Chapter 11 Weight & Body Composition

Citrus Aurantium

"Bitter Orange" may be used in ephedra-free supplements Slight increase in RMR, clinically insignificant Minor adverse events reported

Endomorph

"Stocky" with wide hips Easily gains body fat

Interindivudial

A comparison or observation made between people

Android

Abdominal area "Apple" shaped Male

Creiterion

Accepted standard by which other decisions are judged

Considerations when estimating body composition

Accuracy Practicality and portability Ease of use Time Cost Subject comfort and effort Technician training

Residual Volume

Amount of air left in the lungs after a maximal voluntary exhalation

Percent Body fat (% BF)

Amount of fat relative to body mass. Expressed as a percent of total body weight.

Suprailium

An area of the body directly above the crest of the ilium the hip bone

Power to Weight Ratio

An expression of the ability to produce force in a short amount of time relative to body mass

Androstenedione

Banned by most sports governing bodies Illegal to market in the U.S.

Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA)

Based on electrical current conductivity SEE = ~ 3.5% Practical and easy Takes ~ 5 min Pre-measurement guidelines require substantial subject compliance Technician training is minimal Moderately expensive to purchase

Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DEXA)

Based on low intensity x-rays SEE = ~ 1.8% Practical in some facilities Takes ~ 5 to 10 min Simple procedure Subject exposed to very small amount of radiation Technician training and licensure needed Very expensive to purchase

Error of Measurement

Body fat is not measured directly All methods have inherent error Technicians and subjects can add more error Standard Error of the Estimate (SEE)

Anthropometric

Body measurements such as height, weight, waist circumference and skin fold thickness

Advanced Imaging Techniques

CT scans, MRI, ultrasound SEE not yet established Practical in some facilities Takes ~ 30 min; subject must be still Technician training and licensure needed Very expensive to purchase

Body Shape

Common gender distribution Android (male) Gynoid (female) Gender not the only influence

Ephedrine

Controversial Small number of serious events has been reported including a few deaths of athletes Proper dose is subject to debate Banned by most sports governing bodies In U.S., federal ban for doses greater than 10 mg Completely banned in some states Avoid prior to strenuous workouts in the heat

Body fat

Essential ~ 3% in males ~ 12% in females 9% Sex-specific (hormonal/reproductive functions)

Addressing Goals to Change Body Composition

Estimate body composition as accurately as possible Make realistic goals, achievable through diet and training Performance vs appearance Consider genetic predisposition, requirements of the sport Attaining or maintaining goals does not put athlete's health at risk Use target body weight formula

Skinfold Testing

Estimates subcutaneous fat stores SEE = ~ 3.5% Practical if private area is available Takes ~ 5 min Subject may be uncomfortable; some measurements difficult Technician training and skill is critical Inexpensive to purchase calipers

Three-compartment model

FM + bone mass + FFM Measuring bone mass increases accuracy

Four-compartment model

FM + bone mass + FFM + total body water Most accurate due to measurement of more types of tissues

Two-compartment model

Fat mass (FM) + FFM Not all FFM tissues have the same density

Lean body mass (LBM)

Fat-free mass (FFM) + essential body fat FFM = muscle, fluids, bone, organs Muscle is one component of LBM Total amount of all physiological necessary tissue in the body; that is, FFM and essential body fat. Pounds or kilograms

Gynoid

Female Hips, thighs, buttocks "Pear" shape

"Lightweight" Sports

Goal is low body weight with sufficient muscularity Some athletes are naturally lightweight Some athletes use extraordinary measures to "make weight" Semi-starvation diets Dehydration techniques Excessive exercising Safe minimum body weight can be calculated

Euhydration

Good Hydration a normal or adequate amount of water for proper physiological function

"Skinny Fat"

Healthy BMI High body fat percentage Higher amount of visceral fat "Normal weight obesity" - higher risk of metabolic problems

Weight and Body Composition

Important in sports with weight classes or subjective judging that is influenced by appearance

Increasing Muscle Mass and Body Fat

Increase dietary intake by 500 kcal per day if possible Avoid increasing dietary fat too much Difficult to achieve

Variations in Body Composition Changes

Increases in LBM In untrained individuals, initial gains may be large In trained athletes, gains are usually slow Women experience ~ 50 to 75% of the gains seen in men

Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA)

Marketed for fat burning Inconsistent results in human studies. Safety has not been established

Body mass

Mass vs. weight Weight is affected by gravity

Plethysomography

Measuring and recording changes in volume of the body of a body part

Role of Nutrition

Minimum 30 kcal/kg body weight Low CHO intake affects muscle glycogen resynthesis Consume at least 5 g/kg body weight daily Low protein intake affects LBM Consume at least 1.4 g/kg body weight daily Loss of body fat will be slow Plan for sufficient time "Off-season"; low volume training periods

Essential Fat

Minimum amount of body fat necessary for proper physiological functioning. Estimated to be approximately 3 % of body weight for males and 12 % for females

Interpreting Body Weight

Most useful for tracking hydration status Necessary if weight must be certified Most athletes do not need to measure weight daily Must be interpreted correctly Decreased body weight could result from: Loss of water (dehydration) Loss of body fat (kcal deficit) Loss of muscle mass (starvation)

Mesomorph

Muscular with little excess body fat Easily gains LBM

Decreasing Body Fat General Principals

Must create a caloric deficit Decrease kcal intake by reducing food intake Increase energy expenditure Combination of decreased kcal intake and increased energy expenditure is recommended

Interpreting Body Composition Results

Only an estimate! Results should be given as a range May be used to determine an appropriate body weight goal and assess current training and dietary protocol

Increasing Muscle Mass Role of exercise

Periodized strength training Hypertrophy phase Large volume (number of sets and repetitions) Moderate intensity or load (amount of weight lifted) Gains depend on genetics, body type, hormonal status and nutritional status

Prohormones

Precursors to testosterone Androstenedione DHEA

Anabolic Steroids

Prescription drugs similar to testosterone Most sports governing bodies prohibit due to ethical and safety reasons Mild, moderate, or substantial medical risks

Proprietary

Privately owned and administered

Hydrodensitometry aka Underwater Weighing

Ratio of mass (weight) to volume May be most accurate measure available to athletes SEE = ~ 2.7% Practical if space is available Requires submersion in water, holding breath Takes more time to perform than most methods Subject may be uncomfortable Technician training needed but not difficult Expensive to purchase

Body Mass Index (BMI)

Relationship of weight to height Used to establish a "healthy weight" range Risk assessment tool for the general population Not appropriate to use with: Pregnant females Trained athletes

Weight Cycling in Athletes

Repeated bouts of weight loss and weight gain May be part of a sport's culture Natural weight Training weight Competitive weight Championship weight

Crash Diet

Sever restriction of food intake in an attempt to lose large amounts of body fat rapidly

Weight Cycling in Athletes Studies

Short-term, high-intensity exercise not impaired Expected performance improvements did not occur Resting metabolic rate (RMR) not decreased Negative mental changes (anger, tension, fatigue) Medical consequences Hypohydration and hyperthermia (potentially fatal) Headaches, nosebleeds, racing heart Possible predisposition to obesity later in life

Ectomorph

Slightly built Difficulty gaining weight or LBM

Seasonal Changes

Small losses in body fat may be a consequence of return to training Best time to lose body fat is usually the "off-season" or early part of the pre-season "Crash diets" may be employed to lose large amounts of body fat in a short period of time Usually detrimental to training, hydration status, health

Factors that may impact weight and body composition goals:

Sport Position played Size requirements (height, weight) Relative need for power and endurance Power-to-weight ratio Weight certification Body appearance

Prepubescent

Stage of development just before the onset of puberty

Storage

Subcutaneous and visceral

Increasing Muscle Mass Role of Nutrition

Sufficient energy intake Sufficient protein intake "Rule of thumb" estimates to support resistance training program Additional ~ 400 to 500 kcal daily (less for females) Additional ~ 14 g protein daily

Standard Error of the Estimate (SEE)

The degree to which the measured factor is likely to vary above or below result obtained

Muscle Mass

The total amount of skeletal muscle in the body. Expressed in pounds of kilograms

Satiate

To satisfy hunger

Body Mass

Total Amount of matter or material of the body; commonly used interchangeably with weight. Expressed in pounds of kilograms

Fat Free Mass

Total amount of all tissues in the body exclusive of fat; includes muscle, bone, fluids, organs and so forth. Expressed in pounds or kilograms

Bone Mass

Total amount of bone in the body. In pounds or kilograms

Fat Mass

Total amount of fat in the body. Expressed in pounds or kilograms

Inherent

Unable to be considered separately

Role of Exercise

Used to create moderate caloric deficit Maintains or minimizes loss of LBM Athletes may not be able to increase exercise substantially due to increased risk for injury or overtraining

Plethysmography

Uses air displacement to measure volume SEE = ~ 2.2 to 3.7% Practical if space is available Takes ~ 5 min Subject may be uncomfortable being enclosed Minimal technician training needed Expensive to purchase

DHEA

Weak anabolic steroid Has a general effect on tissues not a specific effect on skeletal muscle No evidence of effectiveness for increasing muscle mass or performance

Ephedra, ephedrine alkaloids, and ephedrine

Weight Loss Used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat asthma Used in over-the-counter asthma medications Marketed for weight loss and increased energy