Chapter 10 lifespan

criticisms of constructivist and direct instruction approaches.

- advocates of the constructivist approach say that direct instruction approach turns children into passive learners and does not adequately challenge them to think in critical and creative ways - direct instruction advocates say that the constructivist approach doesn't give enough attention to the content of a discipline. And they also believe that the constructivist approaches are to relativistic and vague.

during the elementary school years ...

- children become more likely to recognize aspects of the self and they include references to social groups in their self descriptions (girl scout, catholic, or someone who has 2 close friends) - children's self understanding in the elementary school years also includes increasing reference to social comparison. At this point, children are more likely to distinguish themselves from others in comparative rather than in absolute terms

bullying

- in survey, bullying is defined as verbal or physical behavior intended to disturb someone less powerful - boys are more likely to be bullied than girls - bullied children reported more loneliness and more difficulty in making friends while those who did the bullying were more likely to have low grades and to smoke cigarettes and drink alcohol. - social contexts like poverty, family, school and peer groups can influence bullying. (positive parenting behavior was associated with reduced likelihood of children becoming either bully/victims at school while negative parenting behavior was related to greater likelihood of child becoming bully or bully victim.) -children who are bullied are more likely to experience depression, suicidal ideation, and attempt suicide than others who have not been the victims of bullying. Peer victimization during elementary school years = indicator of internalizing problems - children who were bullies at 6 years of age were more likely to have excess weight gain when they were 12 - 13 years of age. -indication that being a victim of a bully often lead to disordered eating behavior and bullies/victims at risks of developing sleep problems, including shorter sleep duration and a higher prevalence of insomnia as well as lower grade point average. - bullying has long term effects (difficulty forming lasting relationships or having problems in the workplace)

parents play important roles as managers of children's opportunities

- mothers are more likely than fathers to engage in managerial role in parenting. - family management practices are positively related to students' grades and self responsibility and negatively to school related problems. (Maintaining a structured and organized family environment with homework routine, chores, bedtime, etc) = family management practices. (ex: parents monitored academic achievement by ensuring homework is done, restricting time spent on tv and have positive dialogue with teachers and school officials., academic achievement improved)

cognitive development gender differences

- no gender differences in intelligence have been revealed. but girls have slightly better verbal skills than boys no gender differences in math skills. Girls may have more negative math attitudes and parents' and teachers' expectancies for children's math competence are often gender biased in favor of boys. visuospatial skills (include being able to rotate objects mentally and determine what they look like when rotated) Boys have better visuospatial skills than girls. Having a stronger masculine gender role was linked to better spatial ability in males and females. - females outperform males in reading and writing and girls had higher reading achievement than boys in 4rth and 8th grades assessments. Gender difference in reading = greater in countries with less gender equity and lower economic prosperity. girls have better grades and complete high school at a higher rate and less likely to drop out school than boys. Girls more likely to be engaged with material and put more effort in class.

socioemotional development gender differences

- one of the most consistent gender differences found is that boys are more physically aggressive than girls are. Biological and environmental factors have been proposed to account for gender differences in aggression. Biological factors include heredity and hormones and environmental factors include cultural expectations, adult and peer models, and social agents that reward aggression in boys and punish aggression in girls. relational aggression - involves harming someone by manipulating a relationship. Includes behaviors like spreading rumors to make others dislike that person and it increases in middle and late childhood. Relation is a greater percentage of girls' overall aggression than is for boys. - females express emotion more than males do, are better at decoding emotion, smile more and are happier. Males experience more anger than females do. females are better at males at recognizing nonverbal displays of emotion. Girls also show more internalized and positive emotions (sympathy) than boys and this becomes more pronounced with age in middle and late childhood and adolescence. -boys show less self regulation than girls do and this low self control can translate into behavior problems females view themselves as more prosocial and empathetic than males and females do more prosocial behavior than males do, with the biggest difference in kind and considerate behavior

school program interventions for poverty =

- the city connects program was successful in improving children's math and reading achievement by the end of elementary school - child parent center program = intervention that provided school based educational enrichment and comprehensive family services for children. Children who participated in the program had higher rates of postsecondary completion including more years of education and attainment of undergraduate and postgrad degrees. - teach fir america = nonprofit organization that recruits and selects college graduates from universities to serve as teachers for 2 years in public schools in low income communities.

which children are likely to be popular with their peers and which ones tend to be disliked?

- this question is addressed by examining sociometric status which is a term that describes the extent to which children are liked or disliked by their peer group. (can be measured by asking children to rate how much they like/dislike a classmate or naming children they like the most and least)

physical similarities and differences between genders in physical development

- women have twice the body fat of men and most of it is concentrated in breasts and hips. In males, fat is more likely to go to the abdomen. -females have a longer life expectancy than males and females are less likely than males to develop physical or metal disorders (coronary disease). - female brains are 10 percent smaller than male brains but they have more folds. The larger folds (convolutions) allow more surface brain tissue in skulls of females than males. An area of the parietal lobe that functions in visuospatial skills is larger in males than females. Areas of brain involved in emotional expression show more metabolic activity in females than males. many of these differences are small or ambiguous

1. not all rejected children are aggressive and although its related to impulsiveness and disruptiveness about half of the time ... 2. suggestions for rejected children ...

1. 10 to 20 percent of rejected children are shy. 2. rejected children can be taught to more accurately asses whether the intentions of their peers are negative. They can engage in role playing/discuss hypothetical situations involving negative encounters with peers

Kohlberg's critics

1. Kohlberg's theory has been criticized for placing too much emphasis on moral thought and not enough on moral behavior. Moral reasons can sometimes be a shelter for immoral behavior. 2. Jonathan Haidt argues that Kohlberg's theory places too much emphasis on individuals deliberating and contemplating in their reasoning before they decide on a moral stance. Haidt believes that moral thinking is more often an intuitive gut reaction with moral reasoning as an after-the-fact justification. Thus morality = rapid judgements of others rather than beginning with strategic reasoning. 3. Kohlberg argued that emotion has negative effects on moral reasoning but evidence says that emotions play important role in moral thinking. Moral decisions individuals make are linked to the intensity and activation of emotion in the PFC and amygdala 4. Carol Gilligan argues that Kohlberg's theory reflects gender bias. His theory is based on a male norm that puts abstract principles above relationships and concern for others and sees the individual as standing alone and independently making moral decisions. It puts justice at the heart of morality. 5. Kholberg says his levels are universal but critics say his theory is culturally biased. It captures various cultures but misses or misconstrues some important moral concepts in specific cultures. 6. Most experts on children's moral development say that parents' moral values and actions influence children's development of moral reasoning and not just peers.

executive functions called on when children engage in perspective taking are ...

1. cognitive inhibition (controlling one's own thoughts to consider the perspective of others) 2. cognitive flexibility (seeing situations in different ways) research says that children and adolescents who do not have good perspective taking skills are more likely to have difficulty in peer relations and engage in more aggressive and oppositional behavior.

in middle and late childhood, children further develop their understanding and self regulation of emotion. Developmental changes in emotion during middle and late childhood include ..

1. improved emotional understanding (children in elementary school develop an increased ability to understand such complex emotions like pride and shame. These emotions become less tied to the reactions of other people and become more self generated/sense of personal responsibility. Children can also engage in "mental time travel" where they anticipate and recall the cognitive and emotional aspects of events.) 2. increased understanding that more than 1 emotion can be experienced in a particular situation. (achieving something might involve both anxiety and joy for ex). 3. increased tendency to be aware of the events leading to emotional reactions. (ex: sadness today is because of friend moving away last week) 4. ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions (control anger/irriation for ex.) 5. the use of self initiated strategies for redirecting feelings (in elementary school years children become more reflective about emotions and use strategies to control their emotions like soothing themselves) 6. a capacity for genuine empathy (a fourth grader for ex. feels sympathy for a sad person and experiences the sadness the person is feeling)

1. in a recent study children and adolescents said that changes in .. 2. what is the distinction between moral and conventional issues and personal issues?

1. moral beliefs are more disruptive to one's identity than changes in social conventional beliefs are. also, in this study, the children and adolescents reported that changes in negative moral beliefs are more disruptive to one's identity than changes in positive moral beliefs are. 2. a distinction has also been made between moral and conventional issues - which are viewed as legitimately subject to adult social regulation, and personal issues - which are subject to the child's or adolescent's independent decision making and personal discretion. Personal issues include control over one's body, privacy, and choice of friends and activities. Thus, some actions belong to a personal domain and are not governed by moral reasoning or social norms.

5 peer statuses are ...

1. popular children (nominated often as best friend and rarely disliked by peers) 2. average children (average number of both positive and negative nominations from their peers) 3. neglected children (not often nominated as best friend but not disliked by their peers) 4. rejected children (not often nominated as best friend and disliked by peers) 5. controversial children (often nominated as someone's best friend and as being disliked.)

children who have developed a number of coping techniques have the best chance of adapting and functioning competency in the face of disasters and traumas. Recommendations for caring for children after a disaster are...

1. reassure children of their safety and security. 2. allow children to retell events and be patient in listening to them 3. encourage children to talk about any disturbing or confusing feelings, reassuring them that such feelings are normal after a stressful event 4. protect children from re-exposure to frightening situations and reminders of trauma 5. help children make sense of what happened and gently help children develop a realistic understanding of the event

1. developmental advantages occur when children have friends who are ... 2. It is not developmentally advantageous to have ... 3. students who engage in classroom aggressive disruptive behavior are more likely to have ...

1. socially skilled and supportive. 2. coercive and conflict ridden friendships 3. aggressive friends.

3 common types of step family structure are ...

1. stepfather 2. step mother 3. blended or complex in stepfather families, the mother typically had custody of the children and remarried introducing a stepfather into her children's lives. in step mother families, the father had custody and remarried, introducing a new stepmother. in blended or complex family, both parents bring children from previous marriages.

1. Dumbing down out kids, why American children feel good about themselves but cant read write or add book has theme ... 2. challenging the cult of self esteem in education has theme

1. that children have difficulty handling competition and criticism because of receiving praise for mediocre or poor performance that inflates their self esteem. 2. about promise of highs self esteem for students in education who are impoverished or marginalized.

John Coie: three reasons why aggressive peer-rejected boys have problems in social relationships:

1. the rejected aggressive boys are more impulsive and have problems sustaining attention. as a result, they are more likely to be disruptive of ongoing activities in the classroom and in focused group play. 2. rejected aggressive boys are more emotionally reactive and therefore easy to anger and have difficulty calming down once aroused. Because of this they are more prone to become angry at peers and attack them verbally /physically 3. rejected children have fewer social skills in making friends and maintaining positive relationships with peers.

1. in middle and late childhood, perspective taking improves. Perspective taking is ... 2. what is perspective taking thought to be important in?

1. the social cognitive process involved in assuming the perspective of others and understanding their thoughts and feelings. 2. Perspective taking is thought to be especially important in determining whether children develop prosocial or antisocial attitudes and behavior. For prosocial behavior, taking another's perspective improves children's likelihood of understanding and sympathizing with others when they are distressed/in need.

1. popular children have many social skills that contribute to them being well liked such as ... 2. Rejected children often have serious adjustment problems where ..

1. they give out reinforcements, listen carefully, maintain open lines of communication with peers, are happy, control their negative emotions, show enthusiasm and concern with others. 2. peers rejection is linked to development of conduct problems and antisocial behavior. In young adolescents, peer rejection increased the likelihood that victims and bullies would engage in non-suicidal self injury like cutting, burning or hitting oneself. Peer rejection also predicted increases in aggressive and rule breaking behavior.

children's social cognition about their peers becomes increasingly important understanding peer relationships in middle and late childhood. Kenneth Dodge argues that children go through 6 steps in processing info about their social world ...

1. they selectively attend to social cues 2. they attribute intent by interpreting social cues 3. they establish social goals 4. they access behavioral scripts from memory and generate problem solving strategies 5. evaluate the likely effectiveness of strategies and make decisions 6. enact behavior

the following are some strategies for improving relationships among ethnically diverse students:

1. turn the class into a jigsaw classroom (jigsaw classroom is where students from different cultural backgrounds are placed in a cooperative group in which they have to construct different parts of a project to reach a common goal) 2. encourage students to have positive personal contact with diverse other students (mere contact does not do the job of improving relationships with diverse others sharing worries, successes, failures, etc with others works) 3. reduce bias (teachers can reduce bias by displaying images of children from diverse ethnic and cultural groups, play materials that encourage cultural understanding etc) 4. View the school and community as a team (James Comer advocates a community based team approach as the best way to educate children. # aspects of the Comer Project = (1) a governance and management team that develops a comprehensive school plan, assessment strategy, and staff development plan (2) mental health or school support team (3) a parents; program ) 5. Be a competent cultural mediator (teachers can have role as cultural mediator by being sensitive to biased content in classroom and being aware of children's ethnic attitudes.)

The major shift to autonomy does not occur until about age _____ or later.

12. a key developmental task as children move toward autonomy is learning to relate to adults outside the family on a regular basis.

do children develop a moral personality and what are its components?

3 possible components = moral identity, moral character, and moral exemplars. moral identity - people have a moral identity when moral notions and moral commitments are central to their lives. they construct the self with reference to moral categories and violating their moral commitment would place the integrity of their self at risk. moral character - a person with moral character has the willpower, desire and integrity to stand up to pressure overcome distractions and disappointments, and h=behave morally. Person with good moral character displays moral virtues like honesty, truthfulness, and trustworthiness/compassion, loyalty and dependability. moral exemplars - their moral personality, identity, character and set of virtues reflect moral excellence and commitment

the percentage of time spent in social interaction with peers increases from approx. 10% at 2 years of age to more than ...

30 percent in middle and late childhood. - as children move through middle and late childhood, the size of their peer group increases and peer interaction is less supervised by adults. Until 12 years of age, children's preference for same sex peer groups increases.

what factors influence movement through Kohlberg's levels?

Although moral reasoning at each level presupposes a certain level of cognitive development, Kohlberg argued that advances in maturation did not ensure advances in moral reasoning. development of moral reasoning requires children's experiences dealing with moral questions and moral conflict. peer interaction and perspective taking are aspects of social stimulation that challenges children to change their moral reasoning

coping with stress

As children get older they are able to more accurately appraise a stressful situation and determine how much control they have over it. Older children generate more coping alternatives for stressful conditions and use more cognitive coping strategies. They are better than younger children at intentionally shifting their thoughts to something that is less stressful and at reframing their perception of a stressful situation. children in nonsupportive families with trauma do not have coping strategies. disasters can especially harm children's development and make adjustment problems (acute stress, depression, panic disorder, and PTSD)

the social conventional approach is a serious challenge to Kohlberg's approach because ...

Kohlberg argued that social conventions are mixed in with moral concerns at the conventional level which is just a step on ladder to higher moral sophistication (post conventional reasoning) where they are then separated. for social conventional reasoning advocates, social conventional reasoning is not lower than postconventional reasoning but rather something that needs to be disentangled from the moral thread

a second perspective on moral development = from Lawrence Kohlberg

Piaget's cognitive stages of development serve as the underpinnings for Kohlberg's theory but kohlberg says there are 3 levels of moral development development from 1 level to another is through opportunities to take the perspective of others and to experience conflict between one's current moral level of thinking and the reasoning of someone at a higher level. 1. Kohlberg's level 1 : preconventional reasoning - the lowest level of moral reasoning in Kohlberg's theory. At this level children interpret good and bad in terms of external rewards or punishments (children obey parents because fear of punishment or be obedient for reward) 2. Kohlberg's level 2 conventional reasoning - the second or intermediate level in kholberg's theory of moral development where people develop expectations about social roles. People abide by certain standards but they are the standards of others (parents/law) 3. Kohlberg's level 3 = postconventional reasoning - the third and highest level in kohlberg's theory where morality involves flexible thinking and is more internalized.

gender in context

Traits people display may vary with the situation. middle east - males = more socialized to work and females are more encouraged in the private world of home and child rearing. iran = man's duty = to provide for his family and woman's is to care for her family. China also has male dominant culture and don't accept androgynous behavior/gender equity. girls had more egalitarian attitudes about gender riles than boys did in many countries. In Qatar, males had more negative views of gender equality than females had.

albert bandura states that self efficacy is ...

a factor in whether or not students achieve. Self efficacy is the belief that "I can" and students with high self efficacy endorse such statements.

the constructivist approach to instruction is ...

a learner centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher. constructivism may include an emphasis on collaboration- children working with each other in their efforts to know and understand. a teacher with constructivist instructional philosophy would not have children memorize information rotely but would give them opportunities to meaningfully construct their knowledge and understand the material while guiding their learning.

David Yeager and his colleagues conducted ...

a national intervention study that involved a brief online direct-to-student growth mindset intervention that increased the grade point average of underachieving students and improved the challenge seeking mental activity of higher achievers.

the direct instruction approach is ..

a structured teacher centered approach that is characterized by teacher direction and control, high teacher expectations for students' progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks and efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum. important goal in direct instruction is maximizing student learning time.

no child left behind (NCLB)

advocates say that statewide standardized testing will have positive effects like improved student performance, more time spent teaching subjects that are tested, high expectations for all students and identification of poorly performing schools, teachers, admins. critics say that using a single test as the sole indicator of students' progress and competence presents a very narrow view of students' skills. A number of measures should be used to assess student progress and achievement like tests, quizzes, projects, etc. Teachers may spend too much time teaching to test and not development of thinking skills. Gifted students may be neglected to raise the achievement level of students who are not doing well.

school experiences of students from different ethnic groups vary ...

african american and latino students are much less likely than non Latino white or Asian American students to be enrolled in college preparatory programs and more likely to be enrolled in remedial and special education programs. asian Americans are more likely to rake advanced math and science courses. african americans are twice as likely as latinos and whites to be suspended from school. For the ethnic minority students, many have grown up in poverty conditions, less well funded schools, and experienced discrimination, bias, and prejudice.

one of the most important aspects of the self in middle and late childhood is ...

an increased capacity for self regulation

Industry vs. Inferiority

as a part of Erickson's 8 stages of human development, his 4th stage is industry vs inferiority. which is in middle and late childhood. industry = dominant theme is this period where children become interested in how things are made and how they work. When children are encouraged in their efforts to make, build, and work (solving an addition problem, making tree house) their sense of industry increases. - parents who view their children's efforts to make things as mischief or making a mess can cause children to develop a sense of inferiority. - children's social worlds beyond their families also contribute to a sense of industry. School becomes especially important.

anxious, socially withdrawn and aggressive children are often the victims of ...

bullying. anxious socially withdrawn children may be victimized because they are nonthreatening and unlikely to retaliate if bullied, whereas aggressive children may be targets because their behavior is irritating to bullies.

in contrast with Kohlberg's justice perspective, Gilligan argues for a ...

care perspective. which is a moral perspective that views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships with others, and concern for others. (however research shows the girls moral orientations are somewhat more likely to care for others than on abstract principles of justice but they can use both oral orientations when needed as can boys

In E. Mavis Hetherington's analyses,

children and adolescents who had been in a simple stepfamily (stepfather or stepmother) for a number of years were adjusting better than in the early years of the remarried family and were functioning well in comparison with children and adolescents in conflictual nondivorced families and complex blended families. Hetherington concluded that in long established simple stepfamilies, adolescents seem to eventually benefit from the presence if a stepparent and resources provided by them.

In Robert Selman's view, at about 6 to 8 years of age ...

children begin to understand that others may have a different perspective because some people have more access to information. He says in the next several years, children begin to realize that each individual is aware of the other's perspective and that putting one's self in the other's place is a way of judging the other person's intentions, purposes, and actions.

in middle and late childhood, children also become more skeptical of others'

claims. In a study, older children were less trusting and better at explaining reasons to doubt sources that might distort claims than younger children. More intelligent/better social cognitive skilled children are more likely to detect and explain distorted claims.

children from low income ethnic minority backgrounds have more difficulties in school than do their middle socioeconomic status white counterparts. WHY?

critics argue that schools have not done a good job of educating low income ethnic minority students to overcome barriers to their achievement one study revealed that the longer children experienced poverty, the more detrimental the poverty was to their cognitive development. schools in low income areas are likely to have more students with low achievement test scores, lower graduation rates, and smaller percentages of students going to college and are more likely to have younger children that encourage rote learning.

cyberbullying

cyberbullying = related to loneliness, lower self esteem, fewer friends/lower peer popularity,( and stress, suicidal ideation in victims.) cyberbullying is more strongly associated with suicidal ideation than traditional bullying. - adolescents experiencing social and emotional difficulties were more likely to be both cyberbullied and traditionally bullied rather than traditionally bullied only. -victims of cyberbullying were less likely than nonvictims to use problem focused coping strategies and more likely to use emotion focused coping strategies.

the rankings for US students in reading, math, and science compared with students in other countries tend to ...

decline as they go from elementary school to high school and US achievement scores are far below those of students in many east asian countries.

this increased capacity for self regulation is characterized by ...

deliberate efforts to manage one's behavior, emotions, and thoughts leading to increased social competence and achievement. - self control was linked to lower levels of deviant behavior. Parenting characterized by warmth and positive affect predicted the developmental increase in self control. - children revealed that self regulation was a protective factor for children growing up in low SES conditions. Low self regulation was linked to a widening gap in low SES children's emotional problems over time. - increased capacity for self regulation is linked to developmental advances in the brain's prefrontal cortex. Remember increased focal activation in the PFC is linked to improved cognitive control, which includes self regulation - a higher level of self control in childhood was linked to a slower pace of aging at 26, 32, and 38 years old.

Darcia Narvaez and Tracy Gleason

describe cohort effects of moral reasoning. Postconventional moral reasoning has been declining in college students down to the lowest level (personal interests). Narvaez and Gleason also argue that declines in prosocial behavior have occurred in recent years and that humans, especially those in western cultures, are on a track to demise. They emphasize that the path to improving people's moral lives involves better child rearing strategies and social supports for familied and children. They stress that economic and technical progress are not linked to moral advances when contemporary societies are compared with earlier sustainable ones.

self concept refers to ...

domain specific evaluations of self. Children can make self evaluations in many domains in their lives (academic, athetic, appearance ).

William Damon described how sharing develops ...

during their 1st years, when children share it is usually not for reasons of empathy but for the fun of the social play ritual or out of imitation. about 4 years of age, combo of empathetic awareness and adult encouragement produces a sense of obligation on the part of the child to share with others. children's sharing begins to reflect more complex sense of what is just and right during middle and late childhood. By elementary school. children begin to express objective ideas about fairness. By mid to late elementary school years, children believe equity can sometimes mean that people with special merit or special needs deserve special treatment.

step families include ...

far more elementary and secondary school children than infants or preschool children. The number of remarriages involving children has grown. Divorce rate is also 10 % higher in remarriages than in first marriages. Only 1/3 of step family couples stay married. most step families are preceded by divorce rather than death of a spouse.

one of the most promising bullying intervention programs has been created by Dan Olweus. This program ...

focuses on 6-15 year olds with the goal of decreasing opportunities and rewards for bullying. Staff = instructed in ways to improve peer relations and make schools safer. When properly implemented, the program reduces bullying by 30 to 70 percent. - interventions focused on whole school such as Olweus', are more effective than interventions involving classroom curricula or social skills training.

social conventional reasoning

focuses on conventional rules that have been established by social consensus in order to control behavior and maintain the social system. The rules themselves are arbitrary (raising hand in class before speaking, stopping at stop sign) but there are sanctions if we violate these conventions, although they can be changed by consensus.

moral reasoning ...

focuses on ethical issues and rules of morality. Unlike conventional rules, moral rules are not arbitrary but obligatory, widely accepted, and somewhat impersonal. Rules pertaining to lying, cheating, stealing etc = moral rules because violation of these rules violate ethical standards that exist apart from social consensus and convention. Violating moral rules is usually more serious than violating conventional rules.

throughout childhood. friends are more similar than dissimilar in terms of age, sex, race, attitudes, educational aspirations and achievement orientations. friendships also plays an important role in children's emotional well being and academic success. As a result, Willard Hartup concludes that ....

friends provide cognitive and emotional resources from childhood through old age. He says children's friendships can serve 6 functions: 1. companionship 2. stimulation (interesting info/amusement from friend) 3. physical support 4. ego support (encouragement and feedback) 5. social comparison (info about where child stands in comparison with others.) 6. affection and intimacy (close trusting relationship with the individual.

gender steryotypes

gender stereotypes - broad categories that reflect general impressions and beliefs and females and males. By elementary school, children have knowledge about which activities are linked with being male or female. Until 7 to 8, gender stereotyping is extensive because young children don't recognize individual variations in masculinity and femininity. By 5 years of age, both boys and girls stereotype boys as powerful and in more negative terms (mean) and girls in more positive terms (nice). appearance stereotypes were more prevalent among girls while activity and trait stereotyping was more common among boys. Boys = math from both genders and gender stereotypes are more rigid than girls.

Individuals in diverse cultures developed through the 1st two levels in sequence as Kohlberg predicted but level 3 thinking ...

has not been found in all cultures.

distributions for males and females on different brain features overlap so much that Janet Shibley Hyde concluded that ...

in most instances, it is more accurate to describe these features as a mosaic rather than as male-typical and female typical brains. also, sex differences have not been directly linked to psychological differences. anatomical sex differences in the brain may be due to biological origins of these differences, behavioral experiences or a combo of these factors.

self esteem reflects perceptions that do not always match reality. A child's self esteem might reflect a belief about ...

intelligence or attractiveness but that belief may not be necessarily accurate.

Diane ruble

investigated children's use of social comparison in their self evaluations. Children younger than 7 made no reference to the information about other children's performances but children older than 7 included socially comparative information in their self descriptions.

argument for single sex education is ..

it eliminates distraction from the other gender and reduces sexual harassments. Included in the no child left behind legislation. But No benefits for low income students of color. Diane Halpern cays that single sex education i highly misguided, misconstrued and unsupported by any valid scientific evidence. They are against single sex education by saying it reduces opportunities for boys and girls to work together in a supervised purposeful environment.

children have better relationships with their custodial parents than with step parents. But step fathers' affinity seeking (developing friendly relationships with their step children) was linked to ...

less conflict with stepchildren, a better couple relationship, and close step family ties. another study found that when children have better parent child affective relationship with their step parent, the children have fewer internalizing and externalizing problems. - also children in simple steo families (stepmother/father) show better adjustment than people in blended families. like with divorced families, children in step families show more adjustment problems than children in nondivorced families but majority of children in step families don't have such adjustment problems.

kathyrn kerns studied...

links between attachment to parents and various child outcomes in the middle and late childhood years and found that secure attachment is associated with lower levels of internalized symptoms of anxiety and depression in children.

what are the consequences of low self esteem?

low self esteem has been implicated in overweight and obesity, anxiety, depression, suicide, and delinquency. much of the research linking self esteem with these aspects are correlational rather than experimental. only moderate correlations between school performance and self esteem. children with high self esteem have greater initiative and are prone to both prosocial and antisocial actions.

students with friends who are academically oriented are ...

more likely to achieve success in school themselves

as children move into the middle and late childhood years...

parents spend considerably less time with them. (reading, instruction, talking and playing)

Whereas Kohlberg's and Gilligan's theories have focused primarily on the development of moral reasoning, the study of prosocial moral behavior has ...

placed more emphasis on the behavioral aspects of moral development Children may engage in antisocial acts like lying/cheating or prosocial moral behavior like showing empathy or acting altruistically

having positive relationships with peers is especially important in middle and late childhood. Engaging in positive interactions with peers, resolving conflicts in nonaggressive ways, and maintaining quality friendships produce ...

positive outcomes at this time in children's lives. In 3rd and 4th graders, feeling related to peers at school was assoicated with children's positive affectivity both at school and at home. positive peer relations in childhood also are linked to more positive relationships in adolescence and adulthood. (for ex: being popular with peers and engaging in low aggression levels at 8 years of age was related to higher levels of occupational status at 48 years of age.) (another ex: a study that found peer competence = measure that included social contact with peers/popularity, friendship and social skills in middle and late childhood was linked to having better relationships with coworkers in early adulthood.) (low peer status in childhood was linked to increased probability of being unemployed and having mental health problems in adulthood.)

Harold Stevensons research explores ..

possible reasons for the poor performance of American students compared with students in selected Asian countries. - In his studies, asian students consistently outperform american students. They found that Asian teachers spent more of their time teaching math than did the American teachers with more time in 1st grade spent on math in Japan. Also Asian students were in school longer compared to US more days per year. also differences between Asian and American parents where American parents had much lower expectations for their children's education and achievement than did the asian parents. Also, American parents believe children math abilities are innate vs. Asian parents who view it as hard work to learn.

gender

preschool children display a gender identity and gender typed behavior that reflects biological, cognitive, and social influences.

self esteem ...

refers to global evaluation of the self. It is also called self worth or self image. (ex : perceiving oneself as a good person)

in sum, in middle and late childhood ...

self description increasingly involves psychological and social characteristics including social comparison .

intimacy in friendship is characterized by ...

self disclosure and the sharing of private thoughts. research suggests that intimate friendships may not appear until early adolscence.

Dale Schunk's views is that ...

self efficacy influences a student's choice of activities. Students with low self efficacy influences a student's choice of activities, like avoiding many learning tasks, especially those that are challenging. children with high self efficacy work at learning tasks in contrast, They are more likely to spend effort and persist longer at a learning tasks.

the belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes is called ...

self efficacy.

Nancy Eiesenberg concluded that ..

self regulation fosters conscientiousness later in life, both directly and through its link to academic motivation/success and internalized compliance with norms.

the development of self understanding

self understanding becomes more complex in middle and late childhood. children increasingly describe themselves in terms of psychological characteristics and traits. older children are more likely to describe themselves using adjectives (popular, nice, helpful, mean , etc)

moral judgements involve concepts of justice whereas social conventional judgements are concepts of ...

social organization

in middle and late childhood, attachment becomes more ...

sophisticated and as children's social worlds expand to include peers, teachers, and other, they typically spend less time with parents. (opposite of secure attachment in infancy and tole on sensitive parenting established earlier)

common core standards ...

specify what students should know and the skills they should develop at each grade level in various content areas. some critics say that they are an effort by the federal government to control education and they emphasize a one side fits all approach that pays little attention to individual variations in students. Supporters say that the standards provide much needed detailed guidelines and important milestones for students to achieve.

adolescence is an especially difficult time for the formation of a ...

step family. This difficulty may happen because becoming part of a step family exacerbates normal adolescent concerns about identity, sexuality, and autonomy.

Dweck and her colleagues also found ...

students form low income families were less likely to have a growth mindset than their counterparts from wealthier families they also emphasized that the brain can change and grow as it is exercises and evelops new connections. Students were informed the more they challenge their brain to learn, the more the brain cells grow and students improved their math achievement with both skills instruction and growth emphasis. "Brainology" - to teach students that their intelligence can change

can peer mindsets influence a child's mindset?

study shows mindset of a student's classmates at time 1 was linked to the student's mindset at time 2

the following approach as been found to increase adolescents; growth mindset :

teach understanding, provide feedback that improves understanding, give students opportunities to revise their work, communicate how effort and struggling are involved in learning, and function as a partner with children and adolescents in the learning process.

Kohlberg says ...

that his levels are age related and are in sequence. Before age 9, most children use level 1 and by early adolescence, their moral reasoning is increasingly based on the application of standards set by others reflecting conventional reasoning. By early adulthood, some people reason in post conventional ways

Kohlberg argued that family processes are unimportant in children's moral development. Like Piaget he argued ...

that parent child relationships usually provide children with little opportunity for give and take or perspective taking because of power relationships. Kohlberg says that these opportunities are more likely to be provided by children's peer relationships.

Comer believes ...

that the entire school community should have a cooperative rather than an adversarial attitude.

the domain theory of moral development states ...

that there are different domains of social knowledge and reasoning, including moral, social conventional, and personal domains. In this theory, children's' moral, social conventional, and personal knowledge and reasoning emerge from their attempts to understand and deal with different forms of social experience.

a large number of social emotional educational programs have been developed to improve children and adolescents' lives. Two programs are ..

the Second step (prek - 8th grade) and the collaborative for academic social and emotional learning (CASEL). (pre k through 12th grade) 1. second step focuses on following aspects of social emotional learning in students from pre-k through 8th grade. (1) pre k = self regulation and executive function skills that improve their attention and help them control their behavior (2) k through 5th grade: making friends, self regulation of emotion, and solving problems (3) 6-8 grades = communication skills, coping with stress, and decision making to avoid engaging in problem behaviors 2. CASEL targets 5 core social and emotional learning domains : self awareness (recognizing one's emotions and how they affect behavior), self management (self control, stress coping, impulse control), social awareness (empathy/perspective taking), and responsible decision making.

Carol S Dweck described the importance of children's mindset which she defines as ....

the cognitive view individuals develop for themselves. she concludes that each person has one of 2 mindsets: (1) - a fixed mindset - where they believe that their qualities cannot change. (2) a growth mindset - where they believe their qualities can change and improve through their own effort. Dweck argues that people's mindsets influence whether they will be optimistic or pessimistic, what their goals will be and how hard they will strive to reach those goals/what they will achieve. She says mindsets begin to be shaped in childhood as children interact with parents, teachers, and coaches who have fixed or growth mindset.

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)

the law replaced the no child left behind act, modifying but not completely eliminating standardized testing. ESSA retains annual testing for reading and writing in grades 3 to 8, then once more in high school. The new law also allows states to scale back the role of tests in holding schools accountable for student achievement. Schools must use at least one nonacademic factor such as student engagement in tracking success. States and districts are requires to implement challenging academic standards

dose response effects

the more severe the disaster/trauma (dose), the worse the adaptation and adjustment (response) following the disaster/trauma

the foundations of self esteem and self concept emerge from ...

the quality of parent child interaction. if children have low self esteem they may have experienced neglect or abuse with their parents earlier in development. Children with high self esteem are more likely to be securely attached to parents and have parents engage in sensitive caregiving.

parents play an important role in supporting and stimulating children's academic achievement in middle and late childhood.

the value of parents place on education determine whether children do well in school. Whether children participate in sports, music, and other activities is heavily influenced by the extent to which parents sign children up for these activities.

As a result of Dodge's 6 steps in processing behavior, children can evaluate the effectiveness of their response. boys are less likely to spontaneously engage in ...

this kind of self evaluation of the outcomes of their behavior and thus more likely than girls to engage in impulsive and aggressive behavior. Aggressive boys are more likely to see another child's actions as hostile when the child's intention is ambiguous. And then aggressive boys search for cues to determine a peer's intention, they respond more rapidly, less efficiently and less reflectively than nonaggressive children.

social cognition

thoughts about social matters (such as the aggressive boy's interpretation of an encounter as hostile and his classmates' perception of his behavior as inappropriate. )

Jonathan Kozol observed in many inner city schools

undesirable conditions where buildings and classrooms are old and crumbling. far too many low income schools provide students with environments that are not conducive to effective learning

because state standards vary greatly on what is passing or failing on tests for NCLB inclusion, state-by-state comparison of success on NCLB tests are likely to be ...

unreliable. many state have kept the standard for passing low. Allowing states to set their own standards has lowered achievement standards.

by 10 years of age most children are able to ...

use cognitive strategies to cope with stress.

elementary school children tend to receive less physical discipline than preschoolers do and instead of spanking, parents...

use more deprivation of privileges, appeals to the child's self esteem, and comments to increase guilt. During middle and late childhood, some control is transferred from parent to child. Parents have general control while children are allowed to engage in moment to moment self regulation.

social knowledge is also involved in children's ability to get along with peers. They need to know ...

what goals to pursue in poorly defined or ambiguous situations, how to initiate and maintain a social bond, and what scripts to follow to get other children to be their friends.

Piaget's view of moral development proposed that

younger children are characterized by heteronomous morality but that by 10 years of age they moved to a higher stage (autonomous morality) according to Piaget, older children consider intentions of someone, believe that rules are subject to change and are ware that punishment does not always follow wrongdoing.