Chapter 16 - Persuasive Speaking

in favor

- already supportive - seek action

elaboration likelihood model (ELM)

- created by Petty and Cacioppo - explains how likely people are to spend time elaborating on info using their critical thinking skills, rather than processing the info in a simpler, less critical manner

what determines route of persuasion

- how important issue is to us - involved = central route - less important = peripheral route

initial attitude of target audience ranges

- in favor - neutral - opposed

types of persuasive goals

- proposition of fact - proposition of value - propositions of policy

incentive

- reward promised if a particular action is taken or goal is reached - can by physical, psychological, or social

neutral

- seek agreement - uninformed - impartial - apathetic

opposed

- seek incremental/small change

selecting evidence to support reasons

- verifiable factual statements = strong type of evidence to support reasons - statements from experts

types and tests of arguments

1 - argue from example 2 - argue from analogy 3 - argue from causation 4 - argue from sign

motivated sequence steps

1 - attention 2 - need 3 - satisfaction 4 - visualization 5 - action

the ELM suggests people process info in 2 ways

1 - central route = listen carefully, think about what is said, and may even mentally elaborate on message 2 - peripheral route = relies on simple cues such as quick evaluation of speakers credibility or gut check on what listener feels about message

selecting evidence criteria

1 - does evidence come from a well respected source 2 - is evidence recent and if not is it still valid 3 - does evidence really support reason 4 - will this evidence be persuasive for this audience

fallacies

1 - hasty generalization 2 - false cause 3 - ad hominem 4 - either-or 5 - straw person

how to judge quality of reasons

1 - is reason directly related to proving proposition 2 - do I have strong evidence to support reason 3 - will this reason be persuasive for this audience

maslows hierarchy of needs

1 - physiological needs 2 - safety and security needs 3 - belonging and love needs 4 - esteem needs 5 - cognitive needs 6 - aesthetic needs 7 - self actualization needs

creating incentives that outweight costs

1 - present incentives that meet needs of audience and understand potential costs for audience 2 - need to consider what you're asking audience to do 3 - audience must be convinced there's a high likelihood that if they act as you suggest, then they will receive the incentives

organizational patterns for persuasive speeches

1 - statement of reasons 2 - comparative advantages 3 - criteria satisfaction 4 - refutative pattern 5 - problem solution 6 - problem cause solution 7 - motivated sequence

problem solution steps

1 - there's a problem that requires action 2 - proposal X will solve problem 3 - proposal X is best solution to problem because it will lead to positive consequences and avoid negative ones

ethos

appeals to credibility

pathos

appeals to emotions; can be positive or negative

problem solution

argues that a particular problem can be solved by implementing recommended solution

statement of reasons

attempt to prove propositions of fact by presenting best supportive reasons in a meaningful order

argument

collective reasons and evidence used to support proposition

motivated sequence

combines problem solution pattern with explicit appeals designed to motivate audience to act

proposition

declarative sentence that clearly indicates speakers position on topic

problem cause solution

demonstrates there's a problem caused by specific things that can be alleviated with the proposed solution that addresses the causes

proposition of value

designed to convince audience that something is good, fair, moral, sound, etc or its opposite

proposition of policy

designed to convince audience that specific course of action should be taken

proposition of fact

designed to convince your audience that something is or is not true

5 most common negative emotions

fear, guilt, shame, anger, sadness

motivation

forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and direct behavior

persuasive speech

goal is to influence the attitudes, values, beliefs, or behavior of audience members

target audience

group of people a speaker most wants to persuade

5 most common positive emotions

happy, joy, pride, relief, hope, compassion

apathetic

having no opinion because one is uninterested, unconcerned, or indifferent to topic

impartial

knowing basics about topic but still having no opinion about it

logos

logical reasoning speaker uses to develop argument

reasons

main point statements that summarize several related pieces of evidence and show why you should believe or do something

uninformed

not knowing enough about topic to have formed an opinion

refutative pattern

organizes your main points so that you persuade by both challenging opposing arguments and bolstering your own

comparative advantages

places all the emphasis on the superiority of the proposed course of action

hasty generalization

presents generalization that's either not supported with evidence or is supported with only one weak example

criteria satisfaction

seeks audience agreement on criteria that should be considered when evaluating a particular idea and then shows how proposition speaker is advocating satisfies criteria

argue from causation

support claim by citing evidence that shows one or more events always or almost always bring about, lead to, create or prevent another event or effect

argue from sign

support claim by citing info that signals the claim

argue from example

support claim by providing one or more individual examples

argue from analogy

support claims with a single comparable example that's significantly similar to subject of claim

goodwill

the audience members that the speaker understands, empathizes with and is responsive to them

ad hominem

when one attacks the person making the argument, rather than argument itself

either-or

when speaker supports claim by suggesting there are only 2 alternatives, when in fact others exist

straw person

when speaker weakens opposing position by misrepresenting it in some way and then attacks that weaker (straw person) position

false cause (post hoc, ergo propter hoc)

when the alleged cause fails to be related to or to produce the effect