Chapter 1: Science: A Way of Knowing

Is philosophy, science?

Greek Development of Philosophy attempts to understand existence & reality via pure reason (e.g. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Archimedes), or combined with observations (e.g. Thales, Anaximader, Aristotle). Philosophy allows us to "ask all the answerable questions upon which every civilization is founded" but philosophy alone is not science.

Euclid

His Geometry used pure reason to derive theorems from "obvious" axioms.

How is Mendeleev's development of the period table of the elements an example of the scientific method at work?

It shows the discoveries of previously unrecognized patterns in nature. Mendeleev saw an extraordinary pattern that elements with similar physical and chemical properties appeared at regular or periodic intervals. He used preconceived notions to collect data about elements, identified patterns, formed hypothesis about other missing elements in the table, and made predictions about them that led to more observations.

Is math, science?

Mathematics is part of science and much science is expressed mathematically: it's the language of science. Math is used to derive many statements of science but math is not tied to explaining the natural world so Math alone is not science.

What does it mean that scientific experiments must be reproducible?

No scientific idea, no matter how cherished, is immune from the power of new facts.

Observations are useful, but is it science?

No, observation of nature alone is not science. Assigning meaning to observations alone is not science. Each of these can be parts of science, but they are not sufficient.

Do we need to follow these steps, step by step?

No, this is just a framework. Science is an intensely creative activity, undertaken by a wide variety of human beings. Scientific discovery often involves occasional bursts of intuition, sudden leaps of understanding, a joyful breaking of the rules, and all the other sorts of spontaneity we associate with human activities.

What kind of observation might an astronomer make?

Noting the nature of stars, planets, and other objects in space.

What are rare or special events?

Occurring at unpredictable times such as major storms, volcanoes, earthquakes, and solar eclipses.

What is Cyclic phenomena?

Occurring in cycles; regularly repeated such as sunrise/sunset, seasons, phases of the moon, and planetary motion.

What are the five major branches of science?

Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy, Geology, and Biology.

Must scientists always conduct their research without pre-conceptions?

Science doesn't ask that we enter the cycle with no preconceptions or hunches, but it demands that we be ready to change those ideas if the evidence forces us to do so.

What is science?

Science has an aspect of math and philosophy. It is careful observation of (or experimentation with) the natural world using reason/logic/creativity to explain observations and using mathematics to express explanations concisely and quantitatively, and to derive consequences.

"Is life like a box of chocolates?" a scientific question? Is it testable and verifiable?

Since science proceeds by verifying explanations of natural phenomena, there are some things that science cannot take on: phenomena that cannot be verified by humans. Similes and metaphors are generally not testable and this is not a scientific question.

How is science defined by process?

The Scientific Method: -Observations/experiments question nature -Create/refine a model to explain them (math/inductive reasoning) -Derive consequences from model (math/deductive reasoning) -Test consequences with observation and experiment -Continue as needed

Who pays for most scientific research in the United States?

The United States government's total research and development budget was about $118 billion.

Observation

The act of noting nature without manipulating it. (p. 2)

Technology

The application of science to specific commercial or industrial goals. (p. 14)

Prediction

The behavior of a system that will confirm or deny a hypothesis. (p. 5)

Pure Reason

The faculty that embraces the deductive forms of knowledge and is the source of ideas about the spiritual or nonphysical realm.

Experiment

The manipulation of some aspect of nature to observe the outcome. (p. 3)

Research and Development (R&D)

The process of bringing new discoveries to practical use, often in industrial or governmental laboratories. (p. 14)

Physics

The search for laws that describe the most fundamental aspects of nature: matter, energy, forces, motion, heat, light, and other phenomena. (p. 12)

Applied Research

The type of research performed by scientist with specific and practical goals in mind. This research is often translated into practical systems by large-scale research and development projects. (p. 14)

Basic Research

The type of research performed by scientists who are interested simply in finding out how the world works, in knowledge for its own sake. (p. 14)

What is pseudoscience? Give an example.

The types of inquiry, such as extrasensory perception (ESP), unidentified flying objects (UFOs), astrology, crystal power, reincarnation and the myriad claims of psychic phenomena, that fail the elementary test that defines science.

Pseudoscience

The types of inquiry, such as extrasensory perception (ESP), unidentified flying objects (UFOs), astrology, crystal power, reincarnation and the myriad claims of psychic phenomena, that fail the elementary test that defines science. (p. 9)

How does a scientist choose between competing hypotheses?

They look for observations that support or disprove each hypotheses being careful not to let a favorite hypothesis prejudice observations.

What are unchanging or eternal things?

Things that last or exist forever; without end or beginning such as major landscape features and stars.

Why do scientists use equations?

To summarize the results of their observations in concise mathematical form, particularly if they have been making quantitative measurements, and then to make very precise predictions.

What is the National Science Foundation?

With a budget of almost $5 billion, the National Science Foundation supports research and education in all areas of science.

Pythagoras

(~600 BC): had religious attitude toward mathematics; perfection of numbers and forms. "All things are number". From ancient Egypt and Greece. Helped develop mathematics.

How does a hypothesis differ from a guess?

A hypothesis is a tentative, educated guess, after summarizing experimental and observational results, about how the world works for the behavior under study and a guess is an estimate or suppose (something) without sufficient information to be sure of being correct.

Science

A method for answering questions about the working of the physical world. (p. 2)

Scientist

A person who studies questions about our world for a living. (p. 11)

What kind of experiment might a chemist perform?

A study atoms in combination and chemical reactions.

Hypothesis

A tentative, educated guess, after summarizing experimental and observational results, about how the world works for the behavior under study. (p. 4)

How do research efforts of theorists, experimentalists and field scientists differ?

A theorist is a person concerned with the theoretical aspects of a subject and wouldn't necessarily do the actual experiments but rather the theory of a subject, an experimentalist is someone who carries out the manipulation of some aspect of nature to observe the outcome, and a field scientist often has to live and work outdoors as they perform field research and collect biological data.

What distinguishes a theory from a natural law?

A theory is a description of the world that covers a relatively large number of phenomena and has met and explained many observational and experimental tests and a natural laws are determined by fundamental forces within nature.

Which of the following are main elements of the scientific method, as described in class? (Check all that apply). A. mathematical proof B. philosophical debate C. open mindedness D. building a model or theory E. random speculation F. careful observation or measurement

A. mathematical proof B. philosophical debate C. open mindedness D. building a model or theory F. careful observation or measurement

What are some ways of knowing that are not science?

Alleged methods of obtaining information by various "alternative" (or non-scientific/non-rational/non-logical) means. This is a concept that separates the scientific and physical from the religious or spiritual and as such, allow practitioners of pseudoscience to get away with practically anything.

What is the difference between an experiment and an observation?

An experiment is the manipulation of some aspect of nature to observe the outcome and an observation is the act of noting nature without manipulating it.

Law of Nature

An overarching statement of how the universe works, following repeated and rigorous observation and testing of a hypothesis or group of related hypotheses. (p. 6)

Which of the following questions are "scientific"? In other words, which can be answered by applying the scientific method? (Check all that apply). A. Why is the number '3' so special? B. What makes the Sun shine? C. How old is the Earth? D. Is the Moon made of green cheese? E. What are the properties of a radio wave? F. How sensitive is a dog's sense of smell? G. Does my cat love me? H. What is heaven like?

B. What makes the Sun shine? C. How old is the Earth? D. Is the Moon made of green cheese? E. What are the properties of a radio wave? F. How sensitive is a dog's sense of smell?

What is the difference between basic and applied research?

Basic research is the type of research performed by scientists who are interested simply in finding out how the world works, in knowledge for its own sake and applied research is the type of research performed by scientist with specific and practical goals in mind. This research is often translated into practical systems by large-scale research and development projects.

What are progressive, "one-way" changes?

Birth, growth, aging, death.

In the beginning, what were early human observations?

Eternal, Cyclic, and Rare events.

Scientific Method

A cycle of collecting observations (data), identifying patterns and regularities in the data (synthesis), forming hypotheses, and making predictions, which lead to more observations. (p. 2)

Describe the steps in the scientific method.

A cycle of collecting observations (data), identifying patterns and regularities in the data (synthesis), forming hypothesis, and making predictions, which lead to more observations.

Theory

A description of the world that covers a relatively large number of phenomena and has met and explained many observational and experimental tests. (p. 4)