Chapter 1
Fields of Anatomy
-Microscopic anatomy -Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy
Three major planes:
-coronal -transverse -midsagittal
Two main divisions of Microscopic anatomy
-cytology -histology
Physiologists
examine how organs and body systems function under normal circumstances and abnormal circumstances.
Anatomists
examine the relationships among parts of the body as well as the structure of individual organs.
regional anatomy
examines all of the structures in a particular region of the body
Pathologic anatomy
examines anatomic changes resulting from disease. considers anatomic and microscopic changes
Physiology
examines how the body functions.
comparative anatomy
examines similarities and differences in anatomy of different species
Urinary system
filters blood and removes waste products, expels urine
surface anatomy
focuses on superficial anatomic markings and internal body structures
proximal and distal
(nearer to the trunk) and (farther from the trunk)
dorsal and ventral proximal (nearer to the trunk) and distal (farther from the trunk)
(toward the back) and(toward the belly)
Properties common to all organisms
-All exhibit complex organization and order -All engage in metabolism, the sum of all chemical reactions that occur within the body *composed of anabolism and catabolism* -All grow and develop -All exhibit responsiveness -All exhibit regulation -All reproduce
Human body partitioned into two main regions
-Axial region -Appendicular region
Cellular level
-Consists of cells -Formed from atoms and molecules from the chemical level
Posterior aspect
-Contains cavities completely encased in bone -Physically and developmentally distinct from the ventral cavity -Subdivided into the cranial cavity and the vertebral cavity
Sagittal plane
-Divides a structure into left and right structures at any number of sites -Parallel to midsagittal plane
Form (anatomy) and function (physiology) are interrelated.
-E.g., the small sacs in the lungs called alveoli have a structure (large surface area) that matches their function (gas exchange) -Integrating the disciplines is the easiest way to learn about both -Both disciplines must use information from the other field
Organismal level
-Highest level of structural organization -All body functions working interdependently in an organism, the living being
Transverse plane
-Horizontal plane dividing the body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) -Also called a cross-sectional plane
In humans, 11 organ systems
-Integumentary system -Skeletal system -Muscular system -Nervous system -Endocrine system -Cardiovascular system -Lymphatic system -Respiratory system -Urinary system -Female reproductive system *or* -Male reproductive system -Digestive system
Chemical level
-Involves atoms and molecules atoms, smallest units of matter molecules, one or more combined atoms e.g., sugar, vitamins -Macromolecules -Organelles
Ventral cavity
-Larger, anteriorly placed -Does not completely encase organs in bone -Partitioned into a superior thoracic cavity and an inferior abdominopelvic cavity -Lined with serous membranes, continuous layer of cells
Two-layered serous membrane associated with the lungs
-Parietal pleura. -Visceral pleura
Specialized branches of anatomy
-Pathologic anatomy -Radiographic anatomy
Subdisciplines of physiology
-Reproductive physiology -Pathophysiology
anatomic position
-Upright stance -Feet parallel and flat on the floor -Upper limbs at the sides of the body -Palms face anteriorly (toward the front) -Head is level -Eyes look forward
Coronal plane
-Vertical plane dividing the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) -Also called a frontal plane
Four types of tissues
-epithelial tissue covers exposed surfaces and lines body cavities -connective tissue protects, supports, and binds structures and organs -muscle tissue produces movement -nervous tissue conducts nerve impulses
Serous membranes composed of two layers:
-parietal layer -visceral layer
Approaches to Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy
-systemic anatomy -regional anatomy -surface anatomy -comparative anatomy -embryology
What type of plane would separate the nose and mouth into superior and inferior structures?
A transverse plane
What is the relationship between anatomy and physiology?
Anatomy studies structure and form; physiology studies the function of body parts. Their study is intertwined.
What subdiscipline of anatomy may explore how the lower limb differs between humans and chimpanzees?
Comparative anatomy
Organ level
Consists of organs, two or more tissue types performing specific functions
Tissue level
Consists of tissues, groups of similar cells performing common functions.
Organ system level
Contains related organs that work together to achieve a common function e.g., organs of the digestive system working together to digest food, absorb nutrients, and expel waste products
Microscopic anatomy
Examines structures that cannot be observed by the unaided eye. Specimens examined under microscope
The Body's Levels of Organization: The View from Simplest to Most Complex
From simplest to most complex: -chemical level -cellular level -tissue level -organ level -organ system level -organismal level
Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy
Investigates structures visible to the unaided eye. Specimens dissected for examination
Mediastinum
Median space in the thoracic cavity Contains the heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and major blood vessels that connect to the heart
Pleura
Membrane surrounding the lungs
Oblique planes
Pass through structures at an angle
Physiologists focus on:
Physiologists focus on the molecular or cellular level
What does it mean if an organism is 'responsive', and how does this characteristic relate to the survival of the organism?
Responsiveness is the ability to sense and react to stimuli. The ability to make changes in response to the environment is crucial for survival.
Subdisciplines focus on:
Subdisciplines focus on a particular body system
The term antebrachial refers to which body region?
The forearm (portion of the upper limb between the elbow and the wrist)
Which organ system is responsible for filtering the blood and removing the waste products of the blood in the form of urine?
The urinary system
Serous pericardium
Two-layered serous membrane
Serous pericardium
Two-layered serous membrane: -Parietal pericardium -Visceral pericardium
Midsagittal plane
Vertical plane dividing the body into equal left and right halves
Regulation
adjust internal bodily function to environment changes
Appendicular region
composed of the upper and lower limb
Nervous system
controls body movement, responsible for consciousness, intelligence, memory
visceral layer
covers the external surface of organs (the viscera) within that cavity
Digestive system
digests food materials, absorbs nutrients, expels waste products
Organs
e.g., the small intestine composed of all four tissue types, working to process and absorb digested nutrients
cranial cavity
formed by bones of the cranium houses the brain (endocranium)
vertebral canal
formed by the bones of the vertebral column houses the spinal cord
anterior and posterior
front(eyes etc located) and back(
Plane
imaginary flat surface passing through the body
Axial region
includes the head, neck, and trunk forms the main vertical axis of the body
Visceral pleura
inner layer which covers the external surface of the lungs
Visceral pericardium
inner layer which forms the heart's external surface
Radiographic anatomy
investigates internal structures visualized by scanning procedures
catabolism
large molecules broken down into smaller ones
parietal layer
lines the internal surface of the body wall
Organelles
microscopic subunits in cells composed of macromolecules
Macromolecules
more complex molecules e.g., proteins and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Cardiovascular system
moves blood through blood vessels to distribute nutrients, gases, hormones, and pick up waste products
Parietal pericardium
outer layer which forms the sac around the heart
Parietal pleura
outer layer which lines the internal surface of thoracic wall
Pericardial cavity
potential space between parietal and visceral layers containing serous fluid
Reproduce
produce new cells for growth, maintenance, and repair with sex cells, can develop into new organisms
Muscular system
produces body movement, generates heat
Female reproductive system
produces female sex cells and hormones, site of fertilization and growth of embryo and fetus
Male reproductive system
produces male sex cells and hormones, transfers sperm to female
Integumentary system
provides protection, regulates body temperature, houses cutaneous receptors, synthesizes vitamin D, prevents water loss
Skeletal system
provides support and protection, site of blood cell production, stores calcium and phosphorus
Which directional term would be most appropriate in the sentence, "The elbow is ________ to the wrist?
proximal
Respiratory system
responsible for exchange of gases between blood and the air
Endocrine system
secretes hormones, which perform a variety of functions
Section
slice or cut to expose internal anatomy
anabolism
small molecules joined to form larger ones
embryology
studies developmental changes from conception to birth
systemic anatomy
studies the anatomy of each functional body system
Anatomy
studies the form and structure of the body.
Homeostasis
the ability of an organism to maintain a consistent internal environment, or "steady state"
Responsiveness
the ability to sense and react to stimuli
Neurophysiology
the functioning of nerves and nervous system organs
Reproductive physiology
the functioning of reproductive hormones and the reproductive cycle
Respiratory physiology
the functioning of respiratory organs
Cardiovascular physiology
the functioning of the heart, blood vessels, and blood
Pathophysiology
the relationship between the function of an organ system and disease or injury to the system
Between membranes is a potential space?
the serous cavity
Cells
the smallest living structures basic units of structure and function in organisms vary widely in structure, reflecting specializations needed. e.g., skeletal muscle cell is long and red blood cell is small and flattened.
Cytology
the study of body cells and their internal structure
Histology
the study of tissues
Lymphatic system
transports and filters lymph and participates in immune response