Chapter 16 - Persuasive Speaking
in favor
- already supportive - seek action
elaboration likelihood model (ELM)
- created by Petty and Cacioppo - explains how likely people are to spend time elaborating on info using their critical thinking skills, rather than processing the info in a simpler, less critical manner
what determines route of persuasion
- how important issue is to us - involved = central route - less important = peripheral route
initial attitude of target audience ranges
- in favor - neutral - opposed
types of persuasive goals
- proposition of fact - proposition of value - propositions of policy
incentive
- reward promised if a particular action is taken or goal is reached - can by physical, psychological, or social
neutral
- seek agreement - uninformed - impartial - apathetic
opposed
- seek incremental/small change
selecting evidence to support reasons
- verifiable factual statements = strong type of evidence to support reasons - statements from experts
types and tests of arguments
1 - argue from example 2 - argue from analogy 3 - argue from causation 4 - argue from sign
motivated sequence steps
1 - attention 2 - need 3 - satisfaction 4 - visualization 5 - action
the ELM suggests people process info in 2 ways
1 - central route = listen carefully, think about what is said, and may even mentally elaborate on message 2 - peripheral route = relies on simple cues such as quick evaluation of speakers credibility or gut check on what listener feels about message
selecting evidence criteria
1 - does evidence come from a well respected source 2 - is evidence recent and if not is it still valid 3 - does evidence really support reason 4 - will this evidence be persuasive for this audience
fallacies
1 - hasty generalization 2 - false cause 3 - ad hominem 4 - either-or 5 - straw person
how to judge quality of reasons
1 - is reason directly related to proving proposition 2 - do I have strong evidence to support reason 3 - will this reason be persuasive for this audience
maslows hierarchy of needs
1 - physiological needs 2 - safety and security needs 3 - belonging and love needs 4 - esteem needs 5 - cognitive needs 6 - aesthetic needs 7 - self actualization needs
creating incentives that outweight costs
1 - present incentives that meet needs of audience and understand potential costs for audience 2 - need to consider what you're asking audience to do 3 - audience must be convinced there's a high likelihood that if they act as you suggest, then they will receive the incentives
organizational patterns for persuasive speeches
1 - statement of reasons 2 - comparative advantages 3 - criteria satisfaction 4 - refutative pattern 5 - problem solution 6 - problem cause solution 7 - motivated sequence
problem solution steps
1 - there's a problem that requires action 2 - proposal X will solve problem 3 - proposal X is best solution to problem because it will lead to positive consequences and avoid negative ones
ethos
appeals to credibility
pathos
appeals to emotions; can be positive or negative
problem solution
argues that a particular problem can be solved by implementing recommended solution
statement of reasons
attempt to prove propositions of fact by presenting best supportive reasons in a meaningful order
argument
collective reasons and evidence used to support proposition
motivated sequence
combines problem solution pattern with explicit appeals designed to motivate audience to act
proposition
declarative sentence that clearly indicates speakers position on topic
problem cause solution
demonstrates there's a problem caused by specific things that can be alleviated with the proposed solution that addresses the causes
proposition of value
designed to convince audience that something is good, fair, moral, sound, etc or its opposite
proposition of policy
designed to convince audience that specific course of action should be taken
proposition of fact
designed to convince your audience that something is or is not true
5 most common negative emotions
fear, guilt, shame, anger, sadness
motivation
forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and direct behavior
persuasive speech
goal is to influence the attitudes, values, beliefs, or behavior of audience members
target audience
group of people a speaker most wants to persuade
5 most common positive emotions
happy, joy, pride, relief, hope, compassion
apathetic
having no opinion because one is uninterested, unconcerned, or indifferent to topic
impartial
knowing basics about topic but still having no opinion about it
logos
logical reasoning speaker uses to develop argument
reasons
main point statements that summarize several related pieces of evidence and show why you should believe or do something
uninformed
not knowing enough about topic to have formed an opinion
refutative pattern
organizes your main points so that you persuade by both challenging opposing arguments and bolstering your own
comparative advantages
places all the emphasis on the superiority of the proposed course of action
hasty generalization
presents generalization that's either not supported with evidence or is supported with only one weak example
criteria satisfaction
seeks audience agreement on criteria that should be considered when evaluating a particular idea and then shows how proposition speaker is advocating satisfies criteria
argue from causation
support claim by citing evidence that shows one or more events always or almost always bring about, lead to, create or prevent another event or effect
argue from sign
support claim by citing info that signals the claim
argue from example
support claim by providing one or more individual examples
argue from analogy
support claims with a single comparable example that's significantly similar to subject of claim
goodwill
the audience members that the speaker understands, empathizes with and is responsive to them
ad hominem
when one attacks the person making the argument, rather than argument itself
either-or
when speaker supports claim by suggesting there are only 2 alternatives, when in fact others exist
straw person
when speaker weakens opposing position by misrepresenting it in some way and then attacks that weaker (straw person) position
false cause (post hoc, ergo propter hoc)
when the alleged cause fails to be related to or to produce the effect