Chapter 15 T's and Q's

Boyars

A boyar was a member of the highest rank of the feudal Bulgarian, Moscovian, Ruthenian, Wallachian, and Moldavian aristocracies, second only to the ruling princes, from the 10th century to the 17th century. The rank has lived on as a surname in Russia, Ukraine and Romania, and also in Finland. Boyars wielded considerable power through their military support of the Kievan princes. Power and prestige of many of them, however, soon came to depend almost completely on service to the state, family history of service and, to a lesser extent, land ownership. Ukrainian and Russian boyars were visually very similar to knights, but after the Mongol invasion, their cultural links were mostly lost. The boyars occupied the highest state offices and, through a council (Duma), advised the Grand Duke. They received extensive grants of land and, as members of the Boyars' Duma, were the major legislators of Kievan Rus'. After the Mongol invasion in the 13th century, the boyars from central and southern parts of Kievan Rus' were incorporated into Lithuanian and Polish nobility. In the 16th and 17th centuries, many of those Ukrainian boyars who failed to get the status of a nobleman actively participated in the formation of the Cossack army, based in the south of modern Ukraine.

Cossacks

A member of a people dwelling in the northern hinterlands of the Black and Caspian seas. They had a tradition of independence and finally received privileges from the Russian government in return for military services. Originally the term referred to semi-independent Tatar groups, which formed in the Dnieper region. The term was also applied to peasants who had fled from serfdom in Poland, Lithuania, and Muscovy to the Dnieper and Don regions, where they established free self-governing military communities. Cossacks were free gorps of warrior bands which peasants joined. As landlords demanded more from the serfs who survived the persecutions, growing numbers of peasants fled to the wild, recently conquered territories to east and south to join cossacks. Ivan responded to this by tying peasants ever more firmly to the land and to noble landholder.

Janissary corps

A member of an elite corps in the standing army of the Ottoman Empire from the late 14th century to 1826. Highly respected for their military prowess in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Janissaries became a powerful political force within the Ottoman state. The Janissary corps was originally staffed by Christian youths from the Balkan provinces who were converted to Islām on being drafted into the Ottoman service. By 1683 service in the janissary corps had become so prestigious that the sultan ceased recruitment by force, and it became a volunteer army open to Christians and Muslims.

Serfs

A serf is an agricultural laborer bound under the feudal system to work on the lord's estate. Serfs occupied a plot of land, which they were required to work for the lord of the manor, in exchange for protection and the right to farm other fields on the manor for their own subsistence.They worked this plot in exchange for protection and the right to farm other fields on the manor. They could eat or sell what they garnered from these plots. After the Black Death, many lords were dead so serfs escaped. Local nobles were quick to pass laws that allowed nobles' families re-capture the serfs they owned. These re-captured serfs were subjected to even worse condition than before and riots broke out. There were even times where the peasants could go with unpaid labor for 6 days out of the week.

Absolutism

Absolute monarchy, or absolutism, meant that the ultimate authority to run a state was in the hands of a king who ruled by divine right. Divine right was the claim that a king was given his position by some higher power (a God). The authority of the monarch included: administration, taxes, justice and foreign policy. Other absolutist traits were the centralization of power, forced religious and standing military. One of the most prominent advocates of divine-right monarchy during the 17th century was Bishop Jacques-Benigne Bossuet. According to Bossuet, all governments were ordained by God to allow humanity to live in an organized society. Because kings and queens were given their authority by god, their power was unconditional. Unlike a limited monarchy, the absolute monarch would not share his power with another governing body, such as parliament.

Was the revocation of the Edict on Nantes an error on the part of Louis XIV? Why or why not?

Although there are different view on whether King Louis XIV made the correct decision in revoking the Edict of Nantes, he had many reasons for doing so. The French monarchy did not intend for religious toleration to be permanent, as religious pluralism was not regarded as a 17th century virtue. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes was also very popular, as aristocrats had wanted Louis XIV to crack down on the Protestants for a long time. Tens of thousands of Huguenot craftsmen, soldiers, and businessmen were emigrated, taking away their skills, revenues, and bitterness to Holland, England, Prussia, and Cape Town. However, modern scholars found that the revocation only caused a minor effect in the French economical development.

"Little ice age"

Between the early 14th and late 19th centuries, a period of cooling known as the Little Ice Age chilled the planet. Europe bore the brunt of its ill effects, experiencing harsh and fickle weather for several centuries and especially from 1560 to 1660. It meant a shorter farming season with lower yields, which created food shortages that lead to famine. This had a great impact on population. Due to malnutrition, people started to get sick and die, making the population decrease. There were even outbreaks of the bubonic plague. Since the peasants had a difficult life, this affected the industry as well. Food prices were high, there was unemployment, and there was a huge economic crisis. Due to food shortages, peasants (especially women), began to invade bakeries and stole bread to sell it a a fair price, this was called moral economy.

Cardinal Mazarin

Cardinal Mazarin was an Italian cardinal who succeeded cardinal Richelieu as the King of France's chief minister. Mazarin was mentored in his life by Cardinal Richelieu. During Louis XIV's reign Cardinal Mazarin was basically in charge of France. He made most of the important decision, ruling from behind the scenes. During Anne of Austria's regency, he helped her expand power and influence. He played a key role in establishing the Peace of Westphalia. Next to Cardinal Richelieu, Cardinal Mazarin was incredibly important in expanding France's power and influence as well as further establishing France's absolutist system of government.

Charles I

Charles's reign began with an unpopular friendship with George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, who used his influence against the wishes of other nobility. Buckingham was assassinated in 1628. There was ongoing tension with parliament over money - made worse by the costs of war abroad. In addition, Charles favoured a High Anglican form of worship, and his wife was Catholic - both made many of his subjects suspicious, particularly the Puritans. Charles dissolved parliament three times between 1625 and 1629. In 1629, he dismissed parliament and resolved to rule alone. This forced him to raise revenue by non-parliamentary means which made him increasingly unpopular. At the same time, there was a crackdown on Puritans and Catholics and many emigrated to the American colonies. Unrest in Scotland - because Charles attempted to force a new prayer book on the country - put an end to his personal rule. He was forced to call parliament to obtain funds to fight the Scots. In November 1641, tensions were raised even further with disagreements over who should command an army to suppress an uprising in Ireland. Charles attempted to have five members of parliament arrested and in August 1642, raised the royal standard at Nottingham. Civil war began.

What is constitutionalism? How does it differ from a democratic form of government? How does it differ from Absolutism?

Constitutionalism is a government in which the ruling power has limitations due to set laws creating a balance between power of the government and the rights of the citizens. A constitution is an important part of constitutionalism and gets its power from the government's recognition and serves as the people's protector of their rights, liberties, and property. A constitutional government can either be in the form of a monarch or republic but the electorate has the ultimate power. It differs from a democratic form of government because a true democracy grants all citizens the right to vote, where constitutionalism gave some men and no women the right to vote. Constitutionalism differs from absolutism because an absolutist state has one ruler who claims he has the divine authority and controls everything within his state.

How did countries grow their militaries? What happened as a result of this growth?

Countries grow their militaries by first absorbing the cost of the military, instead of leaving it to the nobles. Nobles formed part of the military and were aid with taxes from the people. Ina ditto , in many countries, military service and training was forced by law for middle class men, growing the size of the army. The result is that through fear, you may control people, it is a show of force. It can also bring bankruptcy to the country and debt because of the cost, as it is a state law many people harmed themselves and fled in order to avoid the military. A standing military s one of the main characteristics of an absolutist monarchy. New monarchies in Europe laid the foundation for the centralized states by establishing a monopoly on tax collection, military force, and the dispensing of justice, and gaining the right to determine the religion of their subjects. For example, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain consolidating control of the military in Spain. In France, Louis XIII, with the assistance of Prime Minister Richelieu, established an absolute monarchy in France during his reign. Louis XIV further centralized power by crushing the rebellion of feudal lords. King Louis XIV took several measures to weaken or eliminate the power of nobles in France. Louis XIV demolished a number of fortified castles still owned and occupied by members of the nobility. Louis XIV further reduced the nobles' power by requiring them to spend at least some portion of the year as courtiers in residence at the Versailles. This removed the nobles from their base of power and allowed him to keep them under his own surveillance and control. Louis XIV, with the help of his minister of finance, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, replaced nobles with royal appointees drawn largely from the merchant class, who were loyal to Louis XIV. The idea of the divine right of kings also allowed monarchs in Europe to centralize power. Many European monarchs claimed power by divine right. The centralization of European states led to international competition for wealth and power, which accelerated the pace of colonization in America and Asia. It also led the rise of nationalism in Europe.

Elizabeth I

Elizabeth Tudor is considered by many to be the greatest monarch in English history. When she became queen in 1558, she was twenty-five years old, a survivor of scandal and danger, and considered illegitimate by most Europeans. She inherited a bankrupt nation, torn by religious discord, a weakened pawn between the great powers of France and Spain. She was only the third queen to rule England in her own right; the other two examples, her cousin Lady Jane Grey and half-sister Mary I, were disastrous. Even her supporters believed her position dangerous and uncertain. Her only hope, they counseled, was to marry quickly and lean upon her husband for support. But Elizabeth had other ideas. She ruled alone for nearly half a century, lending her name to a glorious epoch in world history. She dazzled even her greatest enemies. Her sense of duty was admirable, though it came at great personal cost. She was committed above all else to preserving English peace and stability; her genuine love for her subjects was legendary. Only a few years after her death in 1603, they lamented her passing. In her greatest speech to Parliament, she told them, 'I count the glory of my crown that I have reigned with your love.' And five centuries later, the worldwide love affair with Elizabeth Tudor continues. One of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. Her time on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity. During her reign, she exercised very great personal power. Elizabeth was able to maintain control over her realm impart by refusing to marry and submit to a husband. She was immensely popular with her people, but left no immediate heir to continue her legacy, which ruled in James Sturt ascending to the throne.

How did countries centralize their power? What was a result of this centralization?

European countries centralized their power in a few different ways. The first is elimination of smaller, un-official ruling bodies. This may be mercenaries who take over a town and rule it or it may be land-owning nobles who think themselves fit to rule inside of a kingdom. These were eliminated by the army generally. With all of these smaller ruling bodies, sometimes it was unclear who the supreme ruler was or it the word of the king was not taken seriously, ending in confusion and sometimes rebellion. The other way power was centralized was moving all law making bodies close together. So, for example, if there were different branches of the king's rule, they would all be brought together so as to communicate more effectively and carry out the law more effectively. If bringing these bodies close together proved challenging, people called intendants would carry out the law in a respective part of the kingdom. Intendants were trusted and chosen by the king and would communicate with him on how to carry out the law in their region. The effect of government centralization was that it made governments more effective. Eliminating confusion and creating legislature together made for a clearer law to the subjects of a country as well as created a powerful figure for large, centralized governments.

Peace of Utrecht

France concluded treaties of peace at Utrecht with Britain, the Dutch republic, Prussia, Portugal, and Savoy. By the treaty with Britain, France recognized Queen Anne as the British sovereign and undertook to cease supporting James Edward, the son of the deposed king James II. The Peace of Utrecht was established by a series of individual peace treaties that helped to end the War of Spanish Succession. The Peace of Utrecht marked the end Louis XIV's efforts to establish French hegemony in Europe. The Peace of Utrecht resulted in the partitioning of the Spanish empire and restored the European balance of power.

Frederick William

Frederick II was born on January 24, 1712, in Berlin, Germany. He inherited the Prussian throne in 1740 and established control of Silesia in 1745. The Seven Years' War threatened to destroy Prussia's status, but ended with Silesia still in Frederick's control. During his time on the throne, Frederick increased Prussia's territories and military power. He died in 1786. the Soldier King was the Elector of Brandenburg and the King of Prussia for 27 years. He was the second king of Prussia and transformed it into highly prosperous and efficient state. William took over right after the Thirty Years War and Prussia was in total disarray. He had a hand in repairing it economically and politically with an emphasis on the military part of his kingdom. His focus on the military made Prussia into a major military power. At the time of his death Prussia's standing army was composed of 83,000 soldiers with the countries population being 2,200,000. It was one of the strongest in Europe.

Constitutionalism

Government in which power is distributed and limited by a system of laws that the rulers must obey. Constitutionalism also implies a balance between the authority and power of the government, on the one hand, and the rights and liberties of the subjects on the other. All constitutionalist governments have a constitution, be it written or unwritten. A nation´s constitution may be embodied in one basic document and occasionally revised bu amendment, like the Constitution of the United States. Or it may be only partly formalized and include parliamentary statutes, judicial decisions, and a body of traditional procedures and practices, like the English and Dutch constitutions. England and the Netherlands evolved this type of government.

Frederick William- "Great Elector"

He restored the Hohenzollern dominions after the devastations of the Thirty Years' War—centralizing the political administration, reorganizing the state finances, rebuilding towns and cities, developing a strong army, and acquiring clear sovereignty over ducal Prussia. All these measures contributed to the foundation of the future Prussian monarchy. He had acquired a great many political and military achievements by the time of his coronation, leading to his being called the Great Elector. He was a devout Calvinist and thought that trade was a vital component of any nation and vital to healthy relationships with other countries. He passed many domestic reforms which gave Prussia a very strong position in the post-Westphalian north-central European political order which moved Prussia from just a duchy to a kingdom.

Colbert

He was a controller general of finance and secretary of state for the navy under King Louis XIV of France. He carried out the program of economic reconstruction that helped make France the dominant power in Europe. Colbert implemented a number of market reforms and instituted mercantilism in France. Colbert's central idea was that the wealth and the economy of France should serve the state. Colbert sought to build a French economy that sold abroad and bought domestically. This policy was followed to accumulate gold for the state.

Peter Paul Rubens

He was a prolific seventeenth-century Flemish Baroque painter, and a proponent of an exuberant Baroque style that emphasized movement, color, and sensuality. He is well-known for his Counter-Reformation altarpieces, portraits, landscapes, and history paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects. In addition to running a large studio in Antwerp which produced paintings popular with nobility and art collectors throughout Europe, Rubens was a classically-educated humanist scholar, art collector, and diplomat who was knighted by both Philip IV, king of Spain, and Charles I, king of England. Peter Paul Rubens was probably born on June the 28th 1577 in Siegen, Germany. His parents Jan Rubens and Maria Pypelinckx had left the catholic Spanish-dominated city of Antwerp because of their Calvinist sympathies. The family had moved to Cologne with the children. Father Rubens, however, nearly escaped death sentence in Cologne after an affair with the princess of Orange. Mother Rubens managed to have her husband freed and the family accepted to be exiled to Siegen, Westphalia. It was there that the sixth child, Peter Paul, was born. He is famous for painting pieces such as Tiger Hunt, Massacre of the Innocents and The Fall of Phaeton. Rubens was one of the first painters of the Baroque period and his paintings set the standards for Baroque art. Rubens studied Michelangelo and became very familiar with Renaissance art. He then replicated the style and took it a step farther adding more color, detail and emphasis.

Millet system

In the Ottoman Empire, a millet was a separate legal court pertaining to "personal law" under which a confessional community (a group abiding by the laws of Muslim Sharia, Christian Canon law, or Jewish Halakha) was allowed to rule itself under its own system. The Ottomans divided their subjects into religious communities called millets Each millet (or nation) enjoyed autonomous self-government under its religious leaders. The Ottoman Empire recognized Orthodox Christianity, Jews, Armenian Christians, and Muslims as distinct millets, but despite its tolerance, the empire was an explicitly Islamic state. The millet system created a powerful bond between the Ottoman ruling class and religious leaders , who supported the sultan´s rule in return for extensive authority over their own communities. Each millet collected taxes for the state, regulated group behavior, and maintained law courts, schools, houses of worship, and hospitals for its people.

Ivan III

Ivan III or Ivan the Great, was a Grand Prince of the Rus and Grand Prince of Moscow. During his reign, Ivan more than tripled his state's territory. He did this by ending Mongol dominance. The Mongols were the controlling superpower and after defeating them and forcing them out of Moscow, Ivan was free to expand Moscow as much as he wanted. He also renovated the Kremlin in Moscow, a meaningful move because at the time the Kremlin represented political power and its renovation inspired a heavily nationalist sentiment among the citizens of Moscow. Through his expansion, renovation and later military strengthening, Ivan laid the foundation for what would later become an incredibly strong and powerful Russian state. He was one of Russia's longest reigning rulers.

What were the attitudes and policies of James I that made him so unpopular?

James I was very unpopular because he didn't care about carrying on the tradition of showing the majesty and mystique of the monarchy, he lacked the touch that was common in most monarchs of the time. He wasn't very social and didn't like waving at the crowds that waited to greet him wherever he went. He was a very bad judge of character and had a Scottish accent in a society where Scots were despised and hated. His policies that made him very hated were his devotion and subscription to the Divine Right of Kings. He wholeheartedly believed in it and one time he even lectured the House of Commons on how it worked. He believed nothing could stand between a king and his kingdom and he bought into the Stuart concept of absolutism which was that total royal jurisdiction over the properties, persons and liberties of English women and men were controlled completely by the king. James I wasn't interested in displaying the majesty and mystique of monarchy, he lacked the common touch. He didn't like to wave at the crowds who waited to greet him. He was also a poor judge of character, and in a society already hostile to Scots, his Scottish accent didn't help him. James was devoted to the theory of the divine right of kings and went so far as to lecture the House of Commons. He said that there is nothing that can stand against a king. He was implying total royal jurisdiction over the liberties, persons, and properties of English men and women formed the basis of the Stuart concept of absolutism.

Johann Sebastian Bach

Johan Sebastian Bach was a German composer and musician who was most active during the Baroque period. He slowly became deaf towards the end of his life. Bach is regarded as, one of, if not the greatest composers of all time. Just as Rubens had done, Bach paved the way for the style of music that would later become Baroque classical music. He is famous for writing "Aria da Capo", Air on a G String", Toccata and Fugue in D Minor", and "Brandenburg Concerto No. 2". Bach is famous for reworking music's complexities and styles so that there was more happening in the song. Bach also pioneered two-handed piano playing, something that had never been done before. He started showing students this method and through teaching, developed the style.

John Locke

John Locke John Locke was an English philosopher who was important to the Enlightenment and known as the Father of Liberalism. His published works are important to political liberalism as well as philosophical empiricism. His whole idea of political thought was base on he social contract between citizens and the government. He also felt that toleration ,especially religious toleration, were essential to a successful government. His ideas were central to the Glorious Revolution as well as the American Revolution. Locke was the first of the Enlightenment thinkers. He was very important because he essentially began the wave of the Enlightenment and led Britain and America to new, better periods of political, economic and social ideas. Locke is also known for starting the Whig party.

Why is it said that Locke was the spokesman for the liberal English revolution of 1689 and for representative government?

Long term causes: +The status of the monarchy had started to decline under the reign of James I. James was a firm believer in the "divine right of kings". +Parliament handled money, which James lacked. +James used his friends to run the country and they were rewarded with titles. This caused great offence to those Members of Parliament who believed that they had the right to run the country. +Possible union with Spain could have made the country Short term causes: +Charles's strong belief in his divine right to be king, he could never be questioned . -Arguments about religion and economy with the Parliament +Charles refused to let Parliament meet. +Charles ruled by using the Court of Star Chamber. To raise money for the king, the Court heavily fined those brought before it. +In 1635 Charles ordered that everyone in the country should pay Ship Money. This was historically a tax paid by coastal towns and villages to pay for the upkeep of the navy. +Charles ordered that the Scottish should use a new prayer book for their church services. This resulted in the invasion of England. The overall outcome of the war was: +The trial and execution of Charles I +The exile of his son, Charles II +The replacement of English monarchy with, at first, the Commonwealth of England (1649-53) and then the Protectorate (1653-59) under Oliver Cromwell's personal rule, which became dictatorship.

Louis XIII

Louis XIII of France was born in 1601 and died in 1643. Louis was the son of Henry IV and Marie de Medici. He was king from 1610 on, the year of his father's assassination. His monarchy was dominated by the careers of the Duke de Luynes and Cardinal Richelieu. His monarchy saw an expansion of absolute monarchical power started by Louis XI and advanced by the likes of Francis I and Henry II. The power of the monarchy was weakened during the French Wars of Religion and Louis wanted to build on the increase in monarchical power that his father, Henry, had introduced once the war had ended. Shortly before his ninth birthday, Louis became king of France and Navarre after his father Henry IV was assassinated. His mother, Marie de' Medici, acted as regent during his minority. Mismanagement of the kingdom and ceaseless political intrigues by Marie and her Italian favourites led the young king to take power in 1617 by exiling his mother and executing her followers, including Concino Concini, the most influential Italian at the French court. He worked very closely with Cardinal Richelieu to make France a leading European power and to centralize the power of the French crown. During the reign of Louis XIII the French crown kept nobility in check, successfully intervened in the Thirty Years War against the Habsburgs and reduced the political authority of the Huguenots in France. A big challenge for Louis XIII's reign was the religious discord in France. He wanted Catholicism to be the dominant religion but when he came to power, Protestantism was the dominant religion. He spent much of his time trying to suppress the Huguenots and was successful before his death in 1643.

Discuss the foreign policy goals of Louis XIV. Was he successful?

Louis XIV wanted to expand the frontiers of France to what are called its natural boundaries - the Rhine river to the east and northeast,the Alps to the southeast, and the Pyrenees to the southwest. This would increase the population of France, increase agricultural land and areas of natural resources. All this would make France richer and more powerful. By establishing the boundaries of France behind the natural barriers of the Rhine and the Alps and Pyrenees mountain ranges, France would be protected from foreign attack by natural barriers that could easily be defended,and thus much safer from invasion by potential enemies. His foreign policies were mainly against the Habsburg dynasty's power and the ownership of French-speaking territories by nations other than France.his foreign policies included many wars. He did take over the Spanish Netherlands and some of the United Provinces of Holland, and Franche-Comté. However, his aggressive advances caused alliances to be formed against him which included the Habsburg domains of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, England, and Holland in all of their incarnations. Eventually, Louis XIV could not defeat the alliances, and some acquired territories were lost again in treaties, even French colonies.

Louis XIV

Louis was an incredibly successful absolutist monarch that ruled in France. He was known as the Sun King because he believed that God had chosen him and that he was a human god. He crushed any potential opposition to his throne, making his reign the longest of any European monarch. He centralized French power, making the government much more effective and increasing the crown's authority over the aristocracy and the church. He established an incredibly powerful absolutist system in France. Due to Louis's efforts, during his reign France was one of Europe's most powerful countries. Louis's foreign policy didn't rely much of bureaucracy but instead on all out warfare. He was famous for starting wars and actually started three major wars as well as two smaller conflicts across Europe. Louis created a huge and powerful standing army and was determined to use it.

Mercantilism

Mercantilism is an array of governmental policies used to control economic, especially commercial activities for the state. In mercantilist theory, when resources were limited, state intervention was used to secure a large part of the resource. A country had to sell more goods abroad than it brought in order to accumulate wealth, especially in gold. conomic theory and practice common in Europe from the 16th to the 18th century that promoted governmental regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers. It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Its 17th-century publicists—most notably Thomas Mun in England, Jean-Baptiste Colbert in France, and Antonio Serra in Italy—never, however, used the term themselves; it was given currency by the Scottish economist Adam Smith. he idea behind mercantilism was that the state could increase its power at the expense of rival nations by regulating the national economy, especially with respect to trade with colonies. Under mercantilism the state government would forbid colonies from trading with other nations, monopolize markets, ban the export of gold or silver, provide subsidies for exports, and restrict domestic consumption through non-tariff barriers to trade.

Sword Nobles

Nobility of the sword are the old and traditional nobility, who have been around since the middle ages. These were the nobles seen at court, extravagantly prominent at Versailles, and these were the nobles who ran the provinces. Thought they held the most prestige, many of these nobles had small incomes, which were spent making them look wealthy. Sword Nobles were French nobleman whose nobility and position was based on their family history of position as a knight and titles attached to large pieces of land or estates. Sword Nobles were called Sword Nobles because they fought and served for the king and in exchange were given estates and large sums of money. Sword Nobles, unlike Robe Nobles had the right to carry and a sword.

Briefly explain the order and aspects of peasant life in the seventeenth century socially, politically, and economically

Peasant life in the seventeenth century was very dark and full of hardships. Climate was out of control. Many agricultural and manufacturing slumps resulted in food shortages and shrinking population rates. In everyday peasant life, the small number of peasants in each village who owned enough land to feed themselves and had livestock and plows necessary to work their land were leaders of the peasant village. These leaders employed landless poor, rented out livestock and tools, and served as agents for noble lords. Small landowners and tenant farmers did not have enough land to be self sufficient. Villagers worked as dependent laborers and servants in everyday peasant life. Bread was the primary element of the diet. The rich would eat white bread while the peasants were left brown bread because they could not afford better. Overall the peasants had a very hard life because they couldn't afford much and their lives continued to grow hard from "the little ice age," which resulted in a shortage of crops.

Peter the Great

Peter the Great is credited with dragging Russia out of the medieval times to such an extent that by his death in 1725, Russia was considered a leading eastern European state. He centralised government, modernised the army, created a navy and increased the subjugation and subjection of the peasants. His domestic policy allowed him to execute an aggressive foreign policy. Peter the Great In 1613, the Russians crowned a new tzar from the Romanov family. This family or "dynasty' would rule Russia until 1917. He successfully pursued two major policies: Westernization and expansionism. Westernization. As a young man, Peter became fascinated with the culture and technology of Western Europe. He believed that Russia could become a major military power if they westernized. He introduced many reforms. He reorganized his army according to western models and created a navy. He invited western businessmen to Russia to teach Russians modern techniques. He also forced serfs to work in mines and factories. Nobles were required to serve in the military or government. Peter also adopted western fashions. Peter also moved the capital of Russia from Moscow to St. Petersburg - a city he built on the Baltic Sea. Expansionism. In 1682, under Peter, Russia aggressively expanded. Russia fought several wars and won land along the Baltic Sea.

Baroque

Relating to or denoting a style of European architecture, music, and art of the 17th and 18th centuries that followed mannerism and is characterized by ornate detail. In architecture the period is exemplified by the palace of Versailles and by the work of Bernini in Italy. Major composers include Vivaldi, Bach, and Handel; Caravaggio and Rubens are important baroque artists. The style quickly spread to most of the rest of Europe. The characteristics of the Baroque style were exaggerated motion, clear and easily interpreted detail, intended to produce drama, tension, exuberance and grandeur in architecture, literature, dance ,theater, music, painting and sculpture. Baroque art and architecture's dramatic style was used to impress visitors and show off wealth.

Republicanism

Republicanism is an ideology of being a citizen in a state as a republic under which the people hold popular sovereignty. Many countries are "republics" in the sense that they are not monarchies. However, this article covers only the ideology of republicanism. Republicanism is a form of government in which there is no monarch and the power rests in the hands of the people as exercised through elected representatives. Republicanism is an ideology of being a citizen in a state as a republic under which the people hold popular sovereignty.The word, republic, derives from the Latin, res publica, which referred to the system of government that emerged in the 6th century BCE following the expulsion of the kings from Rome by Lucius Junius Brutus and Collatinus.

Cardinal Richelieu

Richelieu dominated the history of France from 1624 to his death as Louis XIII's chief minister, succeeding Luynes who died in 1621. Richelieu is considered to be one of the greatest politicians in French history. Richelieu was the third son of the Lord of Richelieu. He was educated in Paris at the Collège de Navarre. From here he went to a military school and then on to the Collège de Calvi where he studied theology. The plan was for Richelieu to take over the family bishopric at Luçon in Poitou. In April 1607, after receiving a papal dispensation as he was only 21, he was ordained as a priest and bishop. chelieu had huge ambitions to achieve far reaching power. By 1614 had achieved a reputation as a fine administrator in his diocese and he was considered a very good speaker at the meetings of the Estates-General. He became known as a dévot (a very strong supporter of Roman Catholicism) who then held pro-Spanish views. These were made known to the regent, Marie de Medici, who rewarded Richelieu by bringing him to the Royal Court in November 1515 where he was appointed Chaplain to the new queen, Anne of Austria. The royal favourite, Concini, also believed that Richelieu was talented and had him appointed Secretary of State for War and Foreign Affairs. ichelieu was an incredibly powerful French statesman, minister and clergyman. After rising to power, Richelieu eliminated domestic factions, centralizing the government. Through his efforts to centralize government and crush opposition, France became a centralized and incredibly strong state. He is also famous for working to end the Spanish-Habsburg hegemony that had very strong grips and deep roots on trade, economy and government in Europe. He saw this as an obstacle to France's growth so he eliminated it.

In what ways does Richelieu symbolize absolutism? What were his achievements?

Richelieu had a policy of total subordination of all groups and institutions to the French monarchy. The nobility was long considered the biggest threat to the centralizing goals of the crown and a strong national state, so Richelieu sought to restrain their power. In 1624, he re-shuffled the royal council and eliminated any threats to power. He dominated the council, leveling castles, long the symbol of feudal independence, and crushed aristocratic conspiracies quickly. His greatest accomplishment is the administrative system he established, which consisted of royal commissioners, called intendants, that ran the 32 districts, France was made up of. They ran special tasks, like financial, judicial, and policing. As intendants' power increased under Richelieu, so did the power of the centralized French state.

Sovereignty

Sovereignty is defined as the right to rule over subjects without any interference from other countries or outsiders. The idea of sovereignty began after the Peace of Westphalia ruled that nation and states had the right to rule in their disclosed territory without other states interfering. This was very important at the time because before the Peace of Westphalia, states had freely meddled in each other's business which led to conflict and war. In religious terms, the Sovereignty of God is the biblical teaching that all things are under God's rule and control, and that nothing happens without His direction or permission.

Stadholder

Stadholder was the term given to the magistrate of the Dutch colonies from the 15th to 18th century. Stadholders, which literally means state holder, had to preside of provincial assemblies, appoint officers and command provincial armies. They were the Dutch form of the Spanish viceroy. The Stadholder was the lieutenant of the colony. They had to maintain the peace and provincial order of the colony they were assigned to. Since the Dutch did very well in the lucrative fur-trade in the New World, the stadholder was very powerful in their assigned province and ended up becoming very wealthy due to taxes and Dutch fur-trade profits.

Austrian Habsburgs

The Austrian Habsburgs were the rulers of a large and incredibly powerful empire in Central Europe with its tendrils reaching all over the continent. The Holy Roman Empire was usually a member of the Austrian Habsburg family. The Habsburgs were some of the most influential people in all of Europe because of the size of their empire. The Habsburgs had reaches all over the place and therefore could control military decisions and political decisions and personnel appointments. The Habsburgs had people in their pockets that they had paid off so they could practically sway political matters such as taxation and military movement in whatever way they wanted. This contributed to making them incredibly powerful and it also made it so that no one could stand up to them and change what they did so however they wanted things was most likely how they would end up.

English Bill of Rights

The Bill of Rights is an Act of the Parliament of England that deals with constitutional matters and sets out certain basic civil rights. The Bill of Rights lays down limits on the powers of the monarch and sets out the rights of Parliament, including the requirement for regular parliaments, free elections, and freedom of speech in Parliament. It sets out certain rights of individuals including the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment and reestablished the liberty of Protestants to have arms for their defence within the rule of law. Furthermore, the Bill of Rights described and condemned several misdeeds of James II of England. These ideas reflected those of the political thinker John Lock

Describe the Dutch system of government. What was unusual about the Dutch attitudes toward religious beliefs?

The Dutch system of government was a republic, confederation of seven provinces with each having an oligarchy of wealthy merchants called regents. The regents handled the local domestic affairs and the provincial estate held most of the power. There was also a states general which took care of wars and foreign issues but it didn't have much power in local matters. The Dutch were different from that of Western European States because of its tolerance of all religion. The Dutch attitudes towards religious belief was unusual because at the time, most countries were absolutist ones that sought religious uniformity, and the Dutch formed a republic which had religious tolerance, no religion was forced upon their people.

What were the immediate and long-range causes of the English Civil War? What were the results?

The English Civil War could have been predicted from the start of the rule of James I. Both James I and Charles I believed in their divine right and refused to share any power or decision making with the Parliament or the House of Commons. Also religion became a conflict between the monarchy and the people. The people wanted further reform in the Church of England but the kings refused. Immediate causes of the war included the Scottish invasion and the Irish rebellion. Parliament's refusal to provide Charles I with an army caused Charles to gather his own army against the Parliament. In result, Charles I was executed and England entered a period of military dictatorship.

The Glorious Revolution

The Glorious Revolution of 1688-1689 replaced the reigning king, James II, with the joint monarchy of his protestant daughter Mary and her Dutch husband, William of Orange. It was the keystone of the Whig (those opposed to a Catholic succession) history of Britain. According to the Whig account, the events of the revolution were bloodless and the revolution settlement established the supremacy of parliament over the crown, setting Britain on the path towards constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy. King James's policies of religious tolerance met with increasing opposition by members of leading political circles. After only two minor clashes between the two opposing armies in England, and anti-Catholic riots in several towns, James's regime collapsed. The Revolution permanently ended any chance of Catholicism becoming re-established in England.

Prussian Hohenzollerns

The House of Hohenzollern is a dynasty of former princes, electors, kings, and emperors of Hohenzollern, Brandenburg, Prussia, the German Empire, and Romania. The family arose in the area around the town of Hechingen in Swabia during the 11th century and took their name from Hohenzollern Castle. The Prussian Hohnzollerns were a royal German family who ruled the German Empire, Romania, Prussia and Brandenberg. The dynasty was made up of princes electors, former princes, kings and emperors of Hohenzollern, the German Empire, Romania, Brandenburg and Prussia. They essentially had control over most of German politics and could therefore bend it to their will which was usually to expand. By the end of their dynasty, they had managed to unify most of Germany which was actually very momentous because at the time, it was split into about 300 separate princes and up until the Hohenzollern dynasty, no one had managed to unify that much of Germany.

Mongols

The Mongols were an East-Empire Central Asian ethnic group who were native to Mongolia. In Mongolia many tribes roamed freely and weren't unified. The unification of these tribes under the leadership of Genghis Khan resulted in the Mongol Empire. After its initial unification, the Mongol Empire did nothing but grow rapidly. It conquered and invaded a lot of Eastern Europe in the late 13th century. East Slavic principalities that were already established were destroyed by the Mongols before they moved on to major cities such as Kiev and Vladimir. The Mongols then moved on to Central Europe invading Poland and Hungary. The princes of warring European principalities realized that they had to come together and come together if they wanted to repel the Mongols powerful invasion force. Many conflicts and local wars were stopped in order to focus all of military efforts on expelling the Mongols.

Versailles

The Palace of Versailles is the central part of a complex that housed the French government, most notably its royalty, during the reigns of Louis XIV (France's famed "Sun King"), Louis XV and Louis XVI. After the French Revolution in 1789, it ceased to be a permanent royal residence. he Palace's glory and spectacle served as a symbol of the French crown's wealth and power. During the reign of Louis XIV, he made all of the members of the French nobility live in the Palace. Servants also lived in the Palace and many counts of what life was like suggest that it was actually crowded and very noisy inside. The Palace served two main purposes: by forcing everyone of importance to live there, Louis XIV consolidated and centralized the power of the French crown. The second purpose served by the Palace was it sheer size and look where a very powerful image for people of the French crown's wealth and power. He required all the great nobility of France, at the peril of social, political, and sometimes economic disaster, to come live at Versailles for at least part of the year. Louis XIV reduced the major threat to his power. He separated power from status and grandeur: secured the nobles' cooperation. Louis XIV required the nobles to live at the palace, so it was basically like a prison because Louis XIV required them to live there for part of the year.

Romanovs

The Russian Imperial Romanov family (Tsar Nicholas II, his wife Tsarina Alexandra and their five children Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia, and Alexei) and all those who chose to accompany them into exile - notably Eugene Botkin, Anna Demidova, Alexei Trupp and Ivan Kharitonov. After the failed rebellion of the Cossacks, Michael Romanov ascended to the throne. He achieved to reconsolidate central authority, but he and his successors did not improve the lot of the common people. he extended serfdom to all peasant in the realm, gave nobles unrestricted rights over the serfs and established penalties for harboring runaways. This resulted in social and religious uprising among the poor and oppressed to continue throughout the seventeenth century. On of the largest rebellions was led by the Cossack Stenka Razin, he and his followers killed landlords and government officials and proclaimed freedom, but their rebellion was defeated. The Romanov stars, made several important achievements. Russia gained Ukraine and Poland and completed the conquer of Siberia. There was a growth of the bureaucracy and the army.

What happened as a result of the war?

The Thirty Years War was fought on German soil and by most of Europe's major powers such as Sweden, Spain, France and Austria. Prior to the war, Catholics and Protestants already despised each other. Right before the war started, anger on both sides was very high and both hated each other. One of the major and perhaps the most important effect of the war was the Peace of Westphalia. The Peace of Westphalia served a couple purposes. The first was, because of the the longevity of Catholic-Protestant tensions, and because religion was such a disputed topic throughout all of Europe, the Peace allowed for free religious practice. This mean that regardless of if you lived in a Catholic of Protestant country you were allowed to practice whatever religion you wanted. This was a groundbreaking move because, at the time, nothing like this had ever been done or even considered. The second effect of the Peace of Westphalia was that it prevented countries or states in Europe from meddling in the affairs of others. This was done by declaring each country sovereign. This guaranteed that each country could rule over its domain and not that of others this was a huge move because it essentially stopped state based conflict in between different countries.

What began the thirty years' war? Explain how the Thirty Years' war went from a religious confrontation to a political one.

The Thirty Years' War was started when Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II of Bohemia attempted to curtail the religious activities of his subjects, sparking rebellion among Protestants. Protestants who Ferdinand II oppressed asked other Protestants for help. Protestants from Britain, the Dutch Republic and Denmark became their allies. In response to this, Ferdinand II enlisted the help of German, Spanish and papal Catholics. Soon after, Ferdinand II issued the Edict of Restitution. The Edict reclaimed land that Protestants inhabited, claiming it had been acquired for the Catholic church. The Swedes were the first to step in, reviving the Protestant sentiment.The Spanish Habsburgs saw this and stepped in, pushing back the Protestants. This move inspired France to declare war on Spain, afraid of being encircled. These state inputs turned the Thirty Years War, initially a religious conflict, into a political dispute among most of Europe's major superpowers.

United Provinces of the Netherlands

The United Province of the Netherlands or the Dutch Republic was the Dutch state that rose to become a world power in the 17th century. The Republic was made up of seven northern provinces in the Netherlands that won independence from the Spanish empire in 1609. The provinces gained their independence due to a military alliance with other Netherlands provinces who together rebelled against Spain. The republic grew after the Union of Utrecht which allowed military capability to be expanded in the seven rebelling provinces. The republic grew even more after the founding of the Dutch East-India company which allowed the Dutch to send expeditions to the New World and create colonies in modern-day Manhattan and the surrounding area.

War of Spanish Succession

The War of Spanish Succession was a major European conflict during the early 18th century. It was caused by the death of Charles II, the last Habsburg King of Spain. Charles II on his deathbed gave the entire Spanish inheritance to Philip, Duke of Anjou, who as Louis XIV's grandson. In addition, the threat of Spain and France becoming united under a single monarch caused England, the Dutch Republic, and Austria to form an alliance to support Archduke Charles' claim to the Spanish inheritance. The War of Spanish Succession ended with the Peace of Utrecht, which resulted in the partitioning of the Spanish empire and restored the European balance of power. The Austrians received most of Spain's former European realms, but the Philip, the Duke of Anjou retained peninsular Spain and Spanish America, where, after renouncing his claim to the French succession, he reigned as King Philip V.

Divine Right of Kings

The doctrine that kings derive their authority from God, not from their subjects, from which it follows that rebellion is the worst of political crimes. It was claimed in Britain by the earlier Stuarts and is also associated with the absolutism of Louis XIV of France. This was a political doctrine in defense of monarchical absolutism, which asserted that kings derived their authority from God and could not therefore be held accountable for their actions by any earthly authority such as a parliament. Originating in Europe, the divine-right theory can be traced to the medieval conception of God's award of temporal power to the political ruler, paralleling the award of spiritual power to the church. The Divine Right of Kings was mainly used by absolutist monarchs as justification for the terrible things that kings would do to their subjects. It was used to legitimize the religious and political authority and religious credibility of absolutist European kings. Religion was a very respected authority so to relate a king to God made him a more credible and trusted figure. It was understood that the king was not subject to the the will of the aristocracy, his people or the church. The Divine Right of Kings was used to imply that the only judgement the king was subject to was that of God himself and if anyone attempted to depose the king they would be going against the will of God

Charles II

The first decade of Charles' reign was beset by many problems. Defeat at the hands of the Dutch in a mishandled war over foreign commerce cost him domestic support. The Great Plague of 1665 and the Fire of London in the following year left much of the city in ruins. In 1667, the Dutch sailed up the Medway, sunk five battleships and towed the Royal Charles back to Holland. King and Council were ridiculed for not having enough interest in the affairs of government. The 1670's saw Charles' forging a new alliance with France against the Dutch. French support was based on the promise that Charles would reintroduce Catholicism in England at a convenient time - apparently, that convenient time never came, as Charles did nothing to bring England under the Catholic umbrella, although he made a deathbed conversion to the Roman faith. The Whigs used Catholicism to undermine Charles; England was in the throes of yet another wave of anti-Catholicism, with the Whigs employing this paranoia in an attempt to unseat the heir apparent, Charles' Catholic brother James, from succeeding to the throne. Titus Oates, a defrocked Anglican priest, stoked the fires of anti-Catholicism by accusing the queen and her favorites of attempting to murder Charles; ten men fell prey to false witness and Oates' manipulation of the anti-Catholic movement, and were executed. Many accused Anthony Cooper, Earl of Shaftsbury and founder of the Whig Party, of inciting the anti-Catholic violence of 1679-80; this has remained one of the greatest mysteries in British history. The Whig-dominated Parliament tried to push through an Exclusion Bill barring Catholics from holding public office, but Charles was struck down by a fever and opinion swayed to his side. His last years were occupied with securing his brother's claim to the throne and garnering Tory support.

Why would the reign of the Great Elector be regarded as "the most crucial constitutional struggle in Prussian history for hundreds of years"? What did he do to increase royal authority? Who were the losers?

The reign of the Great Elector be regarded as "the most crucial constitutional struggle in Prussian history because he removed representative powers and introduce absolutist power. Since the Estates of Brandenburg gave into the permanent taxation, constitutionalism would never be achieved. This caused him to a much superior force and financial independence. To increase the authority of the monarchy over its subjects, he had to implement permanent taxation. The losers in this situation were the Estates of Brandenburg and the peasants of Prussia. This was because they were the ones who became the ones ruled by Frederick William and they, in turn, had to pay the taxes that he had demanded be paid.

What were the social conditions of Eastern Europe? How did rulers of Austria and Prussia transform their nations into powerful absolutist monarchies?

The social conditions were very diverse. Serfdom was back because of the rise of commercial agriculture. The Austrian Habsburgs had lost their power. Conditions for peasants, the bottom step of theistical order, included hey taxation, unemployment, less days of pay and oppression. In Prussia, Frederick William wanted to unify 3 separate states and by winning over the junkers and crushing his oppositors, he achieved a unified state. In addition everything that was parliamentary and independent was eliminated. By building a standing army, an honest and conscientious bureaucracy, Prussia was now an absolutist monarchy. regarding Austria, the Habsburgs had lost their power during the Thirty Years War. But taking over Bohemia was a huge step towards absolutism. A large portion of the Bohemian nobility was of recent origin and owed its success to the Habsburgs, and now they had noble support. Protestantism was stamped out and peasants had three days of unpaid work. Ferdinand centralized government and pushed the Ottomans away and established a permanent standing army. Finally, they established a common vernacular resulting in an absolutist state.

Sultan

The sultan was the ruler of the Ottoman Empire, he owned all the agricultural land of the empire and was served by an army and bureaucracy commodes of highly trained slaves.Agricultural lands were their personal heritage and peasants had to pay taxes to use the and. There was therefore an almost complete absence of private landed property and no hereditary nobility.

What were the reasons for the fall of the Spanish Empire?

There were many reasons for why the Spanish Empire fell: +Trade with colonies fell because of the competition with locals, English and Dutch merchants. +South-American natives died from disease, and the production of silver fell drastically. +Royal expenditure exceeded income (bankruptcy of the state) +Manufacture and commerce shrank, because the jews were kicked out. +Peasants left because of high rents, this led to agricultural decline +Conflicts with other European states and internal conflicts brought disaster. +Independence of Portugal

Junkers

They were the members of the landed nobility in Prussia. They owned great estates that were maintained and worked by peasants with few rights. They were an important factor in Prussian and, after 1871, German military, political and diplomatic leadership. The Junkers were very important to the German and Prussian military, diplomatic and political leader because there were so many of them that if they all agreed on something it could sway something in a good or bad direction.

Peace of Westphalia

This ended the Thirty Years War and it marked a point in European history. For the most part, religious conflicts receded. The treaties recognized the independent authority of more that three hundred German princes, reconfirming the emperor's limited authority. The Augsburg agreement became permanent, adding Calvinism to Catholicism and Lutheranism as legally permisible creeds. The north German stated remained Protestant, the south german states Catholic.

"The Great Chain of Being"

Those lower on the social scale, the peasnts and artisans which constituted thevast majority of the population, were expected to defer to their betters with humble obedience, this linked God to his creation in a series of ranked social groups.The most basic and foundational elements up through the very highest perfection, in other words, God. God sits at the top of the chain, and beneath him sit the angels, both existing wholly in spirit form. Among the most important of the continuities with the Classical period was the concept of the Great Chain of Being. Its major premise was that every existing thing in the universe had its "place" in a divinely planned hierarchical order, which was pictured as a chain vertically extended. In Catholic countries, the clergy occupied the second level, due to their sacred role interceding with God and the saints on behalf of their flocks. Next came nobles, whose privileged status derived from their ancient bloodlines and centuries of sacrifice on the battlefield. Many merchants shared spot with the nobles through service to the rising monarchs of the 15th and 16th centuries, they constituted a second tier of nobles. Those lower on the social scale, the peasants and artisans who constituted the vast majority of the population, were expected to defer to their betters with humble obedience. This new social hierarchy differed from pas times in one important detail: after the religious wars the clergy was not above the monarch, in this time period the monarch is in a superior level.

Fronde

Was a series of civil wars in France between 1648 and 1653, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635. The Fronde was in part an attempt to check the growing power of royal government; its failure prepared the way for the absolutism of Louis XIV's personal reign. The Fronde was a reaction to the policies begun under the Cardinal de Richelieu, chief minister of Louis XIII from 1624 to 1642, who weakened the influence of the nobility and reduced the powers of the judicial bodies, called Parlements. Opposition to the government from these privileged groups gained momentum from 1643 under the "foreign" rule of the queen regent Anne of Austria (Louis XIV's mother) and her Italian-born chief minister, Jules Cardinal Mazarin. The Fronde came after the decrees of policy from Cardinals Mazarin and Richelieu. The Cardinals weakened the nobility's power and the regency of Anne of Austria. The Fronde was an attempt to stop the centralization of the French crown's authority. The nobles ruled over peasants and sometimes were kind to them, which the peasants liked. When the French crown decided to weaken the nobility, the peasants realized they probably wouldn't be treated well so they rioted. The Fronde was quickly crushed by France's powerful military.

James I

When Elizabeth I of England died in 1603 unmarried, James moved to London and was crowned King James I of England the first of the Stuart Kings of the combined crowns of England and Scotland. The English courtiers were wary of his Scottish favourites, affairs with male courtiers and uncouth ways. He was however a supporter of literature and arts. William Shakespeare was among the 'Kings Men' troupe of actors who performed plays for their patron James. He commissioned the King James Authorized Version of the Bible, published in 1611, which remains one of the most important English translations of the Bible. He initially acted mainly upon the advice of Robert Cecil, Earl of Salisbury, but on Salisbury's death all restraint vanished. His religious policy consisted of asserting the supreme authority and divine right of the crown and suppressing both Puritans and Catholics who objected. Guy Fawkes' attempt to blow up Parliament in 1605 produced an anti-Catholic reaction, which gave James a temporary popularity which soon dissipated. His foreign policy aimed primarily at achieving closer relations with Spain was not liked by Parliament who saw Spain as the Old Catholic enemy of the Armada and competitor for world trade. During his reign the East India Company expanded trade bringing spices from the East, and Jamestown was founded in Virginia. His willingness to compromise politically, even while continuing to talk in terms of absolutism, largely accounts for the superficial stability of his reign. However, the effects of many of his actions were long term, becoming fully obvious only after his death. James and Anne had 8 children only three of whom survived infancy. Their eldest son Henry died aged 18 of typhoid, and their 2nd son Charles became King Charles I. The marriage of their daughter Elizabeth to Frederic V, Elector Palatine and King of Bohemia, was to result in the eventual Hanoverian succession to the British throne.

Robe Nobles

in 17th- and 18th-century France, a class of hereditary nobles who acquired their rank through holding a high state office. Their name was derived from the robes worn by officials. The class was already in existence by the end of the 16th century, but it was only in the 17th century that its members acquired the right to transmit noble status to their heirs. In an attempt to bargain for political support during the troubled minority of Louis XIV, the crown granted detailed charters of nobility to judicial officials. At the summit of this newly created privileged class were the officers of such sovereign courts as the Parlement of Paris. Robe Nobles were French aristocrats whose rank came from holding a certain administrative or judicial position. Robe Nobles' rank was determined by the office he held instead of being determined by familiar power or prowess. However, the familiar part of Robe Nobility was that the posts held usually were inherited or passed down from generation to generation. Robe Nobles were not allowed to carry swords or other weapons and were generally considered to be peaceful, yet powerful people. Because of their familiar power, Robe Nobles were generally very well educated and incredibly smart people and in turn, they played a huge role in the beginning of the French Enlightenment.