chapter 13 spinal cord

T2

After leaving its intervertebral foramen, the anterior ramus of nerve T2 innervates the intercostal muscles of the second intercostal space and supplies the skin of the axilla and posteromedial aspect of the arm

meningeal branch

In addition to posterior and anterior rami, spinal nerves also give off a meningeal branch This branch reenters the vertebral cavity through the intervertebral foramen and supplies the vertebrae, vertebral ligaments, blood vessels of the spinal cord, and meninges.

conclusion on tendon reflex

Tendon reflex. This reflex arc is polysynaptic—more than one CNS synapse and more than two different neurons are involved in the pathway. The sensory neuron synapses with two interneurons. An inhibitory interneuron causes relaxation of the effector, and a stimulatory interneuron causes contraction of the antagonistic muscle. Plus signs (+) indicate excitatory synapses; the minus sign (-) indicates an inhibitory synapse. Note in Figure 13.15 that the sensory neuron from the tendon organ also synapses with an excitatory interneuron in the spinal cord. The excitatory interneuron in turn synapses with motor neu- rons controlling antagonistic muscles. Thus, while the tendon reflex brings about relaxation of the muscle attached to the tendon organ, it also triggers contraction of antagonists. Here we have another example of reciprocal innervation. The sensory neuron also relays nerve impulses to the brain by way of sensory tracts, thus informing the brain about the state of muscle tension throughout the body.

intercostal nerves

The anterior rami of spinal nerves T2-T12 do not enter into the formation of plexuses and are known as intercostal nerves or thoracic nerves. These nerves directly connect to the structures they supply in the intercostal spaces

superficial(sensory) nerves of the cervical plexus

branches origin and distribution Lesser occipital C2 Skin of scalp posterior and superior to ear. Great auricular C2-C3 Skin anterior, inferior, and over ear, and over parotid glands. Transverse cervical C2-C3 Skin over anterior and lateral aspect of neck. Supraclavicular C3-C4 Skin over superior portion of chest and shoulder.

T7-T12

Nerves T7-T12 supply the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, along with the overlying skin.

Flexor and crossed extensor reflex

Another reflex involving a polysynaptic reflex arc results when, for instance, you step on a tack. In response to such a painful stimulus, you immediately withdraw your leg.

filum terminale

Arising from the conus medullaris is the filum terminale, an exten- sion of the pia mater that extends inferiorly, fuses with the arachnoid mater and dura mater, anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx.

Thoracic Outlet Syndrome

Compression of the brachial plexus on one or more of its nerves is sometimes known as THORACIC OUTLET SYNDROME. The subclavian artery and subclavian vein may also be compressed. The compression may result from spasm of the scalene or pectoralis minor muscles, the presence of a cervical rib (an embryological anomaly), or misaligned ribs. The patient may experience pain, numbness, weakness, or tingling in the upper limb, across the upper thoracic area, and over the scapula on the affected side. The symptoms of thoracic outlet syndrome are exaggerated during physical or emotional stress because the added stress increases the contraction of the involved muscles.

Hemisection

Hemisection is a partial transection of the cord on either the right or the left side. After hemisection, three main symptoms, known together as Brown-Séquard syndrome, occur below the level of the injury: (1) Damage of the posterior column (sensory tracts) causes loss of proprioception and fine touch sensationson the ipsilateral (same) side as the injury. (2) Damage of the lateral corticospinal tract (motor tract) causes ipsilateral paralysis. (3) Damage of the spinothalamic tracts (sensory tracts) causes loss of pain and temperature sensations on the contralateral (opposite) side

branches of brachial plexus

Lower subscapular C5-C6 Subscapularis and teres major muscles Axillary C5-C6 Deltoid and teres minor muscles; skin over deltoid and superior posterior aspect of arm. Median C5-T1 Flexors of forearm, except flexor carpi ulnaris; ulnar half of flexor digitorum profundus, and some muscles of hand (lateral palm); skin of lateral two-thirds of palm of hand and fi ngers. Radial C5-T1 Triceps brachii, anconeus, and extensor muscles of forearm; skin of posterior arm and forearm, lateral two-thirds of dorsum of hand, and fingers over proximal and middle phalanges

branches of brachial plexus

Musculocutaneous C5-C7 Coracobrachialis, biceps brachii, and brachialis muscles. Lateral pectoral C5-C7 Pectoralis major muscle. Upper subscapular C5-C6 Subscapularis muscle. Thoracodorsal C6-C8 Latissimus dorsi muscle.

reflex arc

Nerve impulses propagating into, through, and out of the CNS follow specific pathways, depending on the kind of information, its origin, and its destination. The pathway followed by nerve impulses that produce a reflex is a reflex arc (reflex circuit).

crossed extensor reflex

Something else may happen when you step on a tack: You may start to lose your balance as your body weight shifts to the other foot. Besides initiating the flexor reflex that causes you to withdraw the limb, the pain impulses from stepping on the tack also initiate a crossed extensor reflex to help you maintain your balance

spinal nerves

Spinal nerves are the paths of communication between the spi- nal cord and specific regions of the body. The spinal cord appears to be segmented because the 31 pairs of spinal nerves emerge at regular intervals from intervertebral foramina . Indeed, each pair of spinal nerves is said to arise from a spinal seg- ment. Within the spinal cord there is no obvious segmentation but, for convenience, the naming of spinal nerves is based on the seg- ment in which they are located There are 8 pairs of cervical nerves (represented as C1-C8), 12 pairs of thoracic nerves(T1-T12), 5 pairs of lumbar nerves (L1-L5), 5 pairs of sacral nerves (S1-S5), 1 pair of coccygeal nerves

phrenic nerve

The phrenic nerves originate from C3, C4, and C5 and supply the diaphragm. Complete severing of the spinal cord above the origin of the phrenic nerves (C3, C4, and C5) causes respiratory arrest. In injuries to the phrenic nerves, breathing stops because the phrenic nerves no longer send nerve impulses to the diaphragm. The phrenic nerves may also be damaged due to pressure from malignant tracheal or esophageal tumors in the mediastinum.

contd

The posterior column consists of two tracts: the gracile fasciculus and the cuneate fasciculus The posterior column tracts convey nerve impulses for discriminative touch, light pressure, vibration, and conscious proprioception (the awareness of the positions and movements of muscles, tendons, and joints). The sensory systems keep the CNS informed of changes in the external and internal environments. The sensory information is integrated (processed) by interneurons in the spinal cord and brain. Responses to the integrative decisions are brought about by motor activities (muscular contractions and glandular secretions). The cerebral cortex, the outer part of the brain, plays a major role in controlling precise voluntary muscular movements. Other brain regions provide important integration for regulation of automatic movements.

posterior rami of intercostal nerves

The posterior rami of the intercostal nerves supply the deep back muscles and skin of theposterior aspect of the thorax.

principal plexuses

The principal plexuses are the cervical plexus, brachial plexus, lumbar plexus, and sacral plexus. A smaller coccygeal plexus is also present.

sacral plexus

The roots (anterior rami) of spinal nerves L4-L5 and S1-S4 form the sacral plexus This plexus is situated largely anterior to the sacrum. Tl The sacral plexus supplies the buttocks, perineum, and lower limbs. The largest nerve in the body—the sciatic nerve—arises from the sacral plexus.

anatomy of the spinal cord

The spinal cord is roughly oval in shape, being flattened slightly anteriorly and posteriorly. In adults, it extends from the medulla oblongata, the inferior part of the brain, to the superior border of the second lumbar vertebra In newborn and infants it extends to the third or fourth lumbar vertebra

arachnoid mater

middle layer of the meningeal membranes it is a thin, avascular covering comprised of cells and thin, loosely arranged collagen and elastic fibers. It is called the arachnoid mater because of its spider's web arrange- ment of delicate collagen fibers and some elastic fibers. It is deep to the dura mater and is continuous through the foramen magnum with the arachnoid mater of the brain. Between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater is a thin subdural space, which contains interstitial fluid.

3 possible paths for axons in posterior root 345

3 Axons of sensory neurons may extend into the white matter of the spinal cord and ascend to the brain as part of a sensory tract. 4 Axons of sensory neurons may enter the posterior gray horn and synapse with interneurons whose axons extend into the white matter of the spinal cord and then ascend to the brain as part of a sensory tract. 5 Axons of sensory neurons may enter the posterior gray horn and synapse with interneurons that in turn synapse with somatic motor neurons that are involved in spinal reflex path- ways.

conus medullaris

Inferior to the lumbar enlargement, the spinal cord terminates as a tapering, conical structure called the conus medullaris, which ends at the level of the intervertebral disc between the first and second lumbar vertebrae (L1-L2) in adults.

plexuses

Axons from the anterior rami of spinal nerves, except for thoracic nerves T2-T12, do not go directly to the body structures they sup- ply. Instead, they form networks on both the left and right sides of the body by joining with various numbers of axons from anterior rami of adjacent nerves. Such a network of axons is called a plexus

enlargements of spinal cord

The superior enlargement, the CERVICAL ENLARGEMENT, extends from the fourth cervical vertebra (C4) to the first thoracic vertebra (T1). Nerves to and from the upper limbs arise from the cervical enlargement. The inferior enlargement, called the LUMBAR ENLARGEMENT, extends from the ninth to the twelfth thoracic vertebra. Nerves to and from the lower limbs arise from the lumbar enlargement.

reciprocal innervation

Thus, when the stretched muscle contracts during a stretch reflex, an- tagonistic muscles that oppose the contraction relax. This type of arrangement, in which the components of a neural circuit simultaneously cause contraction of one muscle and relaxation of its antagonists, is termed reciprocal innervation. Reciprocal innervation prevents conflict between opposing muscles and is vital in coordinating body movements.

how tendon reflex operates

1 As the tension applied to a tendon increases, the tendon organ (sensory receptor) is stimulated (depolarized to threshold) 2 Nerve impulses arise and propagate into the spinal cord along a sensory neuron. 3 Within the spinal cord (integrating center), the sensory neuron activates an inhibitory interneuron that synapses with a motor neuron. 4 The inhibitory neurotransmitter inhibits (hyperpolarizes) the motor neuron, which then generates fewer nerve impulses. 5 The muscle relaxes and relieves excess tension. Thus, as tension on the tendon organ increases, the frequency of inhibitory impulses increases; inhibition of the motor neurons to the muscle developing excess tension (effector) causes relaxation

functional components of a reflex arc

1 Sensory receptor. The distal end of a sensory neuron (dendrite) or an associated sensory structure serves as a sensory receptor. -It responds to a specific stimulus—a change in the internal or external environment—by producing a graded potential called a generator (or receptor) potential -If a generator potential reaches the threshold level of depolarization, it will trigger one or more nerve impulses in the sensory neuron. 2 Sensory neuron. The nerve impulses propagate from the sensory receptor along the axon of the sensory neuron to the axon terminals, which are located in the gray matter of the spinal cord or brain stem. From here, relay neurons send nerve impulses to the area of the brain that allows conscious awareness that the reflex has occurred. 3 Integrating center. One or more regions of gray matter within the CNS acts as an integrating center. In the simplest type of reflex, the integrating center is a single synapse between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron. -A reflex pathway having only one synapse in the CNS is termed a MONOSYNAPTIC REFLEX ARC -More often, the integrating center consists of one or more interneurons, which may relay impulses to other interneurons as well as to a motor neuron. A POLYSYNAPTIC REFLEX ARC (involves more than two types of neurons and more than one CNS synapse. 4 Motor neuron. Impulses triggered by the integrating center propagate out of the CNS along a motor neuron to the part of the body that will respond. 5 Effector. The part of the body that responds to the motor nerve impulse, such as a muscle or gland, is the effector. Its action is called a reflex. -If the effector is skeletal muscle, the reflex is a SOMATIC REFLEX. -!If the effector is smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, or a gland, the reflex is an AUTONOMIC (VISCERAL)REFLEX.

processing of sensory input and motor output step 1&2

1 Sensory receptors detect a sensory stimulus. 2 Sensory neurons convey this sensory input in the form of nerve impulses along their axons, which extend from sensory receptors into the spinal nerve and then into the posterior root. From the posterior root, axons of sensory neurons may proceed along three possible paths

how a stretch reflex works

1 Slight stretching of a muscle stimulates sensory receptors in the muscle called muscle spindles The spindles monitor changes in the length of the muscle. 2 In response to being stretched, a muscle spindle generates one or more nerve impulses that propagate along a somatic sensory neuron through the posterior root of the spinal nerve and into the spinal cord. 3 In the spinal cord (integrating center), the sensory neuron makes an excitatory synapse with, and thereby activates, a motor neuron in the anterior gray horn. 4 If the excitation is strong enough, one or more nerve impulses arises in the motor neuron and propagates, along its axon, which extends from the spinal cord into the anterior root and through peripheral nerves to the stimulated muscle. The axon terminals of the motor neuron form neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) with skeletal muscle fibers of the stretched muscle. 5 Acetylcholine released by nerve impulses at the NMJs triggers one or more muscle action potentials in the stretched muscle (effector), and the muscle contracts. Thus, muscle stretch is followed by muscle contraction, which relieves the stretching.

How it operates(flexor reflex)

1 Stepping on a tack stimulates the dendrites (sensory receptor) of a pain-sensitive neuron. 2 This sensory neuron then generates nerve impulses, which propagate into the spinal cord. 3 Within the spinal cord (integrating center), the sensory neuron activates interneurons that extend to several spinal cord segments. 4 The interneurons activate motor neurons in several spinal cord segments. As a result, the motor neurons generate nerve impulses, which propagate toward the axon terminals. 5 Acetylcholine released by the motor neurons causes the flexor muscles in the thigh (effectors) to contract, producing withdrawal of the leg. This reflex is protective because contraction of flexor muscles moves a limb away from the source of a possibly damaging stimulus.

how it operates (crossed extensor reflex)

1 Stepping on a tack stimulates the sensory receptor of a pain-sensitive neuron in the right foot. 2 This sensory neuron then generates nerve impulses, which propagate into the spinal cord. 3 Within the spinal cord (integrating center), the sensory neuron activates several interneurons that synapse with motor neurons on the left side of the spinal cord in several spinal cord segments. Thus, incoming pain signals cross to the opposite side through interneurons at that level, and at several levels above and below the point of entry into the spinal cord. 4 The interneurons excite motor neurons in several spinal cord segments that innervate extensor muscles. The motor neurons in turn generate more nerve impulses, which propagate toward the axon terminals. 5 Acetylcholine released by the motor neurons causes extensor muscles in the thigh (effectors) of the unstimulated left limb to contract, producing extension of the left leg. In this way, weight can be placed on the foot that must now support the entire body. A comparable reflex occurs with painful stimulation of the left lower limb or either upper limb.

contd

3)Babinski sign. This reflex results from gentle stroking of the lateral outer margin of the sole. The great toe extends, with or without a lateral fanning of the other toes. This phenomenon normally occurs in children under 1½ of age and is due to incomplete myelination of fibers in the corticospinal tract. A positive Babinski sign after age 1½ is abnormal and indicates an interruption of the corticospinal tract as the result of a lesion of the tract, usually in the upper portion. The normal response after age 1½ is the plantar flexion reflex, or negative Babinski—a curling under of all the toes. 4)Abdominal reflex. This reflex involves contraction of the muscles that compress the abdominal wall in response to stroking the side of the abdomen. The response is an abdominal muscle contraction that causes the umbilicus to move in the direction of the stimulus. Absence of this reflex is associated with lesions of the corticospinal tracts. It may also be absent because of lesions of the peripheral nerves, lesions of integrating centers in the thoracic part of the cord, or multiple sclerosis. Most autonomic reflexes are not practical diagnostic tools because it is difficult to stimulate visceral effectors, which are deep inside the body. An exception is the pupillary light reflex, in which the pupils of both eyes decrease in diameter when either eye is exposed to light. Because the reflex arc includes synapses in lower parts of the brain, the absence of a normal pupillary light reflex may indicate brain damage or injury. •

step 6 7

6 Motor output from the spinal cord to skeletal muscles involves somatic motor neurons of the anterior gray horn. Many somatic motor neurons are regulated by the brain. Axons from higher brain centers form motor tracts that descend from the brain into the white matter of the spinal cord. There they synapse with somatic motor neurons either directly or indirectly by first synapsing with interneurons that in turn synapse with somatic motor neurons. 7 When activated, somatic motor neurons convey motor output in the form of nerve impulses along their axons, which sequentially pass through the anterior gray horn and anterior root to enter the spinal nerve. From the spinal nerve, axons of somatic motor neurons extend to skeletal muscles of the body.

steps 8 9

8 Motor output from the spinal cord to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands involves autonomic motor neurons of the lateral gray horn. When activated, autonomic motor neurons convey motor output in the form of nerve impulses along their axons, which sequentially pass through the lateral gray horn, anterior gray horn, and anterior root to enter the spinal nerve. 9 From the spinal nerve, axons of autonomic motor neurons from the spinal cord synapse with another group of autonomic motor neurons located in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The axons of this second group of autonomic motor neurons in turn synapse with cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.

degenerative diseases

A number of degenerative diseases affect the functions of the spinal cord. One of these is multiple sclerosis Another progressive degenerative disease is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig's disease), which affects motor neurons of the brain and spinal cord and results in muscle weakness and atrophy.

branches of spinal nerve

A short distance after passing through its intervertebral fora- men, a spinal nerve divides into several branches These branches are known as rami The posterior (dorsal) ramus serves the deep muscles and skin of the posterior surface of the trunk. The anterior (ventral) ramus serves the muscles and structures of the upper and lower limbs and the skin of the lateral and anterior surfaces of the trunk

internal anatomy of the spinal cord

A transverse section of the spinal cord reveals regions of white matter that surround an inner core of gray matter

spinal cord compression

Although the spinal cord is normally protected by the vertebral column, certain disorders may put pressure on it and disrupt its normal functions. Spinal cord compression may result from fractured vertebrae, herniated intervertebral discs, tumors, osteoporosis, or infections. If the source of the compression is determined before neural tissue is destroyed, spinal cord function usually returns to normal. Depending on the location and degree of compression, symptoms include pain, weakness or paralysis, and either decreased or complete loss of sensation below the level of the injury.

deep(mostly motor) nerves

Ansa cervicalis :Divides into superior and inferior roots. Superior root C1 Infrahyoid and geniohyoid muscles of neck. Inferior root C2-C3 Infrahyoid muscles of neck. Phrenic C3-C5 Diaphragm. Segmental branches C1-C5 Prevertebral (deep) muscles of neck, levator scapulae, and middle scalene muscles.

intro to sensory and motor tracts

As noted previously, one of the ways the spinal cord promotes homeostasis is by conducting nerve impulses along tracts. Often, the name of a tract indicates its position in the white matter and where it begins and ends. For example, the anterior corticospinal tract is located in the anterior white column; it begins in the cerebral cortex (superficial gray matter of the cerebrum of the brain) and ends in the spinal cord. Notice that the location of the axon terminals comes last in the name. This regularity in naming allows you to determine the direction of information flow along any tract named according to this convention. Because the anterior corticospinal tract conveys nerve impulses from the brain toward the spinal cord, it is a motor (descending) tract. Nerve impulses from sensory receptors propagate up the spinal cord to the brain along two main routes on each side: the spino thalamic tract and the posterior column. The spinothalamic tract conveys nerve impulses for sensing pain, warmth, coolness, itching, tickling, deep pressure, and crude touch

cauda equina

As spinal nerves branch from the spinal cord, they pass later- ally to exit the vertebral canal through the intervertebral foram- ina between adjacent vertebrae. However, because the spinal cord is shorter than the vertebral column, nerves that arise fromthe lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions of the spinal cord do not leave the vertebral column at the same level they exit the cord. The roots of these lower spinal nerves angle inferiorly alongside the filum terminale in the vertebral canal like wisps of hair. Accordingly, the roots of these nerves are collectively named the cauda equina meaning "horse's tail"

relay of nerve impulse

Axon collaterals of the muscle spindle sensory neuron also relay nerve impulses to the brain over specific ascending pathways. In this way, the brain receives input about the state of stretch or contraction of skeletal muscles, enabling it to coordinate muscular movements. The nerve impulses that pass to the brain also allow conscious awareness that the reflex has occurred.

importance of reflexes

Because reflexes are normally so predictable, they provide useful information about the health of the nervous system and can greatly aid diagnosis of disease. Damage or disease anywhere along its reflex arc can cause a reflex to be absent or abnormal. . For example, tapping the patellar ligament normally causes reflex extension of the knee joint. Absence of the patellar reflex could indicate damage of the sensory or motor neurons, or a spinal cord injury in the lumbar region. Somatic reflexes generally can be tested simply by tapping or stroking the body surface.

complete transection

Complete transection of the spinal cord means that the cord is severed from one side to the other, thus cutting all sensory and motor tracts. It results in a loss of all sensations and voluntary movement below the level of the transection. A person will have permanent loss of all sensations in dermatomes below the injury because ascending nerve impulses cannot propagate past the transection to reach the brain. At the same time, all voluntary muscle contractions will be lost below the transection because nerve impulses descending from the brain also cannot pass. The extent of paralysis of skeletal muscles depends on the level of injury. The closer the injury is to the head, the greater the area of the body that may be affected.

branches of brachial plexus

Dorsal scapula C5 Levator scapulae, rhomboid major, and rhomboid minor muscles. Long thoracic C5-C7 Serratus anterior muscle. Nerve to subclavius C5-C6 Subclavius muscle. Suprascapular C5-C6 Supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles.

growth and length of spinal cord

During early childhood, both the spinal cord and the vertebral column grow longer as part of overall body growth. Elongation of the spinal cord stops around age 4 or 5, but growth of the vertebral column continues. Thus, the spinal cord does not extend the entire length of the adult vertebral column. The length of the adult spinal cord ranges from 42 to 45 cm (16-18 in.). Its maximum diameter is approximately 1.5 cm (0.6 in.) in the lower cervical region and is smaller in the thoracic region and at its inferior tip.

connective tissue coverings of spinal nerve

Each spinal nerve and cranial nerve consists of many individual axons and contains layers of protective connective tissue cover- ings. Individual axons within a nerve, whether myelinated or unmyelinated, are wrapped in endoneurium the innermost layer. The endoneurium consists of a mesh of collagen fibers, fibroblasts, and macrophages. Groups of axons with their endoneurium are held together in bundles called fascicles, each of which is wrapped in perineurium, the middle layer. The perineurium is a thicker layer of connective tissue. It consists of up to 15 layers of fibroblasts within a network of collagen fibers. The outermost covering over the entire nerve is the epineurium It consists of fibroblasts and thick collagen fibers. Extensions of the epineurium also fill the spaces between fascicles. The dura mater of the spinal meninges fuses with the epineurium as the nerve passes through the intervertebral foramen. Note the presence of blood vessels, which nourish the spinal meninges

large terminal branches arising from the brachial plexus

Five large terminal branches arise from the brachial plexus: (1) The axillary nerve supplies the deltoid and teres minor muscles. (2) The musculocutaneous nerve supplies the anterior muscles of the arm. (3) The radial nerve supplies the muscles on the posterior aspect of thearm and forearm. (4) The median nerve supplies most of the muscles of the anterior forearm and some of the muscles of the hand. (5) The ulnar nerve supplies the anteromedial muscles of the forearm and most of the muscles of the hand.

spinal shock

Following complete transection, and to varying degrees after hemisection, spinal shock occurs. Spinal shock is an immediate response to spinal cord injury characterized by temporary areflexia, loss of reflex function. The areflexia occurs in parts of the body served by spinal nerves below the level of the injury. Signs of acute spinal shock include slow heart rate low blood pressure flaccid paralysis of skeletal muscles, loss of somatic sensations, urinary bladder dysfunction. Spinal shock may begin within 1 hour after injury and may last from several minutes to several months, after which reflex activity gradually returns. In many cases of traumatic injury of the spinal cord, the patient may have an improved outcome if an anti-inflammatory corticosteroid drug called methylprednisolone is given within 8 hours of the injury. This is because the degree of neurologic deficit is greatest immediately following traumatic injury as a result of edema (collec- tion of fluid within tissues) as the immune system responds to the injury.

branches of lumbar plexus

Iliohypogastric L1 Muscles of anterolateral abdominal wall; skin of inferior abdomen and buttock. Ilioinguinal L1 Muscles of anterolateral abdominal wall; skin of superior and medial aspect of thigh, root of penis and scrotum in male, and labia majora and mons pubis in female. Genitofemoral L1-L2 Cremaster muscle; skin over middle anterior surface of thigh, scrotum in male, and labia majora in female. Lateral cutaneous nerve of thigh L2-L3 Skin over lateral, anterior, and posterior aspects of thigh. Femoral L2-L4 Largest nerve arising from lumbar plexus; distributed to flexor muscles of hip joint and extensor muscles of knee joint, skin over anterior and medial aspect of thigh and medial side of leg and foot. Obturator L2-L4 Adductor muscles of hip joint; skin over medial aspect of thigh.

brain and stretch reflex

In addition to the large-diameter motor neurons that innervate typical skeletal muscle fibers, smaller-diameter motor neurons innervate smaller, specialized muscle fibers within the muscle spindles themselves. The brain regulates muscle spindle sensitivity through pathways to these smaller motor neurons. This regulation ensures proper muscle spindle signaling over a wide range of muscle lengths during voluntary and reflex contractions. By adjusting how vigorously a muscle spindle responds to stretching, the brain sets an overall level of MUSCLE TONE, which is the small degree of contraction present while the muscle is at rest. Because the stimulus for the stretch reflex is stretching of muscle, this reflex helps avert injury by preventing overstretching of muscles. Although the stretch reflex pathway itself is monosynaptic (just two neurons and one synapse), a polysynaptic reflex arc to the antagonistic muscles operates at the same time. This arc involves three neurons and two synapses. An axon collateral (branch) from the muscle spindle sensory neuron also synapses with an inhibitory interneuron in the integrating center. In turn, the interneuron synapses with and inhibits a motor neuron that normally excites the antagonistic muscles

Nuclei

In the gray matter of the spinal cord and brain, clusters of neuronal cell bodies form functional groups called nuclei. Sensory nuclei receive input from receptors via sensory neuron and motor nuclei provide output to effector tissues via motor neurons.

ipsilateral reflex

In the reflex arc just described, sensory nerve impulses enter the spinal cord on the same side from which motor nerve impulses leave it. This arrangement is called an IPSILATERAL REFLEX All monosynaptic reflexes are ip- silateral.

Winged scapula

Injury to the long thoracic nerve results in paralysis of the serratus anterior muscle. The medial border of the scapula protrudes, giving it the appearance of a wing. When the arm is raised, the vertebral border and inferior angle of the scapula pull away from the thoracic wall and protrude outward, causing the medial border of the scapula to protrude; because the scapula looks like a wing, this condition is called winged scapula The arm cannot be abducted beyond the horizontal position.

median nerve palsy

Injury to the median nerve may result in median nerve palsy, which is indicated by numbness, tingling, and pain in the palm and fingers. There is also inability to pronate the forearm and flex the proximal interphalangeal joints of all digits and the distal interphalangeal joints of the second and third digits In addition,wrist flexion is weak and is accompanied by adduction, and thumb movements are weak.

Wrist drop

Injury to the radial (and axillary) nerve can be caused by improperly administered intramuscular injections into the deltoid muscle. The radial nerve may also be injured when a cast is applied too tightly around the mid-humerus. Radial nerve injury is indicated by wrist drop, the inability to extend the wrist and fingers Sensory loss is minimal due to the overlap of sensory innervation by adjacent nerves.

Erb's Duchenne Palsy

Injury to the superior roots of the brachial plexus (C5-C6) may result from forceful pulling away of the head from the shoulder, as might occur from a heavy fall on the shoulder or excessive stretching of an infant's neck during childbirth. The presentation of this injury is characterized by an upper limb in which the shoulder is adducted, the arm is medially rotated, the elbow is extended, the forearm is pronated, and the wrist is flexed. This condition is called Erb-Duchenne palsy or waiter's tip position. There is loss of sensation along the lateral side of the arm.

ulnar nerve palsy(clawhand)

Injury to the ulnar nerve may result in ulnar nerve palsy, which is indicated by an inability to abduct or adduct the fingers, atrophy of the interosseous muscles of the hand, hyperextension of the metacarpophalangeal joints, and flexion of the interphalangeal joints, a condition called clawhand There is also loss of sensation over the little finger.

mnemonic for brachial plexus subunits

MNEMONIC for subunits of the brachial plexus: Risk Takers Don't Cautiously Behave. Roots, Trunks, Divisions, Cords, Branches

branches of brachial plexus

Medial pectoral C8-T1 Pectoralis major and pectoralis minor muscles. Medial cutaneous nerve of arm C8-T1 Skin of medial and posterior aspects of distal third of arm. Medial cutaneous nerve of forearm C8-T1 Skin of medial and posterior aspects of forearm. Ulnar C8-T1 Flexor carpi ulnaris, ulnar half of fl exor digitorum profundus, and most muscles of hand; skin of medial side of hand, little finger, and medial half of ring finger.

spinal cord injuries

Most spinal cord injuries are due to trauma as a result of factors such as automobile accidents, falls, contact sports, diving, and acts of violence. The effects of the injury depend on the extent of direct trauma to the spinal cord or compression of the cord by fractured or displaced vertebrae or blood clots. Although any segment of the spinal cord may be involved, the most common sites of injury are in the cervical, lower thoracic, and upper lumbar regions. Depending on the location and extent of spinal cord damage, paralysis may occur. Monoplegia is paralysis of one limb only. Diplegia is paralysis of both upper limbs or both lower limbs. Paraplegia is paralysis of both lower limbs. Hemiplegia is paralysis of the upper limb, trunk, and lower limb on one side of the body Quadriplegia is paralysis of all four limbs

types of descending pathway

Motor output to skeletal muscles travels down the spinal cord in two types of descending pathways: direct and indirect. The direct motor pathways include the lateral corticospinal anterior corticospinal, and corticobulbar tracts They convey nerve impulses that originate in the cerebral cortex and are destined to cause voluntary movements of skeletal muscles. Indirect motor pathways include the rubrospinal tectospinal vestibulospinal lateral reticulospinal medial reticulospinal tracts. These tracts convey nerve impulses from the brain stem to cause automatic movements and help coordinate body movements with visual stimuli. Indirect pathways also maintain skeletal muscle tone, sustain contraction of postural muscles, and play a major role in equilibrium by regulating muscle tone in response to movements of the head

branches of sacral plexus(NOD

NERVE ORIGIN DISTRIBUTION Superior gluteal L4-L5 and S1 Gluteus minimus, gluteus medius, and tensor fasciae latae muscles. Inferior gluteal L5-S2 Gluteus maximus muscle. Nerve to piriformis S1-S2 Piriformis muscle. Nerve to quadratus femoris and inferior gemellus L4-L5 and S1 Quadratus femoris and inferior gemellus muscles. Nerve to obturator internus and superior gemellus L5-S2 Obturator internus and superior gemellus muscles. Perforating cutaneous S2-S3 Skin over inferior medial aspect of buttock. Posterior cutaneous nerve of thigh S1-S3 Skin over anal region, inferior lateral aspect of buttock, superior posterior aspect of thigh, superior part of calf, scrotum in male, and labia majora in female. Pudendal S2-S4 Muscles of perineum; skin of penis and scrotum in male and clitoris, labia majora, labia minora, and vagina in female.

T3-T6

Nerves T3-T6 extend along the costal grooves of the ribs and then to the intercostal muscles and skin of the anterior and lateral chest wall.

poliomyelitis

Poliomyelitis , or simply polio, is caused by a virus called poliovirus. The onset of the disease is marked by fever, severe headache a stiff neck and back deep muscle pain and weakness, and loss of certain somatic reflexes. In its most serious form, the virus produces paralysis by destroying cell bodies of motor neurons, specifically those in the anterior horns of the spinal cord and in the nuclei of the cranial nerves. Polio can cause death from respiratory or heart failure if the virus invades neurons in vital centers that control breathing and heart functions in the brain stem. Even though polio vaccines have virtually eradicated polio in the United States, outbreaks of polio continue throughout the world. Due to international travel, polio could be easily reintroduced into North America if individuals are not vaccinated appropriately. Several decades after suffering a severe attack of polio and following their recovery from it, some individuals develop a condition called post-polio syndrome. This neurological disorder is characterized by progressive muscle weakness, extreme fatigue, loss of function, and pain, especially in muscles and joints. Post-polio syndrome seems to involve a slow degeneration of motor neurons that innervate muscle fibers. Triggering factors appear to be a fall, a minor accident, surgery, or prolonged bed rest. Possible causes include overuse of surviving motor neurons over time, smaller motor neurons because of the initial infection by the virus, reactivation of dormant polio viral particles, immune-mediated responses, hormone deficiencies, and environmental toxins. Treatment consists of muscle-strengthening exercises, administration of pyridostigmine to enhance the action of acetylcholine in stimulating muscle contraction, and administration of nerve growth factors to stimulate both nerve and muscle growth.

clinical significance of some reflexes

Reflexes are often used for diagnosing disorders of the nervous system and locating injured tissue. If a reflex ceases to function or functions abnormally, the physician may suspect that the damage lies somewhere along a particular conduction pathway. Many somatic reflexes can be tested simply by tapping or stroking the body. Among the somatic reflexes of clinical significance are the following: 1)Patellar reflex (knee jerk). This stretch reflex involves extension of the leg at the knee joint by contraction of the quadriceps femoris muscle in response to tapping the patellar ligament This reflex is blocked by damage to the sensory or motor nerves supplying the muscle or to the integrating centers in the second, third, or fourth lumbar segments of the spinal cord. It is often absent in people with chronic diabetes mellitus or neurosyphilis, both of which cause degeneration of nerves. It is exaggerated in disease or injury involving certain motor tracts descending from the higher centers of the brain to the spinal cord. 2) Achilles reflex (ankle jerk). This stretch reflex involves plantar flexion of the foot by contraction of the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles in response to tapping the calcaneal (Achilles) tendon. Absence of the Achilles reflex indicates damage to the nerves supplying the posterior leg muscles or to neurons in the lumbosacral region of the spinal cord. This reflex may also disappear in people with chronic diabetes, neurosyphilis, alcoholism, and subarachnoid hemorrhages. An exaggerated Achilles reflex indicates cervical cord compression or a lesion of the motor tracts of the first or second sacral segments of the cord.

sacral plexus branches

Sciatic L4-S3 Actually two nerves—tibial and common fibular—bound together by common sheath of connective tissue; splits into its two divisions, usually at the knee. As sciatic nerve descends through thigh, it sends branches to hamstring muscles and adductor magnus. Tibial (TIB-e¯-al) L4-S3 Gastrocnemius, plantaris, soleus, popliteus, tibialis posterior, flexor digitorum longus, and flexor hallucis longus muscles. Branches of tibial nerve in foot are medial plantar nerve and lateral plantar nerve. -Medial plantar (PLAN-tar) Abductor hallucis, flexor digitorum brevis, and flexor hallucis brevis muscles; skin over medial two-thirds of plantar surface of foot. -Lateral plantar Remaining muscles of foot not supplied by medial plantar nerve; skin over lateral third of plantar surface of foot. Common fi bular L4-S2 Divides into superficial fibular and deep fibular branch. -Superficial fibular Fibularis longus and fi bularis brevis muscles; skin over distal third of anterior aspect of leg and dorsum of foot. -Deep fi bular Tibialis anterior, extensor hallucis longus, fibularis tertius, and extensor digitorum longus and extensor digitorum brevis muscles; skin on adjacent sides of great and second toes. The roots (anterior rami) of spinal nerves S4-S5 and the coccygeal nerves form a small coccygeal plexus. From this plexus arises the anococcygeal nerves, which supply a small area of skin in the coccygeal region.

shingles

Shingles is an acute infection of the peripheral nervous system caused by herpes zoster the virus that also cause chickenpox. After a person recovers from chickenpox, the virus retreats to a posterior root ganglion. If the virus is reactivated, the immune system usually prevents it from spreading. From time to time, however, the reactivated virus overcomes a weakened immune system, leaves the ganglion, and travels down sensory neurons of the skin by fast axonal transport . The result is pain discoloration of the skin a characteristic line of skin blisters. The line of blisters marks the distribution (dermatome) of the particular cutaneous sensory nerve belonging to the infected posterior root ganglion.

somatic spinal reflexes (stretch reflex)

The Stretch Reflex A stretch reflex causes contraction of a skeletal muscle (the effector) in response to stretching of the muscle. This type of reflex occurs via a monosynaptic reflex arc. The reflex can occur by activation of a single sensory neuron that forms one synapse in the CNS with a single motor neuron. Stretch reflexes can be elicited by tapping on tendons attached to muscles at the elbow wrist, knee, and ankle joints. An example of a stretch reflex is the patellar reflex (knee jerk),

cervical plexus

The cervical plexus is formed by the roots (anterior rami) of the first four cervical nerves (C1-C4), with contributions from C5 There is one on each side of the neck alongside the first four cervical vertebrae. The cervical plexus supplies the skin and muscles of the head, neck, and superior part of the shoulders and chest. The phrenic nerves arise from the cervical plexuses and supply motor fibers to the diaphragm. Branches of the cervical plexus also run parallel to two cranial nerves, the accessory (XI) nerve and hypoglossal (XII) nerve.

spinal nerves

The first cervical pair of spinal nerves emerges from the spinal cord between the occipital bone and the atlas (first cervical vertebra, or C1). Most of the remaining spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord through the intervertebral foramina between adjoining vertebrae. Spinal nerves C1-C7 exit the vertebral canal above their corresponding vertebrae. Spinal nerve C8 exits the vertebral canal between vertebrae C7 and T1. Spinal nerves T1-L5 exit the vertebral canal below their corresponding vertebrae. From the spinal cord, the roots of the sacral spinal nerves (S1-S5) and the coccygeal spinal nerves (Co1) enter the sacral canal, the part of the vertebral canal in the sacrum Subsequently, spinal nerves S1-S4 exit the sacral canal via the four pairs of anterior and posterior sacral foramina, and spinal nerves S5 and Co1 exit the sacral canal via the sacral hiatus

Protection for CNS

The first layer of protection for the central nervous system is the hard bony skull and vertebral column. The skull encases the brain and the vertebral column surrounds the spinal cord, providing strong protective defenses against damag- ing blows or bumps. The second protective layer is the meninges, three membranes that lie between the bony encasement and the nervous tissue in both the brain and spinal cord. Finally, a space between two of the meningeal membranes contains cerebrospinal fluid, a buoyant liquid that suspends the central nervous tissue in a weightless environment while surrounding it with a shock absorbing, hydraulic cushion.

more on flexor reflex

The flexor reflex, like the stretch reflex, is ipsilateral—the incoming and outgoing impulses propagate into and out of the same side of the spinal cord. The flexor reflex also illustrates another feature of polysynaptic reflex arcs. Moving your entire lower or upper limb away from a painful stimulus involves contraction of more than one muscle group. Hence, several motor neurons must simultaneously convey impulses to several limb muscles. Because nerve impulses from one sensory neuron ascend and descend in the spinal cord and activate interneurons in several segments of the spinal cord, this type of reflex is called an intersegmental reflex arc. Through intersegmental reflex arcs, a single sensory neuron can activate several motor neurons, thereby stimulating more than one effector. The monosynaptic stretch reflex, in contrast, involves muscles receiving nerve impulses from one spinal cord segment only.

retained function following transection

The following list outlines which muscle functions may be retained at progressively lower levels of spinal cord transection. (These are spinal cord levels and not vertebral column levels. Recall that spinal cord levels differ from vertebral column levels because of the differential growth of the cord versus the column, especially as you progress inferiorly.) • C1-C3: no function maintained from the neck down; ventilator needed for breathing; electric wheelchair with breath, head, or shoulder-controlled device required • C4-C5: diaphragm, which allows breathing • C6-C7: some arm and chest muscles, which allows feeding, some dressing, and manual wheelchair required • T1-T3: intact arm function • T4-T9: control of trunk above the umbilicus • T10-L1: most thigh muscles, which allows walking with long leg braces • L1-L2: most leg muscles, which allows walking with short leg braces

gray mater of the spinal cord

The gray matter of the spinal cord is shaped like the letter H or a butterfly; it consists of dendrites and cell bodies of neurons, unmyelinated axons, and neuroglia. The gray commissure forms the crossbar of the H. In the center of the gray commissure is a small space called the central canal; it extends the entire length of the spinal cord and is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. At its superior end, the central canal is continuous with the fourth ventricle (a space that contains cerebrospinal fluid) in the medulla oblongata of the brain. Anterior to the gray commissure is the anterior (ventral) white commissure, which connects the white matter of the right and left sides of the spinal cord. The gray matter on each side of the spinal cord is subdivided into regions called horns. The posterior (dorsal) gray horns contain cell bodies and axons of interneurons as well as axons of incoming sensory neurons. Recall that cell bodies of sensory neurons are located in the posterior (dor- sal) root ganglion of a spinal nerve. The anterior (ventral), gray horns contain somatic motor nuclei, which are clusters of cell bodies of somatic motor neurons that provide nerve impulses for contraction of skeletal muscles. Between the posterior and anterior gray horns are the lateral gray horns, which are present only in thoracic and upper lumbar segments of the spinal cord.

gray horns

The gray matter on each side of the spinal cord is subdivided into regions called horns The posterior (dorsal) gray horns contain cell bodies and axons of interneurons as well as axons of incoming sensory neurons. Recall that cell bodies of sensory neurons are located in the posterior (dorsal) root ganglion of a spinal nerve. The anterior (ventral) gray horns contain somatic motor nuclei, which are clusters of cell bodies of somatic motor neurons that provide nerve impulses for contraction of skeletal muscles. Between the posterior and anterior gray horns are the lateral gray horns, which are present only in thoracic and upper lumbar segments of the spinal cord. The lateral gray horns contain autonomic motor nuclei, which are clusters of cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons that regulate the activity of cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.

injuries to the lumbar plexus

The largest nerve arising from the lumbar plexus is the femoral nerve. Injuries to the femoral nerve, which acan occur in stab or gunshot wounds, are indicated by an inability to extend the leg and by loss of sensation in the skin over the anteromedial aspect of the thigh. Injuries to the obturator nerve result in paralysis of the adductor muscles of the thigh and loss of sensation over the medial aspect of the thigh. It may result from pressure on the nerve by the fetal head during pregnancy.

Meninges

The meninges singular is meninx are three protective, connective tissue coverings that encircle the spinal cord and brain. From superficial to deep they are the (1) dura mater, (2) arachnoid mater, and (3) pia mater. The spinal meninges sur- round the spinal cord and are continuous with the cranial meninges, which encircle the brain. All three spinal meninges cover the spinal nerves up to the point where they exit the spinal column through the intervertebral foramina. The spinal cord is also protected by a cushion of fat and connective tissue located in the epidural space a space between the dura mater and the wall of the vertebral canal

sciatica

The most common form of back pain is caused by compression or irritation of the sciatic nerve, the longest nerve in the human body. The sciatic nerve is actually two nerves—tibial and common fibular—bound together by a common sheath of connective tissue. It splits into its two divisions, usually at the knee. Injury to the sciatic nerve results in sciatica, pain that may extend from the buttock down the posterior and lateral aspect of the leg and the lateral aspect of the foot. The sciatic nerve may be injured because of a herniated (slipped) disc, dislocated hip, osteoarthritis of the lumbosacral spine, pathological shortening of the lateral rotator muscles of the thigh (especially piriformis), pressure from the uterus during pregnancy, inflammation, irritation, or an improperly administered gluteal intramuscular injection.

brachial plexus

The roots (anterior rami) of spinal nerves C5-C8 and T1 form the brachial plexus which extends inferiorly and laterally on either side of the last four cervical and first thoracic vertebrae. It passes above the first rib posterior to the clavicle and then enters the axilla. Since the brachial plexus is so complex, an explanation of its various parts is helpful. As with the cervical and other plexuses, the roots are the anterior rami of the spinal nerves. The ROOTS of several spinal nerves unite to form trunks in the inferior part of the neck. These are the superior, middle, and inferior TRUNKS. Posterior to the clavicles, the trunks diverge into DIVISIONS, called the anterior and posterior DIVISIONS. In the axillae, the DIVISIONS unite to form CORDS called the lateral, medial, and posterior CORDS. The CORDS are named for their relationship to the axillary artery, a large artery that supplies blood to the upper limb

lumbar plexus

The roots (anterior rami) of spinal nerves L1-L4 form the lumbar plexus Unlike the brachial plexus, there is minimal intermingling of fibers in the lumbar plexus. On either side of the first four lumbar vertebrae, the lumbar plexus passes obliquely outward, between the superficial and deep heads of the psoas major muscle and anterior to the quadratus lumborum muscle. Between the heads of the psoa major, the roots of the lumbar plexuses split into anterior and posterior divisions, which then give rise to the peripheral branches of the plexas. The lumbar plexus supplies the anterolateral abdominal wall, external genitals, and part of the lower limbs.

reflex

The second way the spinal cord promotes homeostasis is by serving as an integrating center for some reflexes. A reflex is a fast, involuntary, unplanned sequence of actions that occurs in response to a particular stimulus. Some reflexes are inborn, such as pulling your hand away from a hot surface before you even feel that it is hot. Other reflexes are learned or acquired. For instance,you learn many reflexes while acquiring driving expertise. Slamming on the brakes in an emergency is one example. When integration takes place in the spinal cord gray matter, the reflex is a SPINAL REFLEX. An example is the familiar patellar reflex (knee jerk). If integration occurs in the brain stem rather than the spinal cord, the reflex is called a CRANIAL REFLEX. An example is the tracking movements of your eyes as you read this sentence. You are probably most aware of SOMATIC REFLEXES, which involve contraction of skeletal muscles. Equally important, however, are the AUTONOMIC (VISCERAL) REFLEXES, which generally are not consciously perceived. They involve responses of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.

dermatome

The skin over the entire body is supplied by somatic sensory neurons that carry nerve impulses from the skin into the spinal cord and brain. Each spinal nerve contains sensory neurons that serve a specific, predictable segment of the body. One of the cranial nerves, the trigeminal (V) nerve, serves most of the skin of the face and scalp. The area of the skin that provides sensory input to the CNS via one pair of spinal nerves or the trigeminal (V) nerve is called a dermatome The nerve supply in adjacent dermatomes overlaps somewhat. Knowing which spinal cord segments supply each dermatome makes it possible to locate damaged regions of the spinal cord. If the skin in a particular region is stimulated but the sensation is not perceived, the nerves supplying that dermatome are probably damaged. In regions where the overlap is considerable, little loss of sensation may result if only one of the nerves supplying the dermatome is damaged. Information about the innervation patterns of spinal nerves can also be used therapeutically. Cutting posterior roots or infusing local anesthetics can block pain either permanently or transiently. Because dermatomes overlap, deliberate production of a region of complete anesthesia may require that at least three adjacent spinal nerves be cut or blocked by an anesthetic drug

principal functions of the spinal cord in homeostasis

The spinal cord has two principal functions in maintaining homeostasis: nerve impulse propagation and integration of information The white matter tracts in the spinal cord are highways for nerve impulse propagation. Sensory input travels along these tracts toward the brain, and motor output travels from the brain along these tracts toward skeletal muscles and other effector tissues. The gray matter of the spinal cord receives and integrates incoming and outgoing information

tendon reflex

The stretch reflex operates as a feedback mechanism to control muscle length by causing muscle contraction. In contrast, the tendon reflex operates as a feedback mechanism to control muscle TENSION by causing muscle relaxation before muscle force becomes so great that tendons might be torn. Although the tendon reflex is less sensitive than the stretch reflex, it can override the stretch reflex when TENSION is great, making you drop a very heavy weight, for example. Like the stretch reflex, the tendon reflex is IPSILATERAL. The sensory receptors for this reflex are called TENDON (Golgi tendon) ORGANS which lie within a tendon near its junction with a muscle. In contrast to muscle spindles, which are sensitive to changes in muscle length, tendon organs detect and respond to changes in muscle tension that are caused by passive stretch or muscular contraction

variations in the spinal cord

The various spinal cord segments vary in size, shape, relative amounts of gray and white matter, and distribution and shape of gray matter. For example, the amount of gray matter is largest in the cervical and lumbar segments of the spinal cord because these segments are responsible for sensory and motor innervation of the limbs. In addition, more sensory and motor tracts are present in the upper segments of the spinal cord than in the lower segments. Therefore, the amount of white matter decreases from cervical to sacral segments of the spinal cord.

white mater

The white matter of the spinal cord consists primarily of bundles of myelinated axons of neurons. Two grooves penetrate the white matter of the spinal cord and divide it into right and left sides. The anterior median fissure is a wide groove on the anterior (ventral) side. The posterior median sulcus is a narrow furrow on the posterior (dorsal) side.

columns and tracts

The white matter of the spinal cord, like the gray matter, is organized into regions. The anterior and posterior gray horns divide the white matter on each side into three broad areas called columns: (1) anterior (ventral) white columns, (2) posterior (dorsal) white columns, (3) lateral white columns. Each column in turn contains distinct bundles of axons having a common origin or destination and carrying similar information. These bundles, which may extend long distances up or down the spinal cord, are called tracts. Recall that tracts are bundles of axons in the CNS, whereas nerves are bundles of axons in the PNS. Sensory (ascending) tracts consist of axons that conduct nerve impulses toward the brain. Tracts consisting of axons that carry nerve impulses from the brain are called motor (descending) tracts. Sensory and motor tracts of the spinal cord are continuous with sensory and motor tracts in the brain.

reasons for spinal cord variation

There are two major reasons for this variation in spinal cord white matter: (1) As the spinal cord ascends from sacral to cervical segments, more ascending axons are added to spinal cord white matter to form more sensory tracts. (2) As the spinal cord descends from cervical to sacral segments, the motor tracts decrease in thickness as more descending axons leave the motor tracts to synapse with neurons in the gray matter of the spinal cord

pia mater

This innermost meninx is a thin transparent connective tissue layer that adheres to the surface of the spinal cord and brain. It consists of thin squamous to cuboidal cells within interlacing bundles of collagen fibers and some fine elastic fibers. Within the pia mater are many blood vessels that supply oxygen and nutrients to the spinal cord Between the arachnoid mater and pia mater is a space, the subarachnoid space, which contains shock-absorbing cerebrospinal fluid.

denticulate ligaments

Triangular-shaped membranous extensions of the pia mater suspend the spinal cord in the middle of its dural sheath. These extensions, called denticulate ligaments , are thickenings of the pia mater. They project laterally and fuse with the arachnoid mater and inner surface of the dura mater between the anterior and pos- terior nerve roots of spinal nerves on either side Extending along the entire length of the spinal cord, the denticulate ligaments protect the spinal cord against sudden displacement that could result in shock.

roots of the spinal cord

Two bundles of axons, called roots, connect each spinal nerve to a segment of the cord by even smaller bundles of axons called rootlets The posterior (dorsal) root and rootlets contain only sensory axons, which conduct nerve impulses from sensory receptors in the skin, muscles, and internal organs into the central nervous system. Each posterior root has a swelling, the posterior (dorsal) root ganglion, which contains the cell bodies of sensory neurons. The anterior (ventral) root and rootlets contain axons of motor neurons, which conduct nerve impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands).

more on crossed reflexes

Unlike the flexor reflex, which is an ipsilateral reflex, the crossed extensor reflex involves a contralateral reflex arc Sensory impulses enter one side of the spinal cord and motor impulses exit on the opposite side. Thus, a crossed extensor reflex synchronizes the extension of the contralateral limb with the withdrawal (flexion) of the stimulated limb. Reciprocal innervation also occurs in both the flexor reflex and the crossed extensor reflex. In the flexor reflex, when the flexor muscles of a painfully stimulated lower limb are contracting, the extensor muscles of the same limb are relaxing to some degree. If both sets of muscles contracted at the same time, the two sets of muscles would pull on the bones in opposite directions, which might immobilize the limb. Because of reciprocal innervation, one set of muscles contracts while the other relaxes.

spinal nerve roots

a typical spinal nerve has two connections to the cord: a posterior root and an anterior root The posterior and anterior roots unite to form a spinal nerve at the intervertebral foramen. Because the posterior root contains sensory axons and the anterior root contains motor axons, a spinal nerve is classified as a mixed nerve. The posterior root contains a posterior root ganglion in which cell bodies of sensory neurons are located.

other branches of spinal nerves

other branches of a spinal nerve are the rami communicantes