laterally
Medial Epicondyle
Located on the distal end of the Humerus, on the same side as the Head
External Anatomy of the right later aspect of the skull
Look on other quizlet
Inferior view of the Skull, mandible removed
Look on other quizlet
Semilunar/Trochlear notch of the Ulna
Looks like a "U" located on the proximal end of the Ulnar
Styloid process
Looks like a Stylus
Capitulum
Looks like a smooth baby's head
Connective Tissue Proper
Loose connective Tissue (areolar, adipose, reticular) Dense connective Tissue (dense regular, dense irregular)
Ventricles
Lower chambers of the heart
Coracoid process
Lower notch; C-shaped "C"oracoid. For ligaments and muscles.
Name a supplementary system that cleans up excess fluids and proteins and returns them to the circulatory system
Lymph vascular system
Lymphatic/ Immunity Organ System
Lymphatic vessels, Lymph nodes etc. -picks up fluid leaked from the blood vessels and returns it to the blood -cleanses blood of pathogens and other debris
Name the 5 types of white blood cells
Lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
Nervous Tissue
Made up of two major cell populations.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Main mechanism for specific endocytosis of most macromolecules. The receptors for this process are plasma membrane proteins that bind only to certain substances
Integumentary System organ
Major organ is the skin and includes hair and nails
Circulatory System organs
Major organs include heart & blood vessels
Excretory System organs
Major organs include kidneys, ureters, & bladder
Muscular System organs
Major organs include skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, and cardiac muscles
Meiosis
Makes sex cells w/23 chromosomes
Zygomatic arch
Makes up a little bit of the structure of the eye, attaches to the maxilla and the Temporal Bone. Half of the arch is Temporal Bone and half is Zygomatic Bone.
sphenoid bone
Makes up a part of the orbit of the eye; nasal cavity
Dermis
Makes up the bulk of the skin, is a tough, leathery lawyer composed mostly of dense connective tissue
Reproductive Organ System
Male: Testes, prostate gland, penis etc., which cary sperm to the body exterior Female: ovaries, uterus, vagina etc. -Provide germs cells called eggs; the female uterus houses the developing fetus until birth; mammary glands provide nutrition for infant
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
Males sperm- carrying ducts and ducts of large glands; lines trachea; most of the upper respiratory tract
Mandibular fossa
Mandibular condyles fit into the temporal bone here; beneath temporomandibular joint
Hemoglobin
The pinkish hue of fair skin reflects the crimson color of the oxygenated pigment hemoglobin in the red blood cells circulating through the dermal capillaries
Transverse Process of the Vertebrae
The portion of the vertebrae that points out laterally. Remember the Transverse Plane.
Spinous Process of the Vertebrae
The portion of the vertebrae that sticks out posteriorly.
Sural
The posterior surface of lower leg (the calf)
Descending fiber crossover at?
Medulla Oblongata
Brain stem
Medulla oblongata controls heart rate and other involuntary functions
What other cells also contribute to the body's defense with macrophages, T cells, and B cells?
Memory cells, suppressor T cells, and helper T cells
Which germ layer is connective tissue derived from?
Mesoderm (specifically the mesenchyme)
What is the brainstem composed of?
Midbrain, Pons, and Medulla Oblongata
Arachnoid mater
Middle layer (brain and spinal cord). -no blood vessels -subarachnoid space -Contain spinal fluid -blood filtrate; blood pressure is pushing stuff out of blood -600-700 ml/day -140-270 ml in adults (excess drained into vascular system and becomes plasma)
Step four of sensory impulses from the ear?
Movement of stapes at oval window transmits vibrations to perilymph in scale vestibuli
pseudostratified epithelium
Multiple layers due to difference in cell height, but are really one layer.
Muscular Organ System
Muscles attached to the Skeleton -contract and shorten; in doing so, skeletal muscles allow locomotion (running, walking etc.) grasping and manipulation of the environment
Which layer of the heart contains striated muscle fibers for contraction of the heart?
Myocardium
Postganglionic sympathetic fibers release?
NE adrenergic fibers
Talk
Name this specific bone of the foot.
Iliac crest
Name this specific part of the ilium.
Symphysis Pubis
Name this specific region of the pelvic bone. The pointy part
Respiratory Organ System
Nasal Passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs -keeps the bloods continuously supplied with oxygen while removing carbon dioxide
Superficial
Near the surface
Cervical
Neck region
An atom has 5 protons, 5 neutrons, and 6 electrons. What is the electric charge of this atom?
Negative. Because the atoms has MORE electrons than protons, the atom has a negative charge.
Step nine sensory impulses from the ear?
Neurotransmitter stimulates ends of nearby sensory neurons
Some substance may act as a ____ in one situation and a ____ in another situation?
Neurotransmitter, hormone
Osteocyte
Normal cells living in bone. What look like little ponds are actually osteocytes that have built bone around themselves and have created little tunnels for blood vessels to get nutrients.
crista galli
Of the ethmoid bone, where the membranes of the brain are attached; knife edged
Inferior Nasal Conchea
On the lateral wall of the nasal cavity
Melanin
Only one made in the skin - is a polymer made of tyrosine amino acids - its two forms range in color from reddish yellow to brownish black
Digestive Organ System
Oral Cavity, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines -breaks down ingested foods to smaller particles, which can be absorbed into the blood for delivery to blood cells
4 Types of Cells of Bone Tissue
Osteogenic cells osteoclasts osteocytes osteoblasts
Stratum Corneum(Horny Layer)
Outermost epidermal layer, broad zone to 20 to 30 cell layers thick
Mast Cells
Oval cells that lie near the small blood vessels and contain many large secretory granules. (Mast means stuffed full of granules) Contain many chemicals that mediate inflammation, especially in severe allergies--> Histamine, heparin, and proteases
Internal structures of female reproductive system:
Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina
Dense irregular connective tissue
able to withstand tension exerted in many directions, provides structural strength -dermis of the skin, fibrous capsules of organs and joints
General sense receptors
abundant in skin, muscles, joints, viscera -trigger afferent impulses -> CNS for processing
Sour
acids (H+ ions in solution)
Reticular formation of brain and epinephrine
activates
Reticular formation of brain and norepinephrine
activates
Many molecules are not able to diffuse the cell membrane. How can they be moved?
active transport and vesicle
Vasomotor center
acts on smooth muscle of blood vessel walls producing vasoconstriction or vasodilation
Pseudostratified Epithelial
actually a simple columnar epithelial (one layer of cells) -gives a false appearance of stratified
The categories of the respiratory system are?
airway, lungs, and respiratory muscles
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
aka corticotropin -release stimulated by corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) from hypothalamus -stimulates adrenal cortex release of cortisol -a glucocticoid -inhibits protein synthesis which increases blood amino acids levels -stimulates gluconeogenesls >>maintains blood glucose levels between meals -low blood levels cortisol stimulates CRH release causing more cortisol to be released
Visceroceptors
aka interoceptors. Associated with stimuli affecting viscera
Growth Hormone (GH)
aka somatotropin (STH) -stimulates increased rate of mitosis(stimulates growth) -facilitates amino acids into cells(stimulates growth) -increase cell's rate of CHO & fat metabolism(stimulates growth) -release stimulate by protein deficiency and low blood glucose
Examples of steroid hormones
aldosterone, cortisol, estrogen, testosterone, active form of Vitamin D
Basophils
alert body of invasion
Bitter
alkaloids (nicotine, caffeine, morphine)
Which germ later can epithelia be derived from?
all three (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm)
Selective permeability
allows what goes in and outside of the cell
adipocytes
also known as lipocytes and fat cells, are the cells that primarily compose adipose tissue, specialized in storing energy as fat
Where does gas exchange occur in the human body?
alveoli
Umami
amino acid glutamate (MSG = monosodium glutamate)
Examples of nonsteroid hormones
amino acids, peptides, proteins, glycoproteins
The rate of a chemical reaction depends on all of the following except?
amount of mass lost
3 semicircular canals
ampullae = swellings enclosing dynamic equilibrium structures
What is a reflex?
an automatic response without any conscious thought to stimulus via the reflex arc
Golgi Apparatus
Packaging Proteins or other substances for export from the cell into the plasma membrane
Zygomatic process of the temporal bone
Part of the Temporal Bone that reaches towards the Zygomatic Bone, Posterior
Cerebellum
Part of the brain that controls muscle coordination and balance
The immune system protects the body against invading pathogens including:
bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists
Skeletal muscles include muscles commonly called
biceps, triceps, hamstrings, and quadriceps.
Lens of eye
biconvex, transparent, flexible/pliable -held in place by suspensory ligaments -avascular (no blood) so light can come through unimpeded
Autocrine substances
binds to cell receptors and stimulates that cell
Mitosis involves which kind of cells?
body cells
Sympathetic
body's reaction to extreme, stressful, emergency situations
organic components include ____________
bone cells and osteoid
endochondral ossification in a long bone
bone collar forms around the diaphysis of the hyaline cartilage model, cartilage in the center of the diaphysis calcifies and then develops cavities, the periosteal bud invades the internal cavities and spongy bone forms, the diaphysis elongates and a medullary cavity forms and secondary ossification centers appear in the epiphyses, the epiphyses ossify and when completed, hyaline cartilage remains only in the epiphyseal plates and articular cartilages.
osteoblasts
bone forming cells
comminuted fracture type
bone fragments into 3 or more pieces, common in the aged
compression fracture type
bone is crushed, common in porous bones (osteoporotic bones in a fall, crushed vertebra)
osteoclast
bone resorbing and destruction cells, giant multinucleate
osteogenic cell
bone stem cells, found in the membranous periosteum and endosteum, produce osteoblasts
Bones: Osseous tissue
bone supports and protects -bones
axial skeleton
bones of skull, vertebral column, rib cage, protect, support, carry other body parts
appendicular skeleton
bones of the upper and lower limbs and girdles (shoulder and hip bones), locomotion, manipulation
Which body layers can connective tissue be found in?
bones, tendons, ligaments, blood, fat, the underlying layers of the skin, and the interstitial matrix
abdominopelvic cavity
both the pelvic and abdominal cavities
What makes up the CNS?
brain + spinal chord
What are the primary components of the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
brain and spinal cord
What is a nerve made of?
bundles of multiple neurons wrapped by connective tissue
Second degree burns
burns that involve injury to the epidermis and the upper region of the dermis. Skin is red and painful and blisters appear
How are endocrine hormones secreted into the circulatory system?
by exocytosis or by diffusion into capillaries
Control of hormone seretion
by negative feedback regulation
bone deposit
by osteoblast, occurs wherever bone is injured and extra strength is required
bone resorption
by osteoclast, releasing enzymes and hydrochloric acid, which enter the blood stream where they can be used (Ca) or eliminated (dead cell fragments)
Vertebral Foramen
canal through which spinal cord passes
The sequence of contractions is called the
cardiac cycle
Fallopian tubes
carry the mature egg toward the uterus. Fertilization typically occurs in these tubes
Afferent Fibers
carrying sensory impulses of taste
thoracic cavity
cavity housing lungs and heart
Preganglionic neuron
cell body of 1st neuron resides in brain/spinal cord
What has selective permeability with regard to size, charge, and solubility?
cell membrane or plasma membrane
Interphase
cell prepares for division by replicating it genetic and cytoplasmic material.
Describe the cellularity of epithelial cells
cells are in close contact with each other through tight junctions, desmosomes, adherents junctions
Describe the polarity of epithelial cells
cells have apical surface and basal surface. Tight junctions prevent migration of membrane proteins between apical and basal surfaces, thus maintaining polarity
The dermis consists of?
connective tissue - blood vessels, sensory receptors, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands. Including collagen fibers and elastin
Connective Tissue
connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, blood = all which derive from an embryonic tissue called mesenchyme
What does the hypodermis consists of?
connective tissue, which binds the skin to the underlying muscles
Lienorenal ligament
connects kidney to the spleen
Phrenicoclic ligament (middle secretion)
connects left colic flexure to the thoracic diaphragm
Gastrolienal ligament
connects stomach to spleen
Stratified Epithelial
consist of two or more layers of cells
Brain
consists of hind brain, which includes the medulla oblongata, cerebellum, and pons (parts of brain stem)
Cytoskeleton
consists of microtubules that help shape and support the cell
Clitoris
contain erectile tissue and nerve endings for sensual pleasure
Dorsal root ganglia
contain neuron cell bodies of afferent neurons
Otolithic membrane
contains otoliths (calcium carbonate) 1. depending of position of head in space, gravity "pulls" on otoliths 2. movement of otoliths moves otolithic membrane, which pulls on the hair bundle 3. action potential generated in vestibule branch of CN VIII informing brain of new head position in space 4. brain responds w/ motor impulses to skeletal muscles to maintain center of gravity
Retina (inner layer)
contains photoreceptors cell; rods and cones -transparent sheet of tissue continuous w/ optic nerve in back and extending forward as inner lining of eyeball
Penis
contains urethra, can fill with blood and become erect, enabling the disposition of semen and sperm into the female reproduction during sexual intercourse
List the 3 characteristics of muscle tissue
contraction, extensibility, elasticity
Glucagon
control carb metabolism and has opposite effect of insulin by increasing glucose levels (blood sugar levels)
Insulin
control carb metabolism by lowering glucose in blood • Affects fat metabolism and can change liver's ability to release stored fat
Adrenal medulla
controls cardiac function; raises blood sugar and controls size of blood vessels
Compact bone is also known as
cortical bone
Parasympathetic
counteracts effects of sympathetic nervous system
Tympanic membrane
covered by skin on external face, mucous membrane on internal face.
visceral membrane
covers the organs
articular cartilage
covers the surfaces of bones where they come together to form joints
The mitochondria consists of an inner and outer membrane• Between the inner and outer membranes are folds called?
cristae
Cartilage
cushions and provides structural support for body parts. It has a jelly-like base and if fibrous
Centriole
cylinder shaped structures near the nucleus that are involved in cellular division.
The cell is filled with a fluid called?
cytoplasm or cytosol
What is an example of a reflex arc?
Patellar tendon reflex = knee jerk
What mobilizes white blood cells and chemical reactions to stop infection?
Phagocytes and inflammation responses
Ethmoid Bone
Place thumb on perpendicular plate and match index finger on other side of skull
______________ constitutes over half of the blood volume. It is mostly water and serves as a solvent.
Plasma
Vomer
Plow shaped; lower portion of nasal septum
Head of the Femur
Plugs into the Acetabulum of the Os Coxae
Acromial
Point of shoulder
C2 or Axis
Possible extra credit question: epistropheus?
The joint that is created by the superior articulating cassette and the inferior articulating cassette making a joint. Also called a cassette joint
Possible extra credit question: zygapophyseal joint?
Popliteal
Posterior knee area (back of knee)
Linea Aspera
Posterior side of the Femur. The ridgey lines
Olecranal
Posterior surface of elbow
Occipital
Posterior surface of head
Define prostaglandin and its role
Prostaglandins are lipid-soluble messenger molecules derived from fatty acids (e.g. Arachidonic acid). They generate the inflammation response and are involved in vasodilation
External Auditory meatus/canal
Protects via ceruminous glands and hairs (modified sweat glands)
Happens in thin microfilaments
Protein actin
Happens in thick microfilaments
Protein myosin
exchange reaction
decomposition of two substances and, in exchange, synthesis of two new compounds AB + CD -> AD + BC
What does Calcitonin do?
decreases blood calcium by storing calcium in bone tissue
Cell Membrane (plasma membrane)
defines the cell by acting as a barrier.
What does DNA stand for?
deoxyribonucleic acid
cells: fibroblasts, mast cells, microphages. em= collage and elastic fibers
description of areolar tissue:
cell= blood cell (Erythrocytes-carry O2/Leukocytes- fight off infection/Platelets- clotting). em= blood plasma
description of blood tissue:
one layer of column-shaped cells. has goblet cells.
description of simple columnar epithelium:
long, cylindrical, striated, multinucleated cells
description of skeletal muscle tissue:
2 or more layers of cube-shaped cells
description of stratified cuboidal epithelium:
several cell layers: basal cells (cuboidal or columnar) and surface cells (flattened or dome-like)
description of transitional epithelium:
Positive feedback
deviation from set point made greater ex.) breast-feeding, giving birth, blood clots
negative feedback
deviation from set point os resisted/ negated ex.) when shivering we are raising our body temp
The respiratory muscles include?
diaphragm and intercostal muscles
Define resting potential
difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of cell when the neuron is not conducting a nerve impulse. Inside of cell is negative compared to outside.
Lysosomes
digest worm-out cell organelles and foreign substances that enter the cell
Airways and norepinephrine
dilates slightly
Blood vessels and epinephrine
dilates vessels in skeletal muscle, decreasing resistance to blood flow
sagittal plane
divides the body into right and left parts
Sagittal plane
divides the body, or any body part, vertically into right and left sections. The sagittal plane runs parallel to the midline of the body.
Diaphragm
dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
Spinal nerve
dorsal root and ventral root joined together
Semicircular Canals
dynamic equilibrium
Sweat glands are either _________ or ____________
eccrine glands or apocrine glands
Uterus
egg is implanted in the uterine wall if fertilized
How does the binding of neurotransmitter to postsynaptic cell change membrane potential?
either depolarizes or hyperpolarizes
Excitability
electric gradient which can reverse when stimulated
Labia major and labia minor
enclose and protect vagina
bone growth and bone remodeling
endochondral ossification occurs at the articular cartilages and epiphyseal plates as the bone lengthens
distal epiphysis
ends of a long bone, contain spongy bone
proximal epiphysis
ends of a long bone, contain spongy bone
What is the most superficial layer of skin?
epidermis
What are the 3 layers of the skin
epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis
Internal structures of the Male Reproduction System
epididymis, vans deferens, ejaculatory ducts, urethra, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands.
epiphyseal fracture type
epiphysis separates from the diaphysis along the epiphyseal plate, tends to occur where cartilage cells are dying and calcification of the matrix is occurring.
What's the difference between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters?
excitatory neurotransmitters stimulate the brain whereas inhibitory neurotransmitters balance the excessive simulations without stimulating the brain.
Neurotransmitters
excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP) by opening Na+ channels in the postsynaptic membrane -depolarization of neuron cell membrane
Sebaceous glands and sweat glands are what type of glands found in the skin?
exocrine glands
Bacterial meningitis
extremely serious, requires immediate medical care. Fatal or permanent brain damage will occur
Accessory structures
eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva(pink eye), lacrimal apparatus, extrinsic eye muscles
Why does an action potential travel faster through myelinated axons?
fewer sodium channels over a smaller membrane surface area
Reticular Connective Tissue
fibers form a soft internal skeleton that supports other cell types -lymphoid organs
ligaments
fibrous connective tissue, attach bone to bone, hold structures together and keep them stable
tendons
fibrous connective tissue, attach muscle to bone, muscle to structures, move the bone or structure
Cartilaginous joints
fill the spaces between some bones and restrict movement. Example - between vertebrae
Red blood cells , an important site of red blood cell production ______________________
fills the spongy tissue of many bones.
In general, what do the kidneys do? (other main functions)
filter the blood, reabsorb needed materials, and secrete wastes and excess water in urine.
How many quarts of blood do adult humans have?
five quarts of blood
bone lining cells
flat cells, found on bone surfaces where bone remodeling is not going on, help maintain the bone matrix, periosteal cells are bone lining cells on the external bone surface, endosteal lining cells on the internal bone surface
Mass nerve corpuscle
flat connective tissue cells in a sheath in dermis
Muscles and ligaments support the?
flexible and curved backbone
Renal circulation
flow of blood between heart and kidneys
Pulmonary circulation
flow of blood between the heart and lungs
Portal circulation
flow of blood from digestive system to liver
Systemic circulation
flow of blood to the entire body. It also includes portal circulation and renal circulation
Coronary circulation
flow of blood to the heart tissue
Membranous labyrinth/ canal
fluid/ endolymph
Bony labyrinth/ canal
fluid/ perilymph
Spine of the Scapula
The ridgy portion of the Scapula
Anaphase
The shortest phase of mitosis, anaphase begins abruptly as the centers of the chromosomes split simultaneously
Coranoid Fossa
The smaller, anterior depression on the distal end of the Humerus
Vesicular Transport
fluids containing large particles and macromolecules are transported across cellular membranes inside membranous sacs called vesicles. Like active transport, vesicular transport moves substances into the cell(endocytosis) and out of the cell(exocytosis).
Function of eye lens
focuses light on macula lutea of retina
Centrioles
form the bases of the cilia and flagella and in that role are called the basal bodies. They direct formation of the mitotic spindle during cell division
Hypodermis
The subcutaneous tissue just deep to the skin Not part of the skin, but shares some of skins protective functions Also called, the superficial fascia,because it is superficial to the tough connective tissue wrapping (fascia) of the skeletal muscles, consists mostly of adipose tissue
Solvent
The substance in which the solute is dissolved is called a solvent.
What secretes hormones and is the major site of lymphocyte production?
The thymus
Tibial Plateau
The top, flat portion of the tibia
Metaphase
The two centrosomes are at opposite poles of the cells
Where does the Frontal lobe, Partial lobe, Temporal lobe, and Occipital lobe get their names from
They are named after the bones that protect them.
What is the one thing that all cells have in common?
They have a cell membrane
Petrous portion of temporal bone
Thick portion of the temporal bone; hearing and balance are housed here
Squamous portion of the temporal bone
Thin portion of temporal bone
Papillary Layer
Thin, superficial, is areolar connective tissue in which fine interlacing collagen and elastic fibers from a loosely woven mat that is heavily invested with small blood vessels. Dermal papillae contain capillary loops Friction ridges
Osteoblasts (Blast Build Bone)
This build's up bone; like blasting blocks into place in Minecraft? (Idk... I've never played Minecraft)
Chromatin
This consists of the DNA and protein that make up chromosomes
Action potentials always have the same magnitude regardless of the strength of the stimulus. What happens if you change the strength of the stimulus?
frequency of nerve impulses changes. e.g. if you drop a brick instead of a pen on your foot, more nerve impulses are conducted
Glandular Secretions
from exocrine glands destroy bacteria
anterior/posterior
front/back
The four main lobes of the brain are
frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe
Coronal plane
frontal plane that divides the body, or any body structure, vertically into front and back (anterior and posterior) sections. Runs
insulate and protect
function of adipose tissue:
Muscular System
This system is primarily responsible for internal and external movement of the body
Integumentary System
This system is the body's first layer of defense to fight illnesses
Thyroid Hormones
Thyroxine (T4) and Triodothyronine (T3, 5x stronger -regulate metabolism of CHO, fats, protein -Increases rate -energy released from CHO -protein syntesis -stimulate breakdown of fats -required for normal growth/development -essential for nervous system development and maturation -clinical connection; goiter and cretinism
Alveoli
Tiny air sacs in the lungs that pass oxygen into capillaries through diffusion
Epithelial tissue
Tissues in which cells are joined together tightly. Skin tissue is an example
-cushions/protects body organs -universal packing tissue -glue- holds organs together/in place
function of areolar tissue:
transport system for cardiovascular system (carries oxygen/enzymes/hormones/antibodies)
function of blood tissue:
-involuntary control -propels blood into circulation as it contracts
function of cardiac muscle tissue:
-irritability- able to respond to stimulus -conductivity- able to transmit impulses
function of nervous tissue:
secrete and absorb. cilia trap dust and debris.
function of psuedostratified columnar epithelium:
-involuntary control -propels substances through internal passageways
function of smooth muscle tissue:
protects against abuse and friction
function of stratified squamous epithelium:
stretches readily; slide by one another; change shape
function of transitional epithelium:
Arterial blood pressure
functions by transporting oxygen - poor blood into lungs and oxygen - rich blood to body tissues
DNA
genetic material that stores information about the plant or animal
Embryonic Connective Tissue: Mesenchyme
gives rise to all other connective tissue types -Primarily in embryo
Middle zone (fasciculata)
glucocorticoids/ regulate fat, protein and sugar metabolism and anti-inflammatory -major hormone: cortisol
What is not a product or respiration?
glucose
Peripheral Nervous System
gray matter found here -autonomic nerve system pathways & dorsal root ganglia.
Gray matter in the spinal cord?
gray matter is internal with white matter external
Immune System
To kill pathogens that have invaded the body
Keratinocytes
To produce keratin, the fibrous protein that helps give the epidermis its protective properties
inorganic components include mineral salts or hydroxyapatites in and around collagen fibers in the extracellular matrix.
hardness, resist compression and tension
Fibrous joints
have fibrous tissue connecting bones and no cavity is present
projections for joints
head, facet, condyle
Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the
heart
The three parts that the circulatory system consists of are?
heart, blood, and blood vessels
Calcaneus
heel bone
Helper T cells
help fight infection by producing antibodies and other chemicals
What is the function of the kidney?
helps eliminate water and waste from the body
Thyroid gland
helps regulate metabolism and functions in growth and development
Muscle tissue
helps support and move the body. The three types of muscle tissues are smooth, cardiac, and skeletal.
stages in the healing of a bone fracture
hematoma forms, fibrocartilaginous callus forms, bony callus forms, bone remodeling occurs.
steps of bone repair
hematoma, cartilaginous callus, bony callus, remodeling (osteoclast)
Acetabulum
hip socket
Endocrine system with nervous system regulates?
homeostasis
long bones
humerus
cartilages
hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
Which layer of skin is actually NOT a layer of skin?
hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
Reticulocytes
immature red blood cells, typically composing about 1% of the red blood cells in the human body
How long can ears tolerate (jet engine take off/pain threshold of sound) 140 dB?
immediate nerve damage can occur
Free nerve endings
in epidermis
Merkel's disc
in epidermis
Where is the interstitial fluid found?
in tissues around the cells
osteomalacia and Ricket
inadequate bone mineralization
Forebrain
includes cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus
Sensory receptor
incoming afferent info from world and body
Metabolic rate and norepinphrine
increase
Define depolarization
increase in membrane potential
What does Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine do?
increase metabolism
Heart and epinephrine
increase rate and force of contraction
Heart and norepinephrine
increase rate and force of contraction
Metabolic rate and epinephrine
increases
Blood vessels and norepinephrine
increases blood flow to skeletal muscles, resulting from constriction of blood vessels in skin and viscera
Meningitis
infection of the meninges -most cases by bacterial or viral infections other causes are injury, cancer, or certain drugs. -begins in ears sinuses or upper respiratory tract
How is a signal carried out through the nervous system?
information reaches receptive region of cell and binds with a ligand gated ion channel. Channel opens and ions enter the cell and alter resting potential
Osteogenesis imperfacta
inherited genetic disorder, lack of proper collagen fibers, brittle bone disease
What happens if both excitatory and inhibitory stimuli are received?
inhibitory stimuli subtracts from the effect of the excitatory stimuli, and the cell will be less likely to depolarize sufficiently to reach threshold
endosteum lines __________________.
inner bone cavities
Renal medulla
inner layer of kidney
Renal pelvis
innermost portion of kidney
What's the role of the Myelin Sheath?
insulation to prevent current loss during propagation of the electrochemical signal and speeds up rate of transmission
Skin
intact epidermis and dermis from a formidable barrier against bacteria
neuronal pools
integrate incoming info from other neuron groups -info can be inhibitory stimulation or excitatory stimulation -if threshold is reached AP is produced -processed info sent to other neurons or effectors
Midbrain
integrates sensory signals and orchestrates responses to these signals
Perception
interpretation of sensory info by cerebral cortex
Cardiac tissue
involuntary and found in heart - striated
Smooth tissue
involuntary muscles found in walls of internal organs such as stomach and intestines
Golgi complex (Golgi apparatus)
involved in synthesizing materials such as proteins that are transported out of the cell. Transportation of proteins.
Ribosomes
involved in synthesizing proteins from amino acids. They are numerous making up about one quarter of the cell.
Nuclear pores
involved in the exchange of material between the nucleus and the cytoplasm
What happens when neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic membrane receptors?
ion channels open and create a graded potential in the postsynaptic cell
The main function of the respiratory system is?
To supply the body with oxygen and rid the body of carbon dioxide
Cranial nerve 1
ist he olfactory nerve =unmyelinated axons -axon bundles travel superiorly thorugh foramen in cribiform plate of ethmoid one -synapse w/olfactory bulb neurons
Vitreous humor
jelly-like fluid filling posterior cavity (you have what you have from birth)
reticular fibers
join connective tissue to adjacent tissues
hyaline cartilage covers _________________.
joint surfaces
Most epidermal cells are ____________?
keratinized
Urinary Organ System
kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra -rids the body of nitrogen-containing wastes including urea, uric acid, and ammonia, which result from the breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids
The urinary system consists of?
kidneys, urinary ducts, and bladder.
Macromolecules
large and complex, play an important role in cell structure and function.
Stratum Lucidum (Clear Layer)
Visible in only thick skin Consists of two or three rows of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes with indistinct boundaries
Skeletal Muscle
Voluntary muscle that Attaches to bones for movement
Step two of sensory impulses from the ear?
Waves of changing pressures cause eardrum to reproduce vibrations coming from sound wave source
supraorbital foramen
What holes or notches are located in the yellow circles? Hint: Means "Above the eye."
Cytosol
liquid material in the cell. Mostly water, but also contains floating molecules
Nucleoplasm
liquid within the nucleus, and is similar to cytoplasm
Intercostal muscles
located between the ribs.
Astrocytes
located in gray and white matter of CNS between neurons and blood vessels -anchors neurons to blood supply, forms blood-brain barrier, between blood in capillaries and brain interstitial fluid -regulates extra cellular fluid -forms scar tissue
-beneath skin -fat deposits in hips/breasts for fuel -eye sockets -kidneys
location of adipose tissue:
entire body. if inflamed, soaks up excess fluid (Edema)
location of areolar tissue:
-blood vessels -heart
location of blood tissue:
in bones
location of bone tissue:
walls of heart
location of cardiac muscle tissue:
-lower layers of skin -form strong/rope-like structures (tendons attach muscles to bones and ligaments attach bones to bones)
location of dense fibrous tissue:
supports external ear
location of elastic cartilage:
vertebral discs
location of fibrocartilage:
-endocrine glands - ductless/secrete hormones (ex; thyroid, adrenals, pituitary glands) -exocrine - secretions empty through ducts to epithelial surface (sweat, oil, liver, pancreas glands)
location of glandular epithelium:
-form supporting structure of larynx -attach ribs to sternum -covers ends of bones at joints -fetal skeleton
location of hyaline cartilage:
-brain -spinal cord -nerves
location of nervous tissue:
-ducts of large glands -most of respiratory tract
location of psuedostratified columnar epithelium:
-stroma in lymph nodes -spleen -bone marrow
location of reticular tissue:
-most of digestive tract -mucous membranes
location of simple columnar epithelium:
-ducts of small glands -ovaries -kidneys
location of simple cuboidal epithelium:
-air sacs of lungs -lines the capillaries
location of simple squamous epithelium:
in skeletal muscles attached to bones
location of skeletal muscle tissue:
walls of hollow organs (stomach, blood vessels, bladder, uterus)
location of smooth muscle tissue:
-male urethra -gland ducts
location of stratified columnar epithelium:
ducts of glands
location of stratified cuboidal epithelium:
-linings of esophagus, mouth, vagina -outer portion of skin
location of stratified squamous epithelium:
-lines ureters/bladder/urethra (accommodates fluctuation of the volume of a liquid in organ)
location of transitional epithelium:
Bones are classified as
long, short, flat, or irregular
areolar tissue
loose connective tissue
avascular necrosis
loss of blood supply to the bone
supine
lying on the back
The lymph vascular system consists of? (3)
lymph capillaries, lymph vessels, and lymph ducts
The immune system includes
lymphatic systems - lymph, lymph capillaries, lymph vessel, and lymph nodes as well as the red bone marrow and numerous leukocytes, white blood cells.
Each node contains?
lymphocytes and plasma cells
The spleen is made up of?
lymphoid tissue
lipid
macromolecule made mainly from carbon and hydrogen atoms; includes fats, oils, and waxes
3 types of white blood cells form the foundation of the body's immune system are:
macrophages, T cells, and B cells
cartilage: elastic
maintains the shape of a structure while allowing great flexibility -external ear
Inner zone (reticularis)
major hormone: testosterone
Taste bud
majority on tongue, some on inner cheeks, soft palate, pharynx, epiiglottis. On papillae
Mitosis
makes daughter cells w/46 chromosomes
osteoid
makes up approximately one third of the matrix, includes ground substance and collagen fibers, both of which are secreted by osteoblasts.
Testes (testicles)
male gonads which produce sperm and testosterone
Ossicles
malleus, incus, stapes (osteosclerosis)
Connective tissue
may be dense, loose, or fatty. It protects and binds body parts
Referred pain
may feel as if coming from a part of body other than part being stimulated because of a nerve pathway created when younger
Cranial
meaning the skull
Cephalad or Cephalic
meaning towards the head.
positive feedback
mechanism of homeostasis feedback that tends to magnify a process or increase its output
negative feedback
mechanism of homeostasis that tends to stabilize a process by reducing its rate or output
Types of sensory receptors
mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors & baroreceptors, nociceptors
The breathing process controlled by the?
medulla oblongata
How are electrochemical signals initiated in neurons or muscle cells?
membrane ion channels (ligand or voltage gated) open and ions rush in/out of cell, resulting in a rapid and reversible change in membrane potential
endosteum
membrane lining the medullary cavity of a bone
pleural membrane
membrane that encloses the lungs within the rib cage
parietal membrane
membrane that lines the wall of a cavity
Which are the 2 types of epithelial tissue?
membraneous: lines external/internal surfaces glandular: form secretory glands
peritoneal membrane
membranes that line the abdominopelvic cavity and cover the organs inside
Describe the basement membrane of epithelial cells
membranous epithelial tissue is connected to underlying connective tissue by a basement membrane, which is an acellular matrix of glycoproteins and collagen fibers
Which part of the brain plays an important part of vision and hearing? It also lies above the pons and medulla oblongata.
midbrain
Outer zone (glomerulosa)
mineralcorticoids/ regulate h2o/ electrolyte balance -major hormone:aldosterone
Aerobic respiration occurs in the?
mitochondria
When does the nuclear division of somatic cells take place during cellular reproduction?
mitosis
The centrosome is involved in which cell divisions?
mitosis and cell cycle
What are the two ways that cells can reproduce?
mitosis and meiosis
Hearing arises from?
modified epithelial cells termed hair cells
Adrenal cortex
monitor blood sugar level; helps in lipid and protein metabolism
Multipolar
most common
What is the nervous tissue made of?
neurons and glial cells
What are efferent (motor) neurons?
neurons that send responses from the CNS to muscle and glands
What are afferent (sensory) neurons?
neurons that transmit sensory information towards the brain and spinal chord
Explain how an action potential occurs
one or more graded potentials results in a net depolarization of the axon hillock to threshold and initiates an action potential in the axon of the neuron. If a graded potential raises membrane potential in the vicinity of the axon hillock to threshold, voltage gated Na+ channels open, allowing influx of Na+
Cardiac center
origination of heart rate changes
intramembranous ossification
ossification centers appear in the fibrous connective tissue membrane, osteoid is secreted within the fibrous membrane and calcifies, woven bone and periosteum form, lamellar bone replaces woven bone, just deep to the periosteum and red marrow appears.
compact bone
osteocytes in lacunae, osteocytes are connected to each other and central canal by canaliculi. Concentric lamellae of bone matrix surrounds central canal, dense, forms diaphysis, made of osteons, in the middle
5 major cell types that populate bone tissue
osteogenic cell, osteoblast, osteocyte, osteoclast
Renal cortex
outer layer of kidney that is composed of approximately one million nephrons (tiny, individual filters of kidneys)
Motor functions
output efferent stimulation to effectors (muscle and glands)
Which two small molecules typically can pass through the cell membrane?
oxygen and water
Posterior lobe axons releases?
oxytocin, antiduretic hormone (ADH or vasophessin)
Anaphase
pairs of chromosomes, called sisters, begin to pull apart, and may bend
Pupillary constriction controlled by?
parasympathetic nerve fibers -stimulates circular muscles
Parathyroid glands secrete ______________,which can increase blood calcium by moving calcium from the bone to the blood
parathyroid hormone
Microtubules
part of the cytoskeleton and help support the cell. They're made of protein.
Molecules that are soluble in phospholipids can usually?
pass through the cell membrane
Transitional Epithelial
peculiar stratified squamous epithelium
Papillae
peg-like projections on tongue surface
External structures of the Male Reproduction System
penis, scrotum, and testes
What types of molecules can neurotransmitters be?
peptides, amino acids, purines, lipids, dissolved gases
Mitochondria
performs various functions such as generating ATP (energy), and is involved in cell growth and death.
What makes up the PNS?
peripheral nerves + ganglia
Synarthrosis
permits little or no mobility. Most synarthrosis joints are fibrous joints (e.g., skull sutures).
Amphiarthrosis
permits slight mobility. ...
longitudinal plane
perpendicular to the transverse plane and can be either coronal or sagittal plane
A membrane is composed of?
phospholipids
Cytokinesis
physical splitting of the cell (including the cytoplasm) into two cells.
Medulla oblongata
piece of the brain stem that connects the spinal cord to the brain. It also has an important role with the autonomous nervous system in the circulatory and respiratory system
Where does bile come from?
pituitary gland
B cells differentiate into?
plasma and memory cells
Which type of cell secretes antibodies?
plasma cells
Cerebellum
plays a role in processing and storing implicit memories
Pituitary gland
plays important role in growth and development. Where FSH comes from
Thymus gland
plays role in immune responses
Proprioceptors
positon sense receptors -associated with stimuli changing relationship to bodys position in space -skeletal muscle(muscle length) -tendons(muscle tension) -joints
Cell differentiation
process that helps to determine the cell type for each cell
Mitochondria
produce cellular energy(ATP); often referred to as the "powerhouse of the cell"
Liver and norepinephrine
produces little effect on blood sugar concentration
Liver and epinephrine
promotes breakdown of glycogen to glucose increasing blood sugar concentration
Memory cells remain in blood stream to?
protect against future infections from same pathogen
receptor
protein that detects a signal molecule and performs an action in response
What is the ground substance made of in the ECM?
proteins, polysaccharides, and glycoproteins (including proteoglycans)
osteoid's ground substance
proteoglycans and glycoproteins
collagen fibers
provides flexibility and strength
Adipose(fat) connective tissue
provides insulation for the body tissues -under skin; around kidneys and eyeballs; in breasts
effector
provides the means for the control center's response to the stimulus
Which blood vessel contains the LEAST-oxygenated blood?
pulmonary artery
spiral fracture type
ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are applied to a bone, common sports fracture
Pancreas islets
raises and lowers blood sugar; active in carbohydrate metabolism
normal range
range of values around the set point that do not cause a reaction by the control center
Define temporal summation
rapid stimulation of the same postsynaptic cell by several nerve impulses in succession
A negative feedback system consists of what 3 components?
receptor, control center, and effector
The spleen filters blood stores of?
red blood cells and macrophages
What is blood composed of?
red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma
Where are Leukocytes, or white blood cells, are produced?
red bone marrow
sites of hematopoiesis include:
red marrow cavities of spongy bone, the diploe of flat bones, medullary cavities in the bones of infants
Cytoplasm
refers to cytosol and the substructures (organelles) found within the plasma membrane, but not within the nucleus
Distal
refers to distance or structures further away from the center of the body. The knee is distal to the hip
What is the simplest act of Nervous System?
reflex
Paracrine substances
released from cell into ISF and act where they were released from.
Memory T cells
remain in blood on alert incase the invader attacks again
4 zones of long bone growth in length
resting, proliferation, hypertonic, calcification, ossification
The flow of blood in heart goes in what direction?
right to left
Name the 4 lobes of the liver
right, left, quadrate, and caudate lobes
What are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum and what is the difference between the two?
rough and smooth. Rough ER has ribosomes and Smooth ER does not.
Mastoid Process
round projection on the temporal bone behind the ear
Nerve pathway
routes impulses travel through nervous system
Scrotum
sac of skin and smooth muscle that houses the testes and keeps the testes at proper temperature for spermatogensis
Vacuoles
sacs used for storage, digestion, and waste removal.
Muscle fibers are composed of repeating contractible units called?
sarcomeres
Apocrine glands
secrete and oily solution containing fatty acids, triglycerides, and proteins.
Endocrine
secrete hormones (ex: insulin) into blood stream
Glandular cells
secrete hormones into bloodstream
Photoreceptors
sense light (visible spectrum), bipolar neurons
Mechanoreceptors
sense mechanical force. responds to touch, pressure, movement, stretching, temperature, itch/vibration.
Nocicepters
sense potentially damaging stimuli that results in tissue damage -> pain
Thermoreceptros
sense temperature changes
Parietal lobe
sensory input, spatial positioning
Name the 3 general functional types of Neurons
sensory, motors, and interneurons
What is a gene?
sequence of DNA
stratified epithelium
several layers of cells
Meiosis involves which kind of cells?
sex cells or gametes
diaphysis
shaft of a long bone, contain compact bone
Neutrophils
short-lived phagocytes that respond quickly to invaders
Contraction
shorten or contract
Motors
signals from CNS to rest of body such as by signaling muscles or glands to respond
What are the three muscle tissue?
skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle
What are the 3 types of muscle tissue?
skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
spongy bone (diploe)
slender trabeculae containing irregular lamellae, which enclose red marrow filled cavities, found in the epiphyses, made of trabeculae, flat bones, head of long bones, red or yellow bone marrow between trabeculae, osteocytes
Unmyelinated axons
slower Action potential
What is the main absorption organ of the digestive tract?
small intestine
Nucleus
small structure that contains chromosomes and regulates the cell
Areolar Connective Tissue
soft packing material that cushions and protects body organs -widely distributed under epithelium of body
CNS & Autonomic nervous system
some NTs -> inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP) by opening Cl- channels in the postsynaptic membrane Hyperpolarization -GABA (gama-aminobutyric acid)
Midbrain
some nuclei and lots of myelinated axons. Functions 1. processing visual and auditory info 2. main motor pathways to skeletal muscles 3. maintains consciousness
Oval window
sound vibrations "into"
Round window
sound vibrations "out of"
Cerebral cortex determines?
source, emotional and motor responses, pain intensity
Neuroglia
special supporting cells that protect, support and insulate the more delicate neurons.
Sesamoid Bones
special type of short bones within tendons. The patellas(kneecap)
Receptor
specialized cell or structure providing info about internal/external environment
Metaphase
spindle moves to the center of the cell. Chromosome pairs align along the center of the spindle structure
flat bones
sternum
2 types of hormones
steroid and nonsteroid that act on specific receptors on "target" cells
Hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland
stimulate other endocrine glands ex: Thyroid releasing hormone -> thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulating release of thyroid hormones (T3 & T4)
Crista Ampullaris
stimulated by rapid rotation movements -semicircular canals are part of temporal bone they move as head moves in space -to begin, fluid movement inside lags behind head movement resulting in the capula bending as it is pulled through fluid stimulating hair cells causing NT release
Internal environment change
stimulates endocrine gland ex: blood glucose and insulin levels
Luteinizing hormone
stimulates testosterone production
Result of crista amupullaries?
stimulation of vestibular branch of CN VIII sending action potential to brain about rotation movements of the head with respect to the body and this is coupled with information is coming in from the eyes and cerebellum
Suppressor T cells
stop or "suppress" the other T cells when the battle is over
The deepest portion of the epidermis is the _____________,which is a single layer of cells that continually undergo division.
stratum basale
Proximal
structures closer to the center of the body. The hip is proximal to the knee
catalyst
substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction
Define an Antigen
substances that stimulate immune system
Sweet
sugar, saccharin, alcohols, some amino acids, some lead salts
Cartilage: hyaline
supports and reinforces -forms most of the embryonic skeleton
extracellular matrix
surrounds and supports the cells
Where is the epithelial tissue located?
surrounds the exterior of the body and lines the walls of body openings, body cavities, glands, organs.
Effector
sweat glands, blood vessels, and muscles (shivering)
Pupillary dilation controlled by?
sympathetic nerve fibers -stimulates radial muscles
What are ganglia?
synapses and collections of cell bodies of the PNS
Postganglionic neuron
synapses with the preganglionic neuron in an autonomic ganglion outside CNS -axon extends to effector organ
Diarthrosis
synovial joint (also known as a diarthrosis) - freely movable.
respiratory system
system responsible for taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide using the lungs
skeletal system
system that supports and protects the body
taste pore
taste bud opening to surface of tongue
Lacrimal Duct
the passageway that drains excess tears into the nose
What is the nucleus responsible for?
the passing on genetic traits between pores, chromatic, and ribosomes
Define summation
the process whereby a single cell responds to multiple nerve impulses. summation can be spatial, temporal, or both
axial skeleton
the skull, vertebral column, & the thorax.
Protein digestion begins where?
the stomach
In the second division of meiosis, the daughter cells are haploid. What does haploid mean?
they contain half the genetic material of the parent cell
Postganglionic axons
thin unmyelinated fibers
Sutural Bones
tiny bones between cranial bones
superficial/deep
toward or at the body surface/ away from the body surface
medial/lateral
toward the midline/ away from the midline or medial plane
Caudad
towards the tail or posterior.
Sensory
transmit signals to central nervous system from sensory receptors associated with touch, pain, temperature, hearing, sight, smell, and taste.
CN (VII)/facial nerve
transmits impulses from anterior 2/3 of tongue
CN (X)/Vagus nerve
transmits impulses from epiglottis and lower pharynx (throat)
CN (IX)/Glossopharyngeal nerve
transmits impulses from posterior 1/3 tongue and pharynx
Blood
transport of respiratory gasses, nutrients, and other substances -within blood vessels
The lymphatic system consists of?
transport vessels and lymphoid organs
Blood
transports oxygen to cells and removes wastes. It also carries hormones and defends against disease
Name the Three Primary Body Planes
transverse plane, sagittal plane, and coronal plane
projections for muscle and ligament
tuberosity, trochanter, crest, process, epicondyle
Endoplasmic reticulum
tubular network that consists of the transport system of a cell
Blood vessels
tubules of different sizes that transport blood
Define synapse fatigue
vesicles at the end of the axon run out of neurotransmitters
Static equilibrium
vestibule. monitoring position of head in space. -inside utricle and saccule -each has a macula w/sensory receptor hair cells
What happens when an action potential arrives at the synaptic knob?
voltage gated calcium channels open triggering vesicles to release neurotransmitter
The opening of which transport molecule leads to repolarization?
voltage gated potassium channels
within brain
white matter located internal to gray matter
muscular system
works with the skeletal system to move our bodies
medullary cavity of the diaphysis contains ________.
yellow marrow
Process is controlled by the genes of each cell among a group of cells called a
zygote
The 8 Major Endocrine Glands + Functions:
• Adrenal cortex • Adrenal medulla • Thyroid gland • Parathyroid • Pancreas islets • Thymus gland • Pineal gland • Pituitary gland
Where is the spleen?
• Behind the stomach and below the diaphragm • Upper left of the abdomen
Endocrine Functions of the Pancreas
• Cells called islets or Langerhans made up of insulin- producing beta cells (50 to 80%) and glucagon - releasing alpha cells • Produces insulin and glucagon
Functions of the large intestine
• Concentrates, mixes, and stores waste material • Attaches to rectum • Nervous system triggers muscles to poop • Speed for waste removal is influenced by volume of fiber and undigested material present
Compact bone
• Consists of tightly packed cells • Strong, dense, and rigid • Haversian canals runs vertically through compact bone. They're surrounded by lamellae (concentric circles on bone tissue) - the spaces between are called lacunae
Spongy (Cancellous) Bone:
• Consists of trabeculae • Lightweight and porous which helps reduce the bone's overall weight • Red blood marrow manufactures red and white blood cells • In long bones, the diaphysis consists of compact bone surrounding the marrow cavity and spongy bone containing red marrow in the epiphyses.
Somatic Nervous System
• Controls 5 senses and voluntary movement of skeletal muscle • Efferent - motor reactions • Afferent - sensory (senses) Together afferent and efferent help operate sense and movement of skeletal muscle
Name the 3 types of circulation
• Coronary circulation • Pulmonary circulation • Systemic circulation
Name the 5 ligaments the liver is secured by:
• Falciform - forms a membrane-like barrier between the right and left lobes • Coronary • Right triangular • Left triangular • Round ligaments
Functions of the respiratory system
• Filters air • Vital in cough production • Functions in sense of smell • Chemoreceptors that is located in the nasal cavity respond to airborne chemicals. • The respiratory system also helps the body maintain acid-base homeostasis • Hyperventilation can increase blood pH during acidosis (low pH) • Slowing breathing during alkalosis (high pH) helps to lower blood pH
Ligaments that support the spleen:
• Gastrolienal ligament • Lienorenal ligament • Phrenicocolic ligament (middle secretion)
What are the parts of the cell membranes? (8)
• Glycoprotein • Glycolipid • Peripheral membrane protein • Phospholipid bilayer • Protein channel • Cholesterol • Filaments of cytoskeleton • Integral membrane protein
Functions of spinal cord
• It's nervous tissue give limb movement and internal organ activity • Nerve tracts descend and ascend from spinal cord to brain
Monocytes - macrophages and dendrite cells
• Largest phagocytes = macrophages in lymphocyte tissue - which engulf and destroy pathogen • Dendritic cells present antigen to T cells
About the Pancreas:
• Located behind stomach • Right side is called the head • Left side is called the tail • Head lies near duodenum (the first part of the small intestine) and the tail ends near the spleen • Made up of exocrine and endocrine tissues
Lymphoid organs include:
• Lymph nodes • Spleen • Appendix • Adenoids • Thymus • Tonsils • Small patches of tissue in the small intestine
Autonomic Nervous System
• Maintains homeostasis within body • Controls functions of internal organs, blood vessels, smooth muscle tissues, and glands
What are the main functions of the stomach?
• Mixing and storing food • Dissolving and degrading food via secretions • Controlling passage of food into the small intestine
Functions of the small intestine
• Most nutrients are absorbed by the small intestine • Enzymes from pancreas, liver, and stomach help with digestion • Bile (stored in gallbladder) breaks down fats • Liming of small intestine covered with villi • Chime - semi-liquid mass of partially digested food
Functions of the Skeletal System
• Movement - action of skeletal muscles on bones moves the body • Mineral storage - bones serve as storage facilities for essential mineral ions • Support - bones act as a framework and support system for the organs • Protection - bones surround and protect key organs in the body • Blood cell protection - red blood cells are produced in the marrow of certain bones
Granulocytes
• Neutrophils - short-lived phagocytes that respond quickly to invaders • Basophils - alert body of invasion • Eosinophils - large, non-living that defend against multicellular invaders
What are the 10 responsibilities of the liver?
• Production of bile • Production of certain blood plasma proteins • Production of cholesterol • Storage of excess glucose in the form of glycogen (that can be converted back to glucose when needed) • Regulation of amino acids • Processing of hemoglobin (to store iron) • Conversion of ammonia • Purification of blood (clears out drugs and other toxins) • Regulation of blood clotting • Controlling infections by boosting immune factors and removing bacteria
Functions of Integumentary System
• Protection - against bacteria, viruses, chemicals from entering the body • Secretion - sebum (oil) that waterproofs the skin and sweat for thermoregulation. Sweat glands also serve as excretory organs and help rid the body of metabolic wastes • Communication - sensory receptors inform brain regarding pain, touch, pressure, and temperature • Manufactures Vitamin D and absorbs certain chemicals and specific medications
Plasma contains
• Proteins • Ions • Glucose • Amino acids • Hormones • Dissolved gas
Integumentary System
• Refers to skin • Includes sebaceous glands, sweat glands, hair, and nails
Long bones
• Relatively long and slender • Examples: various bones of the limbs • Femur (long bone of the thigh) is the largest and heaviest bone in the body
Name the 3 layers of the kidneys
• Renal cortex • Renal medulla • Renal pelvis
The major functions of the lymph vascular system are:
• Return of excess fluid to the blood • Return of protein from the capillaries • Transport of fats from the digestive tract • Disposal of debris and cellular waste
About the Nervous System:
• Senses, interprets, and issues commands as a response to conditions in the body's environment • Process is possible by complex communication system organized as grid of neurons • Messages are sent across the plasma membrane of neurons through a process called action potential
The body's general immune defenses include:
• Skin • Ciliated Mucous Membranes • Glandular Secretions • Gastric Secretions • Normal Bacterial Populations
Short bones
• Small and boxy • Examples: bones of the wrist (carpals) and ankles (tarsals)
Flat bones
• Thin, roughly parallel surfaces • Examples: cranial bones, sternum, ribs, scapulae • Protect underlying soft tissues • Provide surface area for skeletal muscle attachment
The lower respiratory system includes?
• Trachea • Lungs • Bronchial tree
Leukocytes can be classified as
• monocytes (macrophages and dendritic cells) • granulocytes (neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils) • T lymphocytes • B-lymphocytes • natural killer cells
Epiphysis
What is the end of a bone?
Metaphysis
What is the part of a long bone called where the bone starts getting wider, on either end of the Diaphysis?
Vertebrochondral ribs
What is the scientific name for the ribs that go from the vertebrae and tie into the ribs above them via cartilage (chond).
Cyanosis
When hemoglobin is poorly oxygenated, both the blood and the skin of caucasions appear blue
Anaphase (Continued)
When separated, they're called daughter chromosomes. Grooves appear in the cell membrane
isotonic Solution
When two environments are isotonic, the total molar concentration of dissolved solutes is the same in both of them.
Erythema
Reddened skin may indicate embarrassment, fever, hypertension, inflammation, or allergy
What is the simplest nerve pathway?
Reflex Arc. It passes by the brain and is controlled by the spinal cord.
The main function of the lymphatic system is?
Return excess tissue fluid to the blood stream
Vertebrosternal ribs
Ribs that go directly from the vertebrae to the sternum
What is the endocrine system responsible for?
Secreting the hormones and other molecules that help regulate the entire body in both the short and long term
Step ten sensory impulses from the ear?
Sensory impulses are triggered on fibers of the cochlear branch of vestibulocochlear nerve
Reflex pathway of impulse
Sensory neuron-> motor neuron-> brain
Mention 6 amino acid based hormones.
Serotonin, Melatonin, Histamine, Epinephrine (adrenaline), Norepinephrine (noradrenaline), Thyroxine
Stratum Spinosum (Prickly Layer)
Several cell layers thick Contain intermediate filaments-pre keratin filaments
Give 2 examples of steroid hormones and their role
Sex hormones - made by the gonads - estrogen, progesterone, testosterone Adrenocorticoids - secreted by adrenal glands - mineralocorticoids (maintain Na+/K+ levels) - Glucocorticoids (regulate blood glucose levels)
Anterior
Sharper edge of your shin is anterior or posterior?
Scapular
Shoulder blade region
Scapula
Shoulder-blade. The anterior that sits against your ribs is the smooth side.
Which muscle tissue is voluntary
Skeletal tissue
External Occipital Protuberance
Small bump on the posterior aspect of the skull that neck muscles attach to
Coronoid Process of the Ulna
Small projection on the proximal end of the Ulna
Lesser Tubercle
Smaller bump on the proximal end of the Humerus
Inferior Articular Facet of the Vertebrae
Smaller facets that articulate inferiorly with another vertebrae's superior articular facet.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Smooth ER: is a site of steroid and lipid synthesis, lipid metabolism, drug detoxification Rough ER: Provide an area for storage and transport of the proteins made on the ribosomes to other cell areas
Which pump is involved in maintaining resting potentials?
Sodium potassium pump
Step one of sensory impulses from the ear?
Sound wave enter external acoustic meatus
Muscle Tissue
Specialized to contract and produces most types of body movements
Melanocytes
Spider-shaped epithelial cells that synthesize the pigment melanin, are found in the deepest layer of epidermis
Telophase
Spindle disintegrates, the nuclear membrane reform, and the chromosomes revert to chromatin.
3 Categories of Epithelial Tissue
Squamous(scalelike) Cuboidal(Cubelike) Columnar(column-shaped)
What is VEGF and what does it do?
The Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor is a growth factor that promotes growth of new vasculature to supply a tumor.
Absorption
Occurs in Small Intestine; amino acids are moved to blood stream to reform as protein
Cribriform Plate
Perforated holes surrounding the crista galli; olfactory nerves travel from the nasal cavity through the perforated holes of the Cribiform Plate into the brain.
Sound vibrations move?
Perilymph and endolymph
Which Nervous System consists of nerves and ganglia throughout the body and includes sympathetic nerves, which trigger "flight or fight" response, and the parasympathetic nerves which control basic body function?
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Cost = rib; Chond = cartilage; Itis = inflammation. Can be caused by excessive coughing.
Potential extra credit question: What is Costochondritis?
Integrative
Processing what incoming info means and what to do about it. Subconscious and conscious
Smooth Muscle
Propels Substances; involuntary control
Mitosis
Prophase (Late and Early) Metaphase Anaphase TeloPhase Cytokinesis
Root
Remainder of the hair deep within the follicle
How does absorption begin?
Smooth muscles contractions move nutrients into the small intestine
Dens (Odontoid Process)
Stacks with C1. It's the pointy thing on C2. Acts as a rotation for C1 so it can move.
Osteogenic Cells
Stem cells that develop from embryonic mesenchymal cells and then give rise to most other bone cell types. They are found in the endosteum, the inner layer of the periosteum, and in the central canals.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Structure; Cranial and Spinal nerves. Function; Communication lines between the CNS and the rest of the body
Styloid Process of the Ulna
Stylus looking projection on the distal end of the Ulna
Dura mater
Superficial (outer layer). A double layer covering the brain, single in the spinal cord. -Fibrous Connective tissue -blood vessels -nerves -epidural space in spinal cord
Bones
Support, protect, allow for movement, make blood cells, stores minerals
What are the 2 divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)?
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
Three function categories of joints
Synarthrosis Amphiarthrosis Diarthrosis
Thoracic Vertebrae
T1-T12. The next twelve vertebrae following the Cervical Vertebrae. All have ribs attached. Looks like a Giraffe. Point goes straight down. Both vertical and oblique angular segments.
Coccyx
Tail Bone. 3-5 fused vertebrae.
organ of taste is?
Taste bud
What variables does the rate of diffusion depend on?
Temperature, concentration, size
What is the diencephalon composed of?
Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Epithalamus. They enclose the third ventricle
Sella Turcica
The "saddle" located in between the lesser and greater wings of the Sphenoid Bone
Hypophyseal fossa
The "seat" of the Sella Turcica of the sphenoid bone
Another name for skin
The Integumentary System
Ascending fibers crossover at?
The Spinal cord
Nervous system
The body system of specialized cells that carry electrical messages throughout the body
Nucleolus
This structure contained within the nucleus consists of protein. Synthesizes and stores RNA (ribonucleic acid)
Anterior
Toward the front
Medial
Toward the midline of the body
Function of the tympanic membrane?
Transducing sounds (vibrates) waves from outer ear to inner ear.
Nervous Tissue
Transmits electrical signals from sensory receptors and to effectors -brain, spinal cord, and nerves
What is the function of red blood cells?
Transport oxygen to cells
Atria
Upper chambers of the heart
Describe the vein, nerve, and artery found underneath the rib in DESCENDING order.
Vein, Artery, Nerve
Which contraction empties the ventricles, forcing circulation?
Ventricular contraction
General Anatomy of the Vertebrae
Vertebral Body Superior Articular Facet Inferior Articular Facet Spinous Process Transverse Process Vertebral Foramen
Carpals
Wrist Bones
Natural Killer Cells
a lymphocyte able to bind to certain tumor cells and virus-infected cells without the stimulation of antigens, and kill them by the insertion of granules containing perforin.
Taste receptor cell
a modified epithelial cell
Telophase (Plant cells)
a new cell wall begins to form
Cilia
appendages extending from the surface of the cell, which causes the cell to move. They can also result in fluid being moved by the cell
supporting cells
are the origin of modified epithelial cells
Joints are?
areas of contact adjacent to bones
Axillary
armpit
Where are apocrine glands located?
armpits, groin, palms, and soles of the feet
Dense regular connective Tissue
attaches muscles to bones or other muscles -tendons, most ligaments
Occipital lobe
auditory input, processing and output
bones of skeleton
axial and appendicular skeleton
Name the 3 basic parts that a neuron consists of:
axon, dendrites, and cell body
Optic disc
axons exit retina to become optic nerve (CN II) -also contains central artery and vein -"blind spot" no photoreceptor
what comprises the olfactory epithelium?
basal cell, support cell, bipolar neurons, olfactory gland.
Telophase
begins as soon as chromosomal movement stops. The final phase is like prophase in reverse
Where is the pancreas located?
behind the stomach
ventral/dorsal
belly side/ back side
Inferior
below or closer to the feet
Sacral
between hips
Target cells
cells with hormone receptors respond to hormones. (hormones have no effect on other cells)
ionic bond
chemical bond formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another
Define pheromones
chemical signaling molecules that act outside the body to trigger a physiological response in another individual (e.g. sweat)
Middle layer of eye?
choroid, ciliary body, and iris
Ciliated Mucous Membranes
cilia sweep pathogens out of the respiratory tract
Iris consists of what two smooth muscle?
circular muscle group and radial muscle group
Nuclei
collections of neuron w/in the CNS
What is another name for large intestine?
colon
common types of fractures
comminuted, spiral, depressed, compression, epiphyseal, greenstick
Centrosome
comprised of the pair of centrioles located at right angles to each other and surround by protein.
Lens epithelium
confined to anterior lens surface
Synaptic integration
cumulative effect of all signals creates the final effect
How long can ears tolerate (music in earbuds, jackhammer) 115 dB?
damage can occur w/in 1 minute of exposure
How long can ears tolerate (riding motorcycle, handheld drill) 100 dB?
damage can occur w/in 15 mins of exposure
periosteum covers the _______________.
diaphysis
What cells make the connective tissue proper?
fibroblasts
protect and secrete
function of stratified columnar epithelium:
Sebaceous glands are ____________
holocrine glands - which secrete sebum (oily lipids and proteins)
What is the longest phase of the cell cycle?
interphase
Hormone action
is longer lasting than a neurotransmitter action
Components of Osteon
is the microscopic, functional, and repeating unit of compact bone. It consists of a single central canal, its contents, concentric lamellae (matrix), lacunae w/ osteocytes, and canaliculi.
Eosinophils
large, non-living that defend against multicellular invaders
Macula lutea
lateral to optic disc; area of acute, color vision
2 regions of eye lens
lens epithelium and lens fibers
The medulla oblongata monitors the?
level of carbon dioxide in the blood and signals the breathing rate to increase when these levels are too high
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
linings of the esophagus, mouth and vagina
Glycolipid
lipid with carbohydrate attached
How do digestive systems function?
movement, secretion, digestion, and absorption
Long Bones
much longer than they are wide; femur and phalanges and humerus
Heart
muscular pump providing the pressure necessary to keep blood flowing
Vagina
muscular tube that extends from the cervix of the uterus to the outside of the body. Receives the semen and sperm during sexual intercourse and provides a birth canal when needed
Muscle fibers contain bundle of ____________?
myofibrils
proximal/distal
near the trunk or attached end/ farther from the trunk or point of attachment
Medial
nearer to the middle of the body. In anatomical position, the little finger is medial to the thumb
What are mixed nerves?
nerves with afferent/efferent/myelinated/unmyelinated axons
Trabeculae
network of girders with open spaces filled with red bone marrow.
The hypothalamus and pituitary gland coordinate to serve as a?
neuroendocrine control center
within CNS
neuron processes in bundles= tracts
Facilitation
neuron stimulation excitatory but sub-threshold -an immediately subsequent release of NT elevates postsynaptic membrane to threshold -> action potential
Cell cycle
process by which a cell reproduces, which involves cell growth, duplication of genetic material, and cell division.
How do genes work?
protein synthesis
Glycoprotein
protein with carbohydrate attached
the organic portion of matrix is important in _______
providing tensile strength, ability to resist stretch and flexibility (collagen)
Exocrine glands
secrete substances into ducts
Digestive Role of the Pancreas
secretes enzymes to small intestine to help break down many foods, especially fats and proteins
homeostatic mechanisms
self-regulating control systems
Chemoreceptors & Baroreceptros
sense chemical concentration changes in body fluids, or pressure changes
The respiratory system is responsible for?
speech
Cartilage: fibrocartilage
tensile strength with the ability to absorb compressive shock
How the does the structure of the plasma membrane depend on amphiphilic nature of phospholipids?
the amphiphilic molecules arrange themselves into a bilayer, with their hydrophilic phosphate-containing heads facing the water on each side of the membrane and their hydrophobic tails directed twd the center, avoiding water.
What terminates at the synapse?
the axon
Zygomatic bone
the bone beneath the eye that forms the prominence of the cheek
Cytology
the branch of biology concerned with the structure and function of plant and animal cells.
Pinocytosis ("cell drinking")
the cell "gulps" a drop of extracellular fluid containing dissolved molecules
Phagocytosis ("cell eating")
the cell engulfs some relatively large or solid material such as a clump of bacteria, cell debris, or inanimate particles.
hydroxyapatite
the chief crystal of bone, formed from calcium and phosphorus
epiphysis
the end of a long bone
Blood pressure
the fluid pressure generated by the cardiac cycle
What is the right side of the pancreas called?
the head
parathyroid hormone (PTH) control of blood calcium levels
the hormonal controls of bone remodeling serve blood calcium homeostasis. When blood calcium levels decline, PTH is released and stimulates osteoclasts to digest bone matrix, releasing ionic calcium. As blood calcium levels rise, PTH secretion declines.
Control center
the hypothalamus, which is located in the brain
Axon conduction
the larger the diameter = faster conduction
Ischium
the lower, posterior portions of the pelvis The part that you sit on
Spinal nerves
the merger of anterior and dorsal roots -myelinated and unmyelinated axons -usually contain both afferent(sensory) and efferent(motor) axons "mixed nerve"
Synovial joints
the most common, and are freely movable. Found at the shoulders and knees
Digestion begins with?
the mouth - chewing and mixing nutrients with saliva
nervous system
the network of nerve cells and fibers that transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body.
Synovial
the only joints that have a space (a synovial cavity filled with fluid) between the adjoining bones.
External auditory meatus
the opening of the exernal auditory canal of the outer ear
Phospholipids: polar and hydrophilic
the polar regions of the molecules, termed hydrophilic, face outward where they interact with the water inside and outside of the cell.
Define synaptic delay
the slight delay in signal transmission that occurs at a synapse
T cells
these directly attack cells infected by viruses and bacteria
What are neuroglial cells?
they are support cells that surround neurons and provide nutrients, immune support, and appropriate external environment
Preganglionic axons
thin myelinated fibers
Elongate
to make longer or relax
Lateral
to the side and is opposite of medial
Interneurons
transmit signals between neurons. Ex: they receive transmitted signals between sensory and motor neurons
Portal veins
travel between two capillary beds
short bones
typically cubed shaped, contain more spongy than compact bone. The tarsals and carpals
Independent variable
variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment. Are also variables that the experimenter changes to test their dependent variable.
irregular bones
vertebra
Temporal lobe
visual input, processing and output
Vitreous body
vitreous humer & collagenous
Cones
-concentrated in macula lutea(whole area) and fovea(central pit of macula) -concentration declines toward periphery - 3 types producing sharp, color vision
Myelin in the PNS
-formed by schwann cells (insulator) wrapping around axon (forms neurilemma) -gaps between schwann cells= nodes of ranvier -saltatory conduction
Adrenal gland
-location on top of each kidney -2 regions -cortex GFR -medulla
Adrenal Medulla
-sympathetic division of ANS synapses w/its cells -cells are modified post ganglionic neurons -they're known as chromaffin cells -synthesize compounds called catecholamines and 2 major ones are -epinephrine (80%) -norepinephrine (20%) -many effects; a major one = your fight or flight response -similar effects, but there are differences
Ciliary body
-thickened ring of tissue encircling lens -consists of smooth muscles bundles called ciliary muscle -lens shape -posterior surface thrown into radiating folds called ciliary processes -contain capillaries producing aqueous humer by filtration
Sympathetic system
-thorax-lumbar cord origin -"fight or flight" function to perceived threat -promotes adjustments during vigorous physical activity and emergency situations
Function of vitreous humor
-transmits light -keep photoreceptor layer of retina against pigmented retinal layer for nutrition -contributes to intraocular pressure and counteracts pulling forces of extrinsic eye muscles
Conjunctiva
-transparent mucos membrane -produces lubricating mucous -prevents dry eye -lines eyelids as palpebral conjunctiva -folds back over anterior surface of eyeball as bulbar conjunctiva -when eye closed, slit-like space between conjunctiva covered eyeball and eyelids (conjunctival sac)
Thyroid Gland
-vascular structure w/ 2 lobes connected by an isthmus -it is bilateral and inferior to larynx and anterior to trachea
Nervous system
-wired system, specific structural arrangement between neurons and target cells -directly stimulates an endocrine glad ex: adrenal meduall -epinephrine (80%) -norepinephrine (20%)
Endocrine system
-wireless system, no structural connection with one another/target cells -hormones synthesized and released, carried in blood to long distance -specifically of target cell binding -slow and long lasting response -control activities of long duration e.g. growth, reproduction, metabolism, water and electrolyte regulation
Trigger zone
-with in the axon hillock -brith site of action potentials
Nitric Oxide 1- What is it? 2- What is its role?
1- disclosed gas 2- produces second messengers to aid learning and memory. also induces muscle relaxation
GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid) 1- What is it? 2- What does it bind to?
1- neurotransmitter derived from glutamate 2- binds to inhibitory receptors
Glutamate 1- What type of molecule is it? 2- What is its function?
1- neurotransmitter derived from glutamic acid 2- primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
How can hormones be classified as?
1. Amino acid based hormones - water soluble - derivatives of individual amino acids, or polypeptides, or proteins 2. Steroid hormones - insoluble - derived from cholesterol
Functions of Medulla Oblongata?
1. Cardiac center 2. Vasomotor center 3. Respiratory center
Outer ear structures?
1. Pinna or auricle 2. External auditory meatus/canal 3. Tympanic membrane
Dorsal
Back side
Inferior
Below
Os coxae
Besides being known as the pelvis, what else is the entirety of this bone called?
Frontal Plane or Coronal Plane
Divides the body or organ into an anterior and posterior part.
chemical energy
Energy stored in chemical bonds
Integumentary Organ System (Skin)
Epidermal and Dermal Regions -Protects deeper organs from mechanical, chemical, and bacterial injury, and from drying out
Orbital
Eye Area
Antebrachial
Forearm
Parasympathetic Division
Function; conserves energy, promotes "housingkeeping" functions during rest.
Smooth Muscle
Involuntary muscle found in the digestive tract
Cardiac Muscle
Involuntary muscle that makes up the heart
Vertebral column
Made of vertebrae to protect spinal cord
Sagittal Suture
Middle of skull; Separates the two parietal bones
Floating ribs
2 sets of the lowest portion of the 12 sets of ribs that attach only to the vertebrae
Vestibule
2 subdivisions utricle and saccule both encloses static equilibrium structures
Macrophage
"Big Eaters" Oval cells whose surface is ruffled by psuedopods-engulf and devour a wide variety of foreign materials as well as dead cells
Thalamus
"gate keeper"
Refraction
#1 cornea and #2 lens
Which types of tissues does the connective tissue differentiate into from the mesenchyme?
- Connective tissue proper (loose + dense) - cartilage - blood - bone
Describe electrical synapses and their characteristics
- Nerve impulse is transmitted through protein channels (connections) located at gap junctions - bidirectional signal is possible - no synaptic delay - signal can't be amplified
How do depolarization and hyper polarization occur one after another?
- Voltage gated Na+ channel opens and lets Na+ come in (depolarization) - Channel closes - Voltage gated K+ channel opens and K+ leaves cell (repolarization)
How do water soluble polar hormones act differently from steroid hormones?
- Water soluble polar molecules can't cross the plasma membrane. So they bind to receptors on surface and activate intracellular second messengers. - Steroid hormones cross the membrane and bind with receptors in the cell. The complex then travels to nucleus and binds to DNA. (Steroid hormones have to travel through blood with a carrier protein)
What happens to a neurotransmitter once it's released into the synaptic cleft?
- degraded - diffuses out of the cleft - taken up by active transport
What are growth factors and what do they do?
- either proteins or steroid hormones - stimulate the growth and development of tissues or cells
Where do electrical synapses occur?
- embryonic tissues to coordinate development - protective reflex arcs and in the retina and cerebral cortex
Schwann cell
-Myelinates axons in PNS -only glial cell in PNS -myelinates one axons -forms neurilemma
Cornea
-anterior 1/6 outer layer; convex anteriorly from junction w/sclera -crystal clear; lets light into eye -part of light bending (refraction) apparatus of eye -has nerve supply (sensory) no blood vessels -high capacity for regeneration and repair of damage cells -nutrition via osmosis
Brainstem modulates?
-by releasing biochemicals, neuropeptides, which can block pain signals -substance released enkephalins and endorphins
Mechanism of action of nonsteroid hormones
-cAMP (2nd messenger) activates protein kinases -protein kinases add a phosphate group (PO4)^-3 from ATP to substrate proteins called substrate level phosporylation -produces cellular changes lined to the specific nonsteroid hormone -inactivated quickly by phoshodiesterases -continual hormone receptor interaction
Parasympathetic system
-carnio-sacral cord origin -"rest & digest" function -maintenance activities -keeps body energy use as low as possible
Deep
-chronic (diffuse and lasts longer -info brought to CNS by unmyelinated axons -stimulation of receptors in joints, muscles, or dermis, viscera, and hypodermis -sensation: buring, itch, dull ache
Cochlea
-contains organ of corti for hearing -cochlear duct
Sense of vision
-dominant sense 70% of all sensory receptors -visual processing 1/2 of cerebral cortex involved -eyeball spherical w/diameter 2.5 cm
Pharyngotympanic/ auditory/ eustachian tube
-equalizes pressure between middle ear & "outside" - association w/ ear infection.
Mechanism of action of nonsteroid hormones
-for nonsteroid hormones G proteins activates adenylate cyclases (enzyme) -a transmembrane protein/enzyme -adenylate cyclases -catalyzes the RXN of cytoplasmic ATP -> cyclic adensoine monophosphate (cAMP)
Myelin in CNS
-formed by oligodendrocytes -electrically insulates fibers increasing speed of impulse -layers of neuron plasma membrane wraps axon -nucleus and cytoplasm confined to external layer -neurilemma not found w/oligodendrocytes
Ependymal cells
-forms an epithelial-like membrane covering -lines internal spaces (ventricles) of brain and central canal of spinal cord -covers pia mater capillaries -choroid plexus produces cerebrospinal fluid
Sclera (outer layer)
-forms bulk of fibrous coat -glistening white and opaque(light can't get through) -tough, tendon like protects/ shapes eyeball -provides sturdy anchoring site for extrinsic eye muscles -posteriorly continuous w/ dura mater of brain covering optic nerve exiting the eye ball
Visual nerve pathways
-from retina to visual cortex -beginning axons of retinal neurons leave eyes as optic nerve -@ optic chiasm/chiasma medial axons cross and join with lateral fibers to become optic tracts (fibers from lateral sides do not cross over) -most fibers synapse in thalamus -nerve pathways called optic radiations carry impulses to visual cortex of occipital lobe for processing
Hair cell organization of the organ of corti
-hair cells arrayed in rows -hairlike processes from hair cells project and embed into tectorial membrane
Choroid
-highly vascular -supplies nutrition to inner eye -dark brown pigmented membrane -absorbs scattered light keeps inside of eye dark -none where optic nerve leaves eye -anteriorly becomes ciliary body
Multiple Sclerosis
-immunologic, genetic, environmental, and viral causes are all considered to play a role -only oligodendrocytes affected
What happens in olfactory bulbs?
-incoming APs are processed output APs generated -output travels through olfactory tracts to interpreting sensory areas in the temporal lobes and base of frontal lobes
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH or vasopressin)
-increases H2O reabsorption in the kidneys -raises blood pressure due to vasoconstriction -action blocked by alcohol
Thyroid Gland structure
-internally, follicular cells ring a liquid -synthesizes/secretes thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) -liquid pool + follicular cells = thyroid follicle(functional unit) -contains clear, viscous substances called colloid which is filled with iodine -extrafollicular cells surrounded the thyroid follicle -they synthesize and release the hormone calcitonin
Cholesterol (steroid hormone)
-is mother compound -lipid soluble -water insoluble -generally, transported in blood by plasma proteins -released into interstitial fluid in vicinity of target cells -diffuses into target cells
Microglia Cells
-located throughout CNS -phagocytize bacteria and cell debris -astrocytes to forms scar tissue (when necessary)
Parathyroid Glands
-location posterior surface of thyroid gland -4 total, a pair on each side of thyroid gland -produce/secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) **regulates blood ca+
Pituitary gland
-location sella turcica of sphenoid bone -attached to hypothalamus by infundibulum or "pituitary stalk" -2 lobes -anterior: glandular -posterior: axons
Within utricle?
-maculae horizontal -w/ hair cells oriented vertically
Within saccule
-maculae vertical -w/ hair cells oriented horizontally
Diabetes Mellitus type 2
-more common -beta cells produced insulin but body cells lose sensitivity to insulin -insulin cell membrane receptors said to be "masked" -more common in overweight individuals -treatment generally centered on modification of diet and exercise -oral drugs may be used
Warm receptors(adaptive)
-most sensitive above 25 degree celsius/ 77 degree fahrenheit -stimulate nociceptors receptors @ more than 45 degree celsius/ 113 degree fahrenheit (burning sensation)
Cold receptors (adaptive)
-most sensitive temp range 10 degree celsius/50 degree fahrenheit - 20 degree celsius/68 degree fahrenheit -stimulate nocicepter recepter @ less than 10 degree celsius/ 50 degree fahrenheit
Gray matter in the brain?
-mostly on the external/superficial (cerebral cortex) -basal ganglia and cranial nerve nuclei are internal
Converging circuits
-neuronal pool receives inputs from several presynaptic inputs -circuit concentrates outgoing stimulus
Sense of smell or olfaction
-originates in olfactory epithelium -location nasal cavity roof and superior concha each side of nasal septum -contains millions of nonmotile ciliated olfactory receptor cells + 2 other cell types -receptors cells are usual bipolar neurons
Growth Hormone effects
-over secretion in childhood =gigantism -over secretion in adult =acromegaly (large/thick hands and protruding jaw and facial features) -deficiency in childhood = pituitary dwarfism (body proportional and mental development normal)
"Local Hormones"
-paracrine substances -autocrine substances
Special sense receptors
-parts of specialized sensory organs -all located in the head -trigger afferent impulses -> CNS for processing
Nonsteroid hormones mechanism of action
-process termed; signal transduction -the hormone (1st messenger) binds receptor on target cell membrane -> hormone receptor complex -the HRC possesses both binding and activity sites -HRC activates another membrane protein termed a G(guanine) protein = class of protein that act as molecular switches
Taste Hairs
-protrude from taste receptor cells and extend into taste pore -contain the sensory receptors which bind tastent molecule.
Rods
-provide low level light vision (colorless) -much more sensitive to light than cones -provides general outlines/shapes of objects -in greater numbers as you go toward the periphery of the retina
Projection
-same time as sensation occurs -brain instantaneously identifies specific receptors associated with the sensation
Reflex arcs
-simplest nerve pathway -basis for involuntary motor actions (knee/elbow) -rapid, automatic responses to stimuli -specific stimulus always cause same motor response -basis for testing/integrity of circuit
Pacinian Corpuscles
-single sensory fiber wrapped in CT -located in deeper dermal tissues of hands and feet, penis & clitoris, urethra, breast, tendons and ligaments. -Detects deep pressure, high frequency vibration, stretching of tissue
Axon Hillock
-site of cell body where axon begins -axon branching occurs -termed collaterals -terminate at synapses
Perilymph and endolymph?
-stimulates embedded hair cells -different frequencies of sound stimulate different hair receptor cells
Pigmented epithelial layer
-stores vitamin A (important for vision) -absorb scattered light
Oxytocin (CT)
-stretching of uterine and vaginal walls stimulates release -mechanism of positive feedback in pregnancy -smooth muscle contraction in uterus walls -contraction breast myoepithelial cells associated with milk producing gland -given to mother post birth to constrict uterine blood vessels preventing blood loss
Sensory (afferent) Neurons
-there are different types of sensory receptors -respond to one type of change in internal/external environment -sensory receptors located in dendrite zone -sends info to CNS (spinal cord and brain)
Diverging circuits
1 afferent impulse triggers responses to increasing number of neurons
Serotonin 1- What type of molecule is it? 2- What does it bind to? 3- What is it involved in? 4- Which drug increase serotonin?
1- monoamine neurotransmitter derived from tryptophan 2- inhibitory receptors 3- peristalsis, blood clotting, vasoconstriction 4- antidepressants, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, cocaine, amphetamines
Dopamine and Norepinephrine 1- What type of molecule are they? 2- What functions are they involved in? 3- What happens with low dopamine levels? 4- What happens with high dopamine levels? 5- Which drugs increase dopamine and norepinephrine levels?
1- monoamine neurotransmitters derived from Tyrosine 2- memory, reward, motivation, voluntary movement, arousal (norepinephrine), fight or flight response 3- Attention deficit disorder 4- Schizophrenia 5- amphetamines, cocaine, antidepressants
Acetylcholine 1- What type of molecule is it? 2- What degrades it? 3- What does it degrade into? 4- What happens if neurotoxins inhibit its activity? 5- What does it bind to? 6- What does it stimulate?
1- neurotransmitter 2- acetylcholinesterase 3- acetate and choline 4- causes tetanus and muscle spasms, or even Alzheimer's 5- excitatory receptors 6- Muscle contraction
Endorphins 1- What are they? 2- What is their function? 3- Which drugs bind to the same receptors?
1- peptide neurotransmitters 2- natural opiates. inhibit release of GABA, increase the production of dopamine, and decrease pain sensitivity
Adenosine and ATP 1- What are they? 2- What's the role of Adenosine? 3- What's the role of ATP? 4- How does caffeine acts as an adenosine antagonist?
1- purine molecules that function as neurotransmitters 2- binds to inhibitory receptors in the brain, facilitating sleep 3- released by sensory neurons in response to injury, initiating a pain response 4- blocks adenosine receptors in the brain and acts as a stimulant by reducing the inhibitory effects of adenosine
What are the 2 mechanisms hormones activate/stimulate target cells?
1. Direct gene activation 2. Second messenger system
List the 5 characteristics of epithelial tissue
1. High rate of regeneration 2. Cellularity 3. Avascularity 4. Polarity 5. Basement membrane
3 types of control of hormone secretion
1. Hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland 2. Nervous system 3. Internal environment change
The 11 Major Organ Systems are?
1. Integumentary system 2. Respiratory system 3. Cardiovascular system 4. Endocrine system 5. Skeletal system 6. Muscular system 7. Digestive system 8. Excretory system 9. Immune system 10. Nervous system 11. Reproductive system
Stages of mitosis
1. Interphase 2. Prophase 3. Metaphase 4. Anaphase 5. Telophase 6. Cytokinesis
Main parts of the brain
1. Left & Right Cerebral Hemispheres 2. Cerebellum 3. Diencephalon 4. Brainstem 5. Four Ventricles
List the 12 organ systems
1. Nervous system 2. Endocrine system 3. Circulatory system 4. Lymphatic system 5. Immune system 6. Digestive system 7. Urinary system 8. Skeletal system 9. Muscular system 10. Respiratory system 11. Intergumentary system (skin) 12. Reproductive system
Middle ear structures
1. Ossicles 2. oval window 3. muscles; stapedius & tensor tympani 4. pharyngotympanic/auditory/eustachian tube 5. round window
The 4 functions of the Mitochondria are?
1. Production of cell energy (ATP) 2. Cell signaling 3. Cellular differentiation 4. Cell cycle and growth regulation
Functions of the Thyroid gland
1. Regulate metabolism 2. Functions in growth and development 3. Secretes the hormones thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin
Which are the 3 types of fibers that occur in the ECM? State them and describe their properties.
1. White fibers - made of collagen - tough but flexible 2. Yellow fibers - made of elastin - elasticity and flexibility - found in lungs, blood vessels, dermis of skin... 3. Reticular fibers - composed of thin collagen fibers
Major hormone influences
1. cell membrane permeability or potential 2.synthesis, activation or deactivation of proteins or regulatory molecules. ex: enzymes 3. cell secretory activity 4. cell mitosis
Steroid hormones uses Direct Gene Activation
1. diffuses through target cell membrane 2. binds to specific protein receptor molecules w/in nucleus 3. hormone-receptor complex binds specific sequences of target cell's DNA -producing transcription as a specific gene. result; mRNA synthesized 4. mRNA enters cytoplasm 5. mRNA binds w/ ribosomes and translation -> protein -produces effects associated w/ the steroid hormone
Main taste nerve pathways
1. medulla oblongata 2. then to thalamus and then to 3. gustatory cortex in insula lobe and frontal lobe
What functions does the endocrine system help regulate?
1. metabolism 2. development/ growth 3. electrolyte, h2o and nutrient homeostasis 4. body's defenses 5. reproduction
Adrenal Cortex
1. outer zone (glomerulosa) 2. middle zone (fasciculata) 3. inner zone (reticularis)
Which are the 3 components off the propagation of a nerve impulse?
1. resting potential 2. graded potential 3. action potential
Causes of Visceral pain?
1. stretching of tissue beyond "normal" 2. ischemia 3. increase in concentration of irritating chemicals 4. smooth muscle spasms
taste senesation
1. sweet 2. sour 3. salty 4. bitter 5. umami
Inner ear structures
1. three Semicircular canals 2. Vestibule 3. cochlea 4. bony labyrinth/canal 5. membranous labyrinth/canal
Meissner's Corpuscle characteristics
1. unmyelinated nerve process ends in connective tissue sheath 2. Provides light/fine -adapts radpidly -basis for reading braille text 3. abundant in thick hairless/ glabrous skin -expecially in lips, fingertips -also found in palms, soles, nipples, external genitalia
Functions of the nervous system
1.Sensory receptor 2. Integrative 3. Motor functions
What is the final result in meiosis? How many cells are there?
4 daughter cells
Parathyroid glands
4 small glands embedded on the posterior (back) of thyroid
Axial skeleton
80 bones, including skull, sternum, ribs, vertebral column (spine) and hyoid bone
calcium homeostatis of blood
9-11 mg/100 ml
Mucus
= solvent -traps and dissolves odorants (chemicals
Prophase
Early- the chromatin condenses, forming barlike chromosomes Late- The nuclear envelope breaks up, allowing the spindle to interact with the chromosomes
Circulatory System
The body system responsible for carrying materials through out the body
Integumentary System
The body system that covers and protects the body from the environment
Excretory system
The body system that helps rid the body of wastes, toxins, and excess water
Skeletal System
The body system that protects and supports the body
Muscular System
The body system that supports the body and enables it to MOVE
Digestive System
The body system that takes in, breaks down, and absorbs nutrients that are necessary for growth
basal surface
The bottom layer of epithelial tissue that attaches to the basement membrane
No pain receptors in?
The brain
Marrow Cavity
The cavity that hangs out in the Diaphysis region of a bone?
What's the difference between Mitosis and Meiosis?
The cells during Meiosis divide twice, and during the second division, interphase does not occur.
Define graded potential
The change in potential in a localized area of the cell. its magnitude depends on the strength of the stimulus
Stratum Basal
The deepest epidermal layer, is attached to the underlying dermis along a wavy border line that resembles corrugated cardboard.