Chapter 13

altruism

Helping others with no expectation of something in return.

prejudice

Holding hostile or negative attitudes toward an individual or group

social influence

How a person is affected by others as evidenced in behaviors, emotions, and cognition

social identity

How we view ourselves within our social group

Match each definition with the corresponding term:

-How a person is affected by others : social influence -Intentionally trying to make people change their attitudes : persuasion -Voluntarily changing behavior at the request of someone without authority : compliance -Making a small request, followed by a larger request : foot in the door technique -The tendency to modify behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs to match those of others : conformity

foot-in-the-door technique

A compliance technique that involves making a small request first, followed by a larger request.

stereotype threat

A "situational threat" in which individuals are aware of others' negative expectations, which leads to a fear of being judged or treated as inferior.

door-in-the-face technique

A compliance technique that involves making a large request first, followed by a smaller request.

cognitive dissonance

A state of tension that results when behaviors are inconsistent with attitudes.

scapegoat

A target of negative emotions, beliefs, and behaviors; typically, a member of the out-group who receives blame for an upsetting social situation

situational attribution

A type of external attribution where behaviors are assumed to result from situational factors.

dispositional attribution

A type of internal attribution where behaviors are assumed to result from traits or personality characteristics

We described the investment model of commitment can be sued to predict the long-term stability of a romantic relationship. How can you use this same model to predict the long-term stability of friendships, positions at work, or loyalty to institutions?

According to this model, decisions to stay together or part ways are based on how happy people are in their relationship, their notion of what life would be like without it, and their investment in the relationship. People may tay in an unsatisfying relationship or unhealthy relationships if they feel there are no better alternatives or believe they have too much to loose. This model helps us understand why people remain in destructive relationships. These principles also apply to friendships, positions at work, or loyalty to institutions.

attributions

Beliefs one develops to explain human behaviors and characteristics, as well as situations.

compliance

Changes in behavior at the request or direction of another person or group, who in general does not have any true authority.

obedience

Changing behavior because we have been ordered to do so by an authority figure

stereotypes

Conclusions or inferences we make about people who are different from us based on their group membership, such as race, religion, age, or gender.

Students often have difficulty identifying how the concepts of stereotype, discrimination, and prejudice are related. How would you explain their similarities and differences to a sixth grader?

DISCRIMINATION is showing favoritism or hostility to others because of their affiliation with a group. PREJUDICE is holding hostile or negative attitudes towards an individual or group. STEREOTYPES are conclusions or inferences we make about people who are different from us based on their group membership, such as their race, religion, age, or gender. Discrimination, prejudice, and stereotypes involve making assumptions about others we may not know. They often lead to unfair treatment of others.

Describe a situation in which someone is successfully resisted the urge to conform.

Examples: resisting the urge to eat dessert when others at the table are doing so, or, saying no to a cigarette when other offer one.

persuasion

Intentionally trying to make people change their attitudes and beliefs, which may lead to changes in their behaviors

aggression

Intimidating or threatening behavior or attitudes intended to hurt someone.

consummate love

Love that combines intimacy, commitment, and passion.

companionate love

Love that consists of profound fondness, camaraderie, understanding, and emotional closeness

romantic love

Love that is a combination of connection, concern, care, and intimacy

Name and describe the two types of aggression that may be influenced by gender.

Males tend to show more DIRECT AGGRESSION (physical displays of aggression), whereas females are more likely to engage in RELATIONAL AGGRESSION (gossip, exclusion, ignoring), perhaps because females have a higher risk for physical or bodily harm than males do.

proximity

Nearness; plays an important role in the formation of relationships

Milgram's obedience experiment produced shocking results that are still relevant today. Why is it important to pay attention to your behaviors when operating under the influence of an authority figure?

OBIEDIENCE occurs when we change our behavior, to act in a way we might not normally, because we have been ordered to do so by an authority figure. An imbalance of power exists, and the person with more power generally has an advantage over a person with less power. It is important for us to pay attention to how we react when under the influence of an authority figure, as we could inflict harm on others. One person can make a difference when he or she stands up for what is right.

Think about a close friend or partner and try to determine if -- and how-- proximity, similarity, and physical attractiveness played a role in your attraction to each other.

PROXIMITY means nearness, which may play an important role in the formation of relationships. SIMILARLY has to do with how much you have in common with someone else. We tend to prefer those who share our interests, viewpoints, ethnicity, values, and other characteristics.

out-group

People outside the group to which we belong.

Social psychology explores the way individuals behave in relation to others and groups, while sociology examines the groups themselves. Give several examples of hoe these two fields might approach the same overall topic (for example, prosocial behavior of college students versus the impact of social support structures in higher education).

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY is the study of human cognition, emotion, and behavior in relation to others. This includes how we perceive and reaction to others, and how we behave in social settings. Social psychology focus on studying individuals in relation to others and groups, whereas sociology studies the groups themselves-- their cultures, societies, and subcultures.

Identify stereotypes you might harbor about certain groups of people. How did your association with specific groups impact the development of these stereotypes?

STEREOTYPES are the conclusions or inferences we make about people who are different from us, based on their group membership (such as race, religion, age, or gender). We tend to see the world in terms of IN-GROUPS (the group to which we belong) and OUT-GROUPS (people outside our group), which can impact the stereotypes we hold.

ethnocentrism

Seeing the world only from the perspective of one's own group.

discrimination

Showing favoritism or hostility to others because of their affiliation with a group.

Social psychology research occasionally employs some for of deception involving confederates. How is this type of deception different from that used in a double-blind study?

Social psychology studies often involve confederates who are working for the researchers. Playing the role of participants, confederates say what the researchers tell them to say and do what the researchers tell them to do. They are, unknown to the other participants, just part of the researchers' experimental manipulation. In the double-blind study, neither participants nor researchers administering the treatment know who is getting the real treatment. Participants are told ahead of time that they might receive a placebo, but they do not necessarily know about confederates until after the study is complete.

norms

Standards of the social environment.

frustration-aggression hypothesis

Suggests that aggression may occur in response to frustration.

deindividuation

The diminished sense of personal responsibility, inhibition, or adherence to social norms that occurs when group members are not treated as individuals.

interpersonal attraction

The factors that lead us to form friendships or romantic relationships with others.

in-group

The group to which we belong

mere-exposure effect

The more we are exposed to someone or something, the more positive our reaction to it becomes.

social roles

The positions we hold in social groups, and the responsibilities and expectations associated with those roles.

attitudes

The relatively stable thoughts, feelings, and responses one has toward people, situations, ideas, and things.

diffusion of responsibility

The sharing of duties and responsibilities among all group members that can lead to feelings of decreased accountability and motivation.

social psychology

The study of human cognition, emotion, and behavior in relation to others.

group polarization

The tendency for a group to take a more extreme stance than originally held after deliberations and discussion

groupthink

The tendency for group members to maintain cohesiveness and agreement in their decision making, failing to consider possible alternatives and related viewpoints.

social loafing

The tendency for group members to put forth less than their best effort when individual contributions are too complicated to measure.

bystander effect

The tendency for people to avoid getting involved in an emergency they witness because they assume someone else will help

social facilitation

The tendency for the presence of others to improve personal performance when the activity is fairly uncomplicated and a person is adequately prepared.

self-serving bias

The tendency to attribute our successes to personal characteristics and our failures to environmental factors

just-world hypothesis

The tendency to believe the world is a fair place and individuals generally get what they deserve.

conformity

The tendency to modify behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, and opinions to match those of others

false consensus effect

The tendency to overestimate the degree to which others think or act like we do.

fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overestimate the degree to which the characteristics of an individual are the cause of an event, and to underestimate the involvement of situational factors.

social cognition

The way people think about others, attend to social information, and use this information in their lives, both consciously and unconsciously.

Understanding the bystander effect is critical, particularly when it comes to responding to crises in group settings. How would you explain the bystander effect to others?

When a person is in trouble, bystanders have the tendency to assume that someone else will help-- and therefore they stand by and do nothing, a phenomenon that is partly due to the diffusion of responsibility. This bystander effect is particularly common when there are many other people present. Individuals are more likely to aid a person in distress if no one else is present.

Psychologists define _________ as intimidating or threatening behavior, or at attitudes intended to hurt someone.

aggression

________ are beliefs used to explain human behaviors and characteristics, as well as situations.

attributions

The desire to help other with no expectation of payback is called:

altruism

_______ is an uneasy feeling that occurs when there is a mismatch between an attitude and a behavior.

cognitive dissonance

Changing your behaviors at the direction of someone who generally does not have authority over you is known as:

compliance

When it comes to decorating his house, your neighbor seems to follow the lead. If he sees others hanging lights, he immediately does the same. His urge to modify his behaviors is known as:

conformity

One study found that 80% of trick-or-treaters who were anonymous and in a group took more candy or money than they were supposed to. The children's sense of anonymity as well as inclusion in a group likely led to their sense of:

deindividuation

________ occurs when the sharing of duties leads to feelings of decreased accountability.

diffusion of responsibility

Because of the fundamental attribution error, we tend to attribute cause of behaviors to the:

disposition of the person

When teachers in a San Francisco elementary school were given a list of students likely to "show surprising in intellectual competence" during the next year, those "surprising gains" students achieved greater increases in test scores than their peers. This demonstrates the power of __________, a form of social influence.

expectations

Which of the following provides a biological explanation for aggression?

high levels of testosterone and low levels of serotonin

Proximity, similarity, and physical attractiveness all play a role in:

interpersonal attraction

_______ occurs when we change our behavior, or act in a way we might not normally act, because we have been ordered to do so by an authority figure.

obedience

According to Sternberg, love is made up of three elements:

passion, intimacy, and commitment

Julius sent money home every month to help cover the cost of food, clothing, and schooling for the 11 orphaned children. This is a good example of:

prosocial behavior

What are the three major factors that play a role in interpersonal attraction?

proximity, similarity, physical attractiveness

Which of the following topics is LEAST likely to be studies by a social psychologist?

school board policies regarding support for children with disabilities OVER children's written responses to people with disabilities, teachers' reactions to children with disabilities, the impact of deafness on social behaviors.

______ refers to the way we think about others, attend to social information, and use this information in our lives.

social cognition

_______ is the study of individuals in relation to other and groups, whereas ________ is the study of the groups themselves, including cultures and societies.

social psychology; sociology

A friend believes that suburban teenagers with tongue rings are often troublemakers who are rebelling against their parents. These _________ are conclusions he has drawn based on his subjective observations and value judgements.

stereotypes

________ is the tendency for people to stand by and do nothing in an emergency because they assume someone else will step in to help.

the bystander effect

Sometimes we attributes people's behaviors to their traits or personality characteristics, and underestimate the power influence of the environment. This is known as:

the fundamental attribution error