chapter 12

Gestalt's problem solving approach involved two things...

representing a problem in the mind. & restructuring: changes the problems representation

Think-aloud protocol:

say aloud what one is thinking while solving a problem.

Obstacles of problem solving: Candle problem

seeing boxes as containers inhibited using them as support

surface features

specific elements of a given problem.

Duncker's Radiation Problem:

Analogies aid problem-solving Often hints must be given to notice connection

What Is a Problem?

An obstacle between a present state and a goal

Information-Processing Approach Tower of Hanoi Operators:

It consists of three rods and a number of disks of different sizes, which can slide onto any rod. initial vs. goal state rules specify which moves are allowed and which are not

Metcalfe & Wiebe (1987) Task:

Ps saw insight problems (triangle & chain problem) and noninsight problems: (algebra). warmth judgements (for solving) every 15 seconds

Percentage solving radiation problem:

Radiation problem alone 10% After reading fortress story 30% When told to think about fortress story & how it could help u solve radiation prob 75%

ex of Using Analogies to Solve a Problem:

Russian marriage problem (source problem) --- mutilated checkerboard problem (target problem) ps saw solution faster if they saw the marriage problem first.

Using Analogies to Solve a Problem means that:

Using a solution to a similar problem guides solution to new problem

Ill-defined problems are so named because it is difficult to specify ________ for the problems. a. a single correct answer b. initial states c. analogies d. schemas

a. a single correct answer

in vivo problem solving research: advantage & disadvantage:

advantage: naturalistic setting disadvantage: time consuming & cannot isolate and control variables

Which of the following statements does NOT apply to the results of research on differences between how experts and novices solve problems? a. Experts often get off to a slower start than novices. b. Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field. c. Experts often group problems differently than novices, based on principles. d. Experts possess more knowledge about their fields than novices.

b. Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field.

Dr. Curious is doing a follow-up study to the mutilated checkerboard problem experiment. In this new study, participants solve the following shoe problem before tackling the checkerboard problem. By doing this, Dr. Curious is studying the effect of ________ on problem solving. The shoe problem: A first-grade class is using a trampoline in gym class, so all the children have removed their shoes, which are all jumbled in a large pile. One of the students, Miguel, is leaving early, so the teacher tells him to grab his shoes and report to the lobby. In his hurry, Miguel grabs two identical left-footed, size 6 red sneakers and runs to his mother still sock-footed. Will the remaining students be able to shoe-up with the remaining shoes without getting a foot-ache? a. perceptual segregation b. analogies c. divergent thinking d. anaphoric interference

b. analogies

The analogical paradox refers to problem-solving differences between a. experiments & control groups b. laboratory & real world settings c. well & ill defined problems d. experts & novices

b. laboratory & real world settings

Metcalfe and Wiebe gave participants problems to solve and asked them to make "warmth" judgments every 15 seconds to indicate how close they felt they were to a solution. The purpose of this experiment was to: a. show how people progress through the problem space as they solve a problem. b. show that some problems are easier to solve than others. c. demonstrate a difference between how people solve insight and non-insight problems. d. measure the time-course of solving well-defined versus ill-defined problems.

c. demonstrate a difference between how people solve insight and non-insight problems.

Gick and Holyoak consider which of the following to be the most difficult step to achieve in the process of analogical problem solving? a. Solving the problem through reorganization because past experience can make it more difficult to reorganize a problem. b. Mapping corresponding parts between the problems because the elements are difficult to identify. c. Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution because of the difficulty in generalizing from one problem to another. d. Noticing that there is an analogous relationship between problems because most participants need prompting before they notice a connection.

d. Noticing that there is an analogous relationship between problems because most participants need prompting before they notice a connection.

experts solve problems in their field....

faster & w/ a higher success rate than beginners

What does it mean when a problem is well-defined?

it has the correct answer, certain procedures will lead to a solution

experts possess....

more knowledge about their field

Convergent thinking

one correct answer

Divergent thinking -

open ended, large number of potential solutions

What does it mean when a problem is ill-defined?

path to solution is unclear, no "one correct" answer ex: a costumer service situation

in vivo problem solving research:

people are observed to determine how they solve problems in the real world

Divergent thinking: Alternate Uses Test:

ps find novel uses for common objects (such as a shoe)

Kohler's "circle" problem is related to Gestalt's approach by...

the success in solving a problem is influenced by how it is represented in the person's mind. - this is represented in the circle problem. when we have to determine the length of the segment marked x if the radius of the circle has a length of r

analogical transfer

the transfer from one problem to another source ---- target problem *russian marriage enhances ability to solve checkerboard problem

structural features

the underlying principles that govern the solution to a problem *making structural features more obvious also aids analogical problem solving

convergent thinking: Remote Associates Test

what word goes w/ each of the following words? tooth, potato, heart: answer is SWEET

novice vs. expert

novice: focuses on surface features expert: focuses on deep features

analogical paradox

ps in experiments focus on surface features people in the real world use structural features*

The Importance of How a Problem Is Stated & its implication

Acrobat and reverse acrobat problem: must be coherent One small change in wording of problem Not just analyzing structure of problem space Implication: how a problem is stated can affect its difficultly

The creative cognition approach that Finke used to get people to "invent" useful objects is an example of: a. the means-end analysis. b. convergent thinking. c. the role of insight in creativity. d. divergent thinking.

d. divergent thinking.

In Belilock and Carr's study of the relationship between working memory capacity and problem solving, individuals with high working memory capacity performed best in the ________ condition. a. high-pressure b. ill-defined c. well-defined d. low-pressure

d. low-pressure

Warmth judgements on nearness to a solution __________ prior to the solution of an insight problem and ___________ prior to the solution of a non-insight problem

rise suddenly just ; gradually rise

Newell and Simon Means-end analysis:

reduces differences between initial and goal states

Figure 12.3 in relation to "two insight problems" and how we can solve them. *triangle & chain problem

-theres a sudden realization of a problem's solution -often requires restructuring of the problem

Gick and Holyoak (1980, 1983)

1. Noticing relationship (most difficult) 2. Mapping correspondence between source and target 3. Applying mapping

Mutilated-checkerboard problem See Figures 12.15 & 12.16

Conditions differed in how much information provided about the squares Easier to solve when information is provided that points toward the correct representation of the problem (bread + butter)

Experts spend more time analyzing problem But...

Experts are no better than novices when given problems outside of their field Experts are less likely to be opened to new ways of looking at problems

think-aloud protocol can produce:

-a shift in how one perceives elements of a problem See example in your textbook. pg 347

creativity consists of....

-innovative thinking (mental process) -novel ideas -new connections between existing ideas

Metcalfe & Wiebe (1987) Result:

-insight problems were solved suddenly -non-insight problems solved gradually

Obstacles of problem solving: Situationally produced mental set

-situation influenced approach to problem -based on a persons past experience w/ the problem (or similar problems)

The typical purpose of subgoals is to: a. avoid the need to perform means-end analysis. b. bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state. c. solve insight problems. d. move the solver directly from the initial state to the goal state.

b. bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state.

Janet is alone in a room that contains a chair and a shelf with a book resting on top. She attempts to retrieve the book, but the shelf is a foot above her reach. How will Janet retrieve the book? Psychologists would NOT classify this scenario as a problem because: a. the goal state is not clearly defined. b. the solution is immediately obvious. c. the initial state is not clearly defined. d. there is an obstacle between the present state and the goal state.

b. the solution is immediately obvious.

subgoals:

create intermediate states closer to goal

Which problem provides an example of how functional fixedness can hinder solution of a problem? a. Mutilated checkerboard problem b. The radiation problem c. Tower of Hanoi problem d. Two-string problem

d. Two-string problem

Obstacles of problem solving: Two-string problem

function of pliers get in the way of seeing them as a weight

lightbulb problem

high surface similarities aid analogical problem solving

Newell and Simon Problem space -- See Figure 12.11

initial steps in solving the Tower of Hanoi show how the problem can be broken down into subgoals initial state: free up large disc by moving it the far end intermediate state: free up third peg goal state: move large disc onto third peg

Obstacles of problem solving: Functional fixedness

is a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used

Knowledge is better organized so...

it can be accessed when needed to work on a problem

Obstacles of problem solving: Situationally produced mental set: water-jug problem

the given mental set inhibits ps from using a simpler solution: to find a evenly distributed jug capacity

analogical encoding

the process of comparing two problems; entails determination of similarities *effective way to get ps to pay attention to structure features that aide problem-solving