Chapter 11
Mastery Experiences
Our own direct experiences- the most powerful source of efficacy information.
Self-Regulation
Process of activating and sustaining thoughts, behaviors, and emotions in order to reach goals.
When a student participates in cognitive behavior modification, he or she:
is taught to use self-talk to regulate behavior.
Ripple Effect
"Contagious" spreading of behaviors through imitation.
Social Persuasion
A "pep talk" or specific performance feedback- one source of self-efficacy.
Self-Efficacy
A person's sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task. Beliefs about personal competence in a particular situation. "Context Specific" Varies depending on the subject or task.
Grit
A personality trait characterized by determination and persistence.
Teachers' Sense of Efficacy
A teacher's belief that he or she can reach even the most difficult students and help them learn.
Co-Regulation
A transitional phase during which students gradually appropriate self-regulated learning and skills through modeling, direct teaching, feedback, and coaching from teachers, parents, or peers.
Vicarious Experiences
Accomplishments that are modeled by someone else.
Which one of the following children most clearly shows a low level of self-efficacy?
Carol doesn't think she has the ability to do her art project successfully.
Modeling
Changes in behavior, thinking, or emotions that happen through observing another person- a model.
Self-Reinforcement
Controlling (selecting and administering) your own reinforcers.
Guidelines for Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation
Create a climate of trust in your classroom. Help students recognize and express their feelings. Help students recognize emotions in others, and develop empathy and compassion. Provide strategies for coping with emotions. Help students recognize cultural differences in emotional expression.
Dwayne sees that a good friend in his class is caught cheating on a homework assignment, but the friend suffers no consequences for doing so, even though cheating is in clear violation of school policy. From a social cognitive perspective, which one of the following predictions can we make about Dwayne's future behavior?
Dwayne will be more likely to cheat on homework in the future.
Guidelines for Encouraging Self-Efficacy
Emphasize students' progress in a particular area. Set learning goals for your students, and model a mastery orientation for them. Make specific suggestions for improvement, and revise grades when improvements are made. Stress connections between past efforts and past accomplishments.
Three of the following are likely to increase a student's internalized motivation and self-efficacy about performing a difficult gymnastic stunt. Which one is LEAST likely to enhance the student's self-efficacy for the stunt?
Having a lot of practice in other sports, such as swimming and soccer.
"I know that my skills in English are great," Chris declared to her brother. "I received a perfect score on the verbal part of the SAT, and I have always excelled in my literature classes." Chris is demonstrating which of the following?
High self-efficacy in English
Vicarious Reinforcement
Increasing the chances that we will repeat a behavior by observing another person being reinforced for that behavior.
Observational Learning
Learning through modeling and observing others
Enactive Learning
Learning through reinforcement and punishment of your own behaviors
Various learning theorists have different views of the role of the student in learning. Which theorists are more similar in their views of the student's role?
Lev Vygotsky and Albert Bandura
Guidelines for Using Observational Learning
Model behaviors and attitudes you want your students to learn. Use peers, especially class leaders, as models. Make sure students see that positive behaviors lead to reinforcement for others. Enlist the help of class leaders in modeling behaviors for the entire class.
Three of the following alternatives depict situations in which a teacher is facilitating the retention element of modeling. Which one does NOT depict the retention element?
Mr. Byers suggests, "Let's play some background music while I show you how to use the dipstick to measure your oil level."
Which teacher's practice is most effective in supporting student self-regulation in learning?
Mr. Sutton's students help develop the rubric for grading their essays
Joanna has an important English exam coming up in 2 days, but she still has not completed the reading for the test. She needs to finish The Things They Carried and read almost all of On The Road, and she also needs to review the material from earlier in the semester. She knows that if she does not do well on this exam, her chances of getting an "A" will vanish, and she may even get a "B-" or a "C" in the class. Still, Joanna cannot seem to make herself sit down and do her work, even though she is anxious about the test. Which of the following is likely to be the case for Joanna?
She is lacking in volition.
According to which of the following learning theories do peers serve as models and as a necessary part of knowledge construction?
Social Cognitive Theory
Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura)
Theory that adds concern with cognitive factors such as beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectations to social learning theory. Social- Role of other people serving as models and teachers Cognitive- Thinking, believing, expecting, anticipating, self-regulating, making comparisons and judgments Dynamic theory that explains human adaptation, learning, and motivation.
Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
Theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others.
Miss Hutton turned around with a scowl on her face and faced her second-graders. "What do you think you are doing, Johnny? Did I tell you to get out of your seat? Do not let me ever catch you up without permission." The class sat silently with their eyes wide. When the lunch bell rang an hour later, not one of the children dared to move from their seats. This is an example of which one of the following?
Vicarious Learning
Knowledge is seen as a fixed body of facts, skills, and concepts by:
behavioral and cognitive theorists.
Ms. Freeman tells her students, "You can do this! You can have this play ready by the Friday opening-night performance." According to social cognitive theory, this type of social persuasion is likely to:
encourage the students to feel confident as they put out a strong effort.
Relationship Skills
establishing and maintaining healthy and rewarding relationships based on cooperation; resisting inappropriate social pressure; preventing, managing, and resolving interpersonal conflict; seeking help when needed
Constructivist theorists see the teacher's primary role in the classroom as:
facilitator.
The "social" part of social cognitive theory emphasizes:
learning by observing others.
You are an eighth-grade teacher in the middle of leading your students through a complicated science experiment. The students are beginning to seem discouraged and are starting to lose interest because the procedure is difficult. Of the following, the best way to increase your students' sense of self-efficacy is to:
make sure they have mastery experiences, or personal experiences of success.
Responsible Decision Making
making decisions based on consideration of ethical standards, safety concerns, appropriate social norms, respect for others, and likely consequences of various actions; applying decision-making skills to academic and social situations; contributing to the well-being of one's school and community
Assessment practices that best support the development of self-regulated learning are:
nonthreatening opportunities that encourage additional learning.
The five core social and emotional skills and competencies essential to emotional self-regulation include self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and:
responsible decision making.
Of the four elements that Bandura proposed are essential parts of observational learning, practice is part of:
retention and production.
The "ripple effect" occurs in the classroom when students:
see the consequences of a high-status student's behavior and become more or less willing to engage in the same behavior.
Within social cognitive theory, vicarious reinforcement refers to:
seeing someone else rewarded for a behavior and then performing the behavior yourself.
Self-Regulated Learning
A view of learning as skills and will applied to analyzing learning tasks, setting goals and planning how to do the task, applying skills, and especially making adjustments about how learning is carried out.
Which of the following students most clearly appears to be in the forethought phase of self-regulated learning?
Alexia knows she's not very good at geometry, so she selects the project option that requires a modest amount of work but won't award her an A.
Triadic Reciprocal Causality
An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the mutual effects of the individual and the environment on each other. Dynamic interplay among: personal, environmental, and behavioral influences.
Elements of Observational Learning:
Attention Retention Production Motivation and Reinforcement
Physiological or Emotional Arousal
Physical and psychological reactions causing a person to feel alert, attentive, wide awake, excited, or tense.
Cognitive Behavior Modification
Procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive learning principles for changing your own behavior by using self-talk and self-instruction.
Direct Reinforcement
Reinforcement given after successful completion of a task.
Ms. Sterling is a third-grade teacher with one student, Levi, who cannot seem to do his work without constantly talking and getting out of his seat. Ms. Sterling decides to implement a program of cognitive behavior modification with Levi. Under this system, which of the following will Ms. Sterling do?
She will teach Levi to engage in self-talk to regulate his own behavior.
Modeling is defined as changes in behavior, thinking, or emotions that happen through observing another person. Which theory and theorist are associated with learning through observation?
Social cognitive theory, Bandura
Mauricio's mother is worried that when Mauricio sees his uncle smoking cigarettes, he will want to do the same. However, Mauricio does not seem interested, and his mother's fears turn out to be unfounded. Which of the following statements best explains why students do not learn from observing everyone in their environment?
Students are selective in who they observe, and they attend to those individuals they perceive to be role models.
Shared Regulation
Students working together to regulate each other through reminders,
Self-Instruction
Talking oneself through the steps of a task.
Human Agency (Bandura)
The capacity to coordinate learning skills, motivation, and emotions to reach your goals.
Which of the following strategies is LEAST likely to be effective in teaching emotional self-regulation?
When two students begin to argue about who did the most work on a group assignment, the teacher says, "Now just stop fighting. It's not important to decide who works harder."
Volition
Will power; self-discipline; work styles that protect opportunities to reach goals by applying self-regulated learning.
Of the following, the activity that is most likely to encourage students to develop a sense of efficacy for learning is:
a semester-long project in which students make most of the key decisions.
Self Awareness
accurately assessing your feelings, interests, values, and strengths; maintaining a well-grounded sense of self-confidence
Behaviorist theories of learning see the role of the student, in part, as:
active listener and direction-follower
From a design point of view, a complex task is best described as one that:
addresses multiple learning targets.
Shizuko is very unsure of herself in science class, and so her teacher provides frequent feedback that encourages Shizuko to take some risks and reflect on the outcomes. Within a few weeks, Shizuko shows greater self-efficacy not only in science but in her other classes as well. From the perspective of triadic reciprocal causality, the teacher feedback would best be considered:
an interplay among behavioral, personal, and environmental factors.
Within a system of triadic reciprocal causality, the behavior of any individual student affects:
aspects of the instruction that the student receives and the student's achievement
Kendra has very little confidence in her ability to do well in her English literature class. She has not mastered skills that her peers have mastered. Based on research about the effects of self-efficacy, we can reasonably predict that Kendra is likely to do all of the following things EXCEPT:
exert a lot of effort in her literature class.
Karla has high self-efficacy regarding her ability to recall important dates in history. In other words, Karla:
has a positive assessment of her ability to be successful in this particular task.
Research suggests that teachers who participate in mindfulness training are more likely than their peers to:
have higher self-efficacy scores.
When Juan sees his best friend punished for skipping class, Juan decides not to skip class, at least not any time soon. The best explanation for Juan's choice is that:
he has an expectation that skipping class will have a negative outcome.
One of the best ways to prevent or reduce teacher burnout is to:
help teachers enhance their emotional self-regulation skills.
The theory that most clearly proposes that learning involves application of effective strategies to acquire a fixed body of knowledge is:
information processing theory.
Mr. Uher assigns students to work in pairs, carefully selecting the pairs so that every pair has one student who can serve as a coping model. This type of pairing is best used when:
one student needs to see another work through problems slowly and correct errors as he goes along.
One of your fellow teachers, Mrs. Morales, is having trouble managing her classroom. She says, "I am tired of always having to keep everyone in line. How do you get your students to self-regulate?" You might suggest to Mrs. Morales that one way teachers can encourage student self-regulation is to:
provide students with choices about what and how they will learn.
Of the following, the strongest criticism of the idea that "grittier" people are ultimately more successful in school is that:
recent research doesn't show a strong connection between grit and academic success.
Self-Management
regulating your emotions to handle stress, control impulses, and persevere in overcoming obstacles; setting and monitoring progress toward personal and academic goals; expressing emotions appropriately
Mischel's well-known "marshmallow study" demonstrated that children differ in terms of their:
self-control
Joey says to himself, "I really do not want to do my homework now. It's Friday night, but I know I'll feel good on Saturday when I don't have any homework left. Then, I can play soccer and not worry about anything. I guess I will go ahead and do it now." The process he uses to activate his thoughts, behaviors, and emotions to reach his goals is referred to as:
self-regulation
The learning theory that is most likely to emphasize the importance of self-efficacy and self-regulation is:
social cognitive theory
Triadic reciprocal causality is the system of interactions at work in:
social cognitive theory
Albert Bandura criticized behavioral views of learning in his early work and focused on:
social modeling
Social Awareness
taking the perspective of and empathizing with others; recognizing and appreciating individual and group similarities and differences; recognizing and using family, school, and community resources
Cognitive theorists argue that the teacher's primary role in the classroom is to:
teach and model effective learning strategies.
Teachers' sense of efficacy is important because it predicts:
the goals set by the teacher and subsequent persistence when situations become difficult.
You watch another teacher successfully teach her students how to use the new digital scanning device in the physics lab, and you say, "If she can do it, I can do it." This indicates that your self-efficacy is influenced by:
vicarious experiences.
Through observational learning, one learns how to perform a behavior and also what will happen in specific situations if one performs it. Observation can be a very efficient learning process. Which four elements must be met in order to learn from observation?
Attention, retention, production, motivation and reinforcement
Ella is at the grocery store with her 5-year-old daughter, Kirsten. Kirsten sees a colorful box of sugary cereal and asks if they can buy it. When Ella says no, Kirsten begins to whine, repeatedly asking "why not" and saying "but I WANT it." Ella is afraid that Kirsten will have a full-blown tantrum in the store, and she carefully weighs the benefits of buying the cereal (Kirsten will stop whining) and the risks (Kirsten will be reinforced for whining, and the cereal isn't really good for her). Ultimately, she decides to buy the cereal, just this once. From the perspective of triadic reciprocal causality, the best example of how environmental factors influence personal factors in this scenario is:
Ella's motivation to calm her daughter was affected by the fact they were in the grocery store.