Chapter 24 "An Age of Modernity, Anxiety, and Imperialism, 1894-1914"

What was the system of "trasformismo" in Italy and how did the liberal leader Giovanni Giolitti go about transforming Italian government in this period (1903-1914)? What changes were made?

- A certain amount of stability for liberals was achieved from 1903 to 1914 when the liberal leader Giovanni Giolitti served intermittently as prime minister. - Giolitti was a master of using trasformismo, or transformism, (the theory that societies evolve gradually / a system in which old political groups were transformed into new government coalitions by political and economic bribery) - In the long run, however, Giolitti's devious methods made Italian politics even more corrupt and unmanageable. When urban workers turned to violence to protest their living and working conditions, Giolitti tried to appease them with social welfare legislation and universal male suffrage in 1912. To strengthen his popularity, he also aroused nationalistic passions by conquering Libya. Despite his efforts, however, worker unrest continued, and in 1914 government troops had to be used to quell rioting workers.

What was the religious movement of Modernism within the church? How did the Catholic Church respond?

- A religious movement called Modernism included an attempt by the churches to reinterpret Christianity in the light of new developments. The modernists viewed the Bible as a book of useful moral ideas, encouraged Christians to become involved in social reforms, and insisted that the churches must provide a greater sense of community. The Catholic Church condemned Modernism in 1907 and had driven it underground by the beginning of World War I.

What happened on Sunday, January 9th, 1905? Remember the zemstvos? Who were they? How did they play a role in this event? What was the October Manifesto? What is a Duma?

- As a result of the breakdown of the transport system caused by the Russo-Japanese War, on January 9, 1905, a massive procession of workers went to the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg to present a petition of grievances to the tsar. Troops foolishly opened fire on the peaceful demonstration, killing hundreds and launching a revolution. - This "Bloody Sunday" incited workers to call strikes and form unions; meanwhile the elected regional councils, or zemstovs, demanded parliamentary government, ethnic groups revolted, and peasants burned the houses of landowners. - After a general strike in October 1905, the government capitulated. Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto, in which he granted civil liberties and agreed to create a legislative assembly known as the Duma , elected directly by a broad franchise. This satisfied the middle-class moderates, who now supported the government's repression of a workers' uprising in Moscow at the end of 1905.

How did the movement of Symbolism react against Realism? What are some of the more prominent works of the movement?

- At the turn of the century, a new group of writers, known as the Symbolists, reacted against Realism. - Primarily interested in writing poetry, the Symbolists believed that an objective knowledge of the world was impossible. The external world was not real but only a collection of symbols that reflected the true reality of the individual human mind. - Art, they believed, should function for its own sake instead of serving, criticizing, or seeking to understand society. - In the works of such Symbolist poets as W. B. Yeats and Rainer Maria Rilke, poetry ceased to be part of popular culture because only through a knowledge of the poet's personal language could one hope to understand what the poem was saying.

Why was nursing such an important development for women's entry into new professions?

- Because medical training was largely closed to women, they sought alternatives through the development of nursing. - One nursing pioneer was Amalie Sieveking, who founded the Female Association for the Care of the Poor and Sick in Hamburg, Germany. - "To me, at least as important were the benefits which [work with the poor] seemed to promise for those of my sisters who would join me in such a work of charity. The higher interests of my sex were close to my heart." - Sieveking's work was followed by the more famous British nurse, Florence Nightingale, whose efforts during the Crimean War, along with those of Clara Barton in the American Civil War, transformed nursing into a profession of trained, middle-class "women in white."

How was Japan's interactions with the West so different from China? How do you suppose their "Meiji Era" was able to happen? Also, what was the Meiji?

- Before 1868, the shogun, a powerful hereditary military governor assisted by a warrior nobility known as the samurai, exercised real power in Japan. The emperor's functions had become primarily religious. - After the shogun's concessions to the Western nations, antiforeign sentiment led to a samurai revolt in 1867 and the restoration of the emperor as the head of the government. The new emperor was the astute, dynamic, young Mutsuhito, who called his reign the Meiji (Enlightened Government). The new leaders who controlled the emperor now inaugurated a remarkable transformation of Japan that is known as the Meiji Restoration. - Recognizing the obvious military and industrial superiority of the West, the new leaders decided to modernize Japan by absorbing and adopting Western methods. Thousands of young Japanese were sent abroad to receive Western educations, especially in the social and natural sciences. A German-style army and a British-style navy were established. The Japanese copied the industrial and financial methods of the US and developed a modern commercial and industrial system. A highly centralized administrative system copied from the French. Initially, the Japanese adopted the French principles of social and legal equality, but by 1890, they had created a political system that was democratic in form but authoritarian in practice. - developed a powerful military state. Universal military conscription was introduced in 1872, and a modern peacetime army of 240,000 was eventually established. They defeated China in 1894-1895, annexed some Chinese territory, and established their own sphere of influence in China. After they had defeated the Russians in 1905, the Japanese made Korea a colony under harsh rule.

Portuguese & French Possessions

- Before 1880, the French and the Portuguese had made the only other European settlements in Africa. The Portuguese had held on to their settlements in Angola on the west coast and Mozambique on the east coast. The French had started the conquest of Algeria in Muslim North Africa in 1830, although it was not until 1879 that French civilian rule was established there. The next year, 1880, the European scramble for possession of Africa began in earnest. - By 1900, the French had added the huge area of French West Africa and Tunisia to their African empire. In 1912, they established a protectorate over much of Morocco; the rest was left to Spain.

Why was the German Empire torn between traditionalism and modernism in this era? What's kind of rapid changes had Germany undergone in the late 19th century that made it a state primed for both domestic and international tensions?

- By 1914, Germany had become the strongest military and industrial power on the Continent. New social configurations had emerged, more than 50 percent of German workers had jobs in industry / only 30 percent of the workforce was still in agriculture. Urban centers had mushroomed in number and size. The rapid changes in William's Germany helped produce a society torn between modernization and traditionalism. - The growth of industrialization led to even greater expansion for the Social Democratic Party. Despite the enactment of new welfare legislation to favor the working classes, William II was no more successful than Bismarck at slowing the growth of the Social Democrats. By 1912, it had become the largest single party in the Reichstag. The party increasingly became less revolutionary and more revisionist in its outlook. Its growth frightened the middle and upper classes, who blamed labor for their own problems. - With the expansion of industry and cities came demands for more political participation and growing sentiment for reforms that would produce greater democratization. Conservative forces, especially the landowning nobility and representatives of heavy industry, two of the powerful ruling groups in Germany, tried to block it by supporting William II's activist foreign policy. Expansionism, they believed, would divert people from further democratization.

At the dawn of the 20th century, art increasingly seemed to reject the idea that it should portray reality. What kinds of ideas began to be portrayed in art of this era and what were artists attempting to do?

- By that time, psychology and the new physics had made it evident that many people were not sure what constituted reality anyway. Then, too, the development of photography gave artists another reason to reject visual realism. Invented in the 1830s, photography became popular and widespread after George Eastman produced the first Kodak camera for the mass market in 1888. - Unlike the camera, which could only mirror reality, artists could create reality. Individual consciousness became the source of meaning. Between 1905 and 1914, this search for individual expression produced a wide variety of schools of painting, all of which had their greatest impact after World War I.

What were the differences between Millicent Garrett Fawcett's and Emmeline Pankhurst's approach to winning suffrage for women? What were their efforts focused (geographically) and how did they each attempt to go about their objectives? What are suffragists and suffragettes?

- By the 1840s and 1850s, the movement for women's rights had entered the political arena with the call for equal political rights. Many feminists believed that the right to vote was the key to all other reforms to improve the position of women. The British women's movement was the most vocal and active in Europe, but it divided over tactics. - The liberal Millicent Fawcett organized a moderate group who believed that women must demonstrate that they would use political power responsibly if they wanted Parliament to grant them the right to vote. - Another group, however, favored a more radical approach. Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters, Christabel and Sylvia, founded the Women's Social and Political Union in 1903, which enrolled mostly middle- and upper-class women. The members of Pankhurst's organization realized the value of the media and used unusual publicity stunts to call attention to their demands - Derisively labeled "suffragettes" by male politicians, they pelted government officials with eggs, chained themselves to lampposts, smashed the windows of fashionable department stores, burned railroad cars, and went on hunger strikes in jail. Suffragists: advocates of extending the right to vote to women.

What happened to China during the 19th century? Although they were never colonized, any foreign powers had extraterritorial rights to China. What does this mean?

- By the nineteenth century, the ruling Manchu dynasty of the Chinese Empire was showing signs of decline. In 1842, the British had obtained the island of Hong Kong and trading rights in a number of Chinese cities. Other Western nations soon rushed in to gain similar trading privileges. - Chinese attempts to resist this foreign encroachment led to military defeats and new demands. Only rivalry among the great powers themselves prevented the complete dismemberment of the Chinese Empire. Instead, Britain, France, Germany, Russia, the United States, and Japan established spheres of influence and long-term leases of Chinese territory. - In 1899, urged along by the American secretary of state, John Hay, they agreed to an "open door" policy in which one country would not restrict the commerce of the other countries in its sphere of influence.

Describe the interactions between the British and the Dutch in South Africa in the 19th century. How did both groups interact with native African tribes?

- During the Napoleonic wars, the British had established themselves in South Africa by taking control of Cape Town, originally founded by the Dutch. After the wars, the British encouraged settlers to come to what they called the Cape Colony. - British policies disgusted the Boers or Afrikaners, as the descendants of the Dutch colonists were called, and in 1835 led them to migrate north on the Great Trek to the region between the Orange and Vaal Rivers and north of the Vaal River. In 1877, the British governor of the Cape Colony seized the Transvaal, but a Boer revolt led the British government to recognize Transvaal as the independent South African Republic. - These struggles between the British and the Boers did not prevent either white group from massacring and subjugating the Zulu and Xhosa peoples of the region.

How did Europeans go from controlling only 11% of Africa in 1875 to 90% in 1902?

- Earlier, when their economic interests were more limited (primarily the slave trade), European states had generally been satisfied to deal with existing independent states rather than attempting to establish direct control over vast territories. For the most part, the Western presence in Africa had been limited to controlling the regional trade network and establishing a few footholds where the foreigners could carry on trade and missionary activity. - During the last two decades of the nineteenth century, the quest for colonies became a scramble as all of the major European states engaged in a land grab. This new imperialism employed European military strength and industrial technology to control new territories, using locally trained military to carry out the oppression of local populations.

How did new Westernized and educated leaders of African colonies respond to foreign culture? Why did they have such complicated feelings surrounding European takeover of their lands?

- Educated in colonial schools and some even in the West, they were the first generation of Africans to know a lot about the West and to write in the language of their colonial masters. Although they admired Western culture and even disliked the ways of their own countries, many came to resent the foreigners (Westerners had exalted democracy, equality, and political freedom, but these values were not applied in the colonies. There were few democratic institutions, and colonial peoples could hold only lowly jobs in the colonial bureaucracy. Equally important, the economic prosperity of the West never extended to the colonies.) colonialism meant the loss of their farmlands or terrible jobs on plantations or in sweatshops and factories run by foreigners. - middle-class Africans did not suffer to the extent that poor peasants or workers on plantations did, they too had complaints. They usually qualified only for menial jobs in the government or business. The purported superiority of the Europeans over the natives was also expressed in a variety of ways. Segregated clubs, schools, and churches were set up as more European officials brought their wives and began to raise families. Europeans also had a habit of addressing natives by their first names or calling an adult male "boy." - Though willing to admit the superiority of many aspects of Western culture, these new intellectuals fiercely hated colonial rule and were determined to assert their own nationality and cultural destiny. Out of this mixture of hopes and resentments emerged the first stirrings of modern nationalism in Africa. During the first quarter of the twentieth century, in colonial societies across Africa, educated native peoples began to organize political parties and movements seeking the end of foreign rule.

Summarize, in your own words, Eisten's theory of relativity. What traditional view of physics did it disprove?

- Einstein was a German-born patent officer working in Switzerland, - he pushed the theories of thermodynamics - space and time are not absolute but relative to the observer, and both are interwoven into what Einstein called a four-dimensional space-time continuum. Neither space nor time had an existence independent of human experience. - "It was formerly believed that if all material things disappeared out of the universe, time and space would be left. According to the relativity theory, however, time and space disappear together with the things." - matter and energy reflected the relativity of time and space. matter was nothing but another form of energy. - His epochal formula— E=mc2 —each particle of matter is equivalent in energy to its mass times the square of the velocity of light—was the key theory explaining the vast energies contained within the atom. - during a total eclipse of the sun in May 1919, scientists were able to demonstrate that light was deflected in the gravitational field of the sun, just as Einstein had predicted. This confirmed Einstein's general theory of relativity

What was the First Balkan War of 1912, how did it start and end, and what disagreements after the outcome of that war led to the Second Balkan War of 1913?

- European attention returned to the Balkans in 1912 when Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece organized the Balkan League and defeated the Ottomans in the First Balkan War. When the victorious allies were unable to agree on how to divide the conquered Ottoman provinces of Macedonia and Albania, the Second Balkan War erupted in 1913. Greece, Serbia, Romania, and the Ottoman Empire attacked and defeated Bulgaria. As a result, Bulgaria obtained only a small part of Macedonia, and most of the rest was divided between Serbia and Greece. Yet Serbia's aspirations remained unfulfilled. The two Balkan wars left the inhabitants embittered and created more tensions among the great powers.

What was revolutionary socialism? What did Georges Sorel suggest regarding this idea?

- French politics, theorist - combined Bergson's and Nietzsche's ideas on the limits of rational thinking with his own passionate interest in revolutionary socialism Revolutionary socialism: a socialist doctrine that violent action was the only way to achieve the goals of socialism. - Sorel understood the political potential of the nonrational and advocated violent action as the only sure way to achieve the aims of socialism. To destroy capitalist society, he recommended the use of the general strike (a strike by all or most workers in an economy), envisioning it as a mythic image that had the power to inspire workers to take violent, heroic action against the capitalist order. - believe that the new socialist society would have to be governed by a small elite ruling body because the masses were incapable of ruling themselves.

How did Freidrich von Bernhardi extend Darwin's ideas to race?

- German general Friedrich von Bernhardi argued that "War is a biological necessity of the first importance, a regulative element in the life of mankind which cannot be dispensed with, since without it an unhealthy development will follow, which excludes every advancement of the race, and therefore all real civilization. "War is the father of all things." The sages of antiquity long before Darwin recognized this." - numerous nationalist organization preached the same doctrine (ex: The Nationalist Association of Italy, founded in 1910, declared that "we must teach Italy the value of international struggle. But international struggle is war? Well, then, let there be war! And nationalism will arouse the will for a victorious war ... the only way to national redemption.")

Who were some well-known Impressionist painters?

- Impressionists like Camille Pissarro (one of Impressionism's founders) sought to put into their paintings their impressions of the changing effects of light on objects in nature. - Claude Monet was especially enchanted with water and painted many pictures in which he attempted to capture the interplay of light, water, and atmosphere, especially evident in "Impression, Sunrise". It was Monet's "Impression, Sunrise" that gave the Impressionists their name. - Following their first exhibition in 1874, a satirical magazine referred to "Impressionism" in mocking the loose brushwork of Monet's painting. By 1877, however, the artists had adopted the name for themselves. - The first Impressionist exhibition included paintings by three women, one of whom was Berthe Morisot. Her work fetched the highest price at the first Impressionist auction. Morisot broke with the practice of women being only amateur artists and became a professional painter. Her dedication to the new style of painting won her the disfavor of the traditional French academic artists. Morisot believed that women had a special vision, which was, as she said, "more delicate than that of men." Her special touch is evident in the lighter colors and flowing brushstrokes of Young Girl by the Window. Near the end of her life, Morisot lamented the refusal of men to take her work seriously: "I don't think there has ever been a man who treated a woman as an equal, and that's all I would have asked, for I know I'm worth as much as they."

Why was anti-Semitism so prevalent in Eastern Europe, particularly Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Germany?

- In Austrian politics, the Christian Socialists combined agitation for workers with a virulent anti-Semitism. They were most powerful in Vienna, where they were led by Karl Lueger, mayor of Vienna from 1897 to 1910. Imperial Vienna at the turn of the century was a brilliant center of European culture, but it was also the home of an insidious German nationalism that blamed Jews for the corruption of German culture. It was in Vienna between 1907 and 1913 that Adolf Hitler later claimed to have found his worldview, based on violent German nationalism and rabid anti-Semitism. - Germany, too, had its right-wing anti-Semitic parties, such as Adolf Stöcker's Christian Social Workers. They used anti-Semitism to win the votes of traditional lower-middle-class groups who felt threatened by the new economic forces of the times. These German anti-Semitic parties were based on race. In medieval times, Jews could convert to Christianity and escape from their religion. To modern racial anti-Semites, Jews were racially stained; this could not be altered by conversion. One could not be both a German and a Jew. - After 1898, the political strength of the German anti-Semitic parties began to decline. - Russian Jews were admitted to secondary schools and universities only under a quota system and were forced to live in certain regions of the country. Persecutions and pogroms (organized massacres) were widespread. Between 1903 and 1906, pogroms took place in almost seven hundred Russian towns and villages, mostly in Ukraine. Hundreds of thousands of Jews decided to emigrate to escape the persecution. Between 1881 and 1899, an average of 23,000 Jews left Russia each year. Many of them went to the United States and Canada, although some (probably about 25,000) moved to Palestine.

Why did the demands of the working class via trade unions and the Labor party cause British liberals, and liberal governments in general, to move away from their ideals of freedom from government interference? What were the Fabian socialists role in this era?

- In Britain, the demands of the working-class movement caused Liberals to move away from their ideals. Liberals were forced to adopt significant social reforms due to the pressure of two new working-class organizations: trade unions and the Labour Party. - Frustrated by the government's failure to enact social reform, trade unions began to advocate more radical change of the economic system, calling for "collective ownership" and control over production, distribution, and exchange. This "new unionism" led to the union organization of many steel factory workers and workers struck for a minimum wage and other benefits. - a movement for laborers emerged among a group of intellectuals known as the Fabian Socialists who stressed the need for the workers to use their right to vote to capture the House of Commons and pass legislation that would benefit the laboring class. Neither the Fabian Socialists nor the British trade unions were Marxist. They did not advocate class struggle and revolution but instead favored evolution toward a socialist state by democratic means. - In 1900, representatives of the trade unions and Fabian Socialists coalesced to form the Labour Party. Although the new party won only one seat in 1900, it managed to elect twenty-nine members to the House of Commons in 1906.

Which European power dominated most of Southeast Asia (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, etc.)

- In Southeast Asia, Britain established control over Burma (modern Myanmar) and the Malay States, and France played an active role in subjugating Indochina. The city of Saigon was occupied in 1858, and four years later, Cochin China was taken. - In the 1880s, the French extended "protection" over Cambodia, Annam, Tonkin, and Laos and organized them into the Union of French Indochina. - Only Siam (Thailand) remained free as a buffer state because of British-French rivalry.

What cause did Bertha von Suttner take on? What was her famous work and where did she attempts to bring awareness to her cause?

- In many countries, women supported peace movements. - Bertha von Suttner became the head of the Austrian Peace Society and protested against the growing arms race of the 1890s. - Her novel Lay Down Your Arms became a best-seller and brought her the Nobel Peace Prize in 1905. - Lower-class women also took up the cause of peace. In 1911, a group of female workers marched in Vienna and demanded, "We want an end to armaments, to the means of murder and we want these millions to be spent on the needs of the people."

How well were women's rights achieved in this era? Compare the relative advances women achieved between Britian, France, Spain and Italy

- In the 1830s, a number of women in the United States and Europe, who worked together in several reform movements, became frustrated by the prejudices against females. They focused on specific goals. Family and marriage laws were especially singled out ( it was difficult for women to secure divorces and property laws gave husbands almost complete control over the property of their wives) These early efforts were not particularly successful, however. For example, women did not gain the right to their own property until 1870 in Britain, 1900 in Germany, and 1907 in France. - Although the British legalized divorce in 1857, the French state permitted only a limited degree of divorce in 1884. In Catholic countries such as Spain and Italy, women had no success at all in achieving the right to divorce their husbands.

Who was Cecil Rhodes? What role did he play in the effort for British Expansion?

- In the 1880s, Cecil Rhodes founded both diamond and gold companies that monopolized production of these commodities and enabled him to gain control of a territory north of Transvaal that he named Rhodesia after himself. Rhodes was a great champion of British expansion. - One of his goals was to create a series of British colonies "from the Cape to Cairo," all linked by a railroad. His imperialist ambitions led to his downfall in 1896, however, when the British government forced him to resign as prime minister of the Cape Colony after he conspired to overthrow the Boer government of the South African Republic without British approval. Although the British government had hoped to avoid war with the Boers, it could not stop extremists on both sides from precipitating a conflict.

What was the Dreyfus Affair and where did it occur?

- In the 1890s, the fragile Third Republic remained divided over whether to embrace the republic or restore some form of limited monarchy. - this crisis exposed the renewed anti-Semitism in Europe in the late nineteenth century and embroiled the country in a divisive struggle. - Early in 1895, Alfred Dreyfus, a wealthy Jew and a captain in the French general staff, was found guilty by a secret military court of selling army secrets and condemned to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. - Evidence soon emerged that pointed to his innocence. Another officer, a Catholic aristocrat, was more obviously the traitor, but the army, a stronghold of aristocratic and Catholic officers, refused a new trial. Some right-wing journalists even used the case to push their own anti-Semitic views. After a wave of intense public outrage, however, the Republic's leaders insisted on a new trial. Although the new trial failed to set aside the guilty verdict, the government pardoned Dreyfus in 1899, and in 1906, he was finally exonerated.

How did David Lloyd George get along with the House of Lords?

- In the effort to achieve social reform, Lloyd George was also forced to confront the power of the House of Lords. - Composed of hereditary aristocrats, the House of Lords took a strong stance against Lloyd George's effort to pay for social reform measures by taxes, however modest, on the wealthy. - In 1911, the Liberals pushed through a law that restricted the ability of the House of Lords to impede legislation enacted by the House of Commons. After 1911, the House of Lords became largely a debating society.

What happened to the British subjugation of India and its inhabitants?

- It was not until the explorations of Australia by Captain James Cook between 1768 and 1771 that Britain took an active interest in the East. The availability of land for grazing sheep and the discovery of gold in Australia led to an influx of settlers who slaughtered many of the indigenous inhabitants. In 1850, the British government granted the various Australian colonies virtually complete self-government, and fifty years later, on January 1, 1901, all the colonies were unified into the Commonwealth of Australia. Nearby New Zealand, which the British had declared a colony in 1840, was granted dominion status in 1907. - A private trading company known as the British East India Company had been responsible for subjugating much of India. In 1858, however, after a revolt of the sepoys, or Indian troops of the East India Company's army, had been crushed, the British Parliament transferred the company's powers directly to the government in London. In 1876, the title Empress of India was bestowed on Queen Victoria; Indians were now her colonial subjects.

Describe the path to Japanese domineer over Korea in the early 20th century.

- Japan avoided Western intrusion until 1853-1854, when American naval forces under Commodore Matthew Perry forced the Japanese to grant the United States trading and diplomatic privileges. Japan, however, managed to avoid China's fate. - Korea had also largely excluded Westerners. The fate of Korea was determined by the struggle first between China and Japan in 1894-1895 and later between Japan and Russia in 1904-1905. Japan's victories gave it clear superiority, and in 1910, Japan formally annexed Korea.

What humiliation did Italy face in the scramble for Africa?

- Not to be outdone, Italy joined in the imperialist scramble. Their humiliating defeat by the Ethiopians in 1896 only led the Italians to try again in 1911, when they invaded and seized Ottoman Tripoli, which they renamed Libya.

Why did Serbia have such a high level of a animosity against against the Austro-Hungarian empire by 1914? What political maneuvers had been made in the years leading up to World War I that caused tensions and division to worsen in the Balkans?

- One of Serbia's major ambitions had been to acquire Albanian territory that would give it a port on the Adriatic. At the London Conference, arranged by Austria at the end of the two Balkan wars, the Austrians had blocked Serbia's wishes by creating an independent Albania. The Germans, as Austrian allies, had supported this move. In their frustration, Serbian nationalists increasingly portrayed the Austrians as monsters who were keeping the Serbs from becoming a great nation. As Serbia's chief supporters, the Russians were also upset by the turn of events in the region. A feeling had grown among Russian leaders that they could not back down again in the event of a confrontation with Austria or Germany in the Balkans. - Austria-Hungary had achieved another of its aims, but it was still convinced that Serbia was a mortal threat to its empire and must at some point be crushed. Meanwhile, the French and Russian governments renewed their alliance and promised each other that they would not back down at the next crisis. Britain drew closer to France. By the beginning of 1914, the two armed camps viewed each other with suspicion.

What was Pope Prius IX's reaction to these anticlerical sentiments and his "syllabus of Errors"?

- One response of the Christian churches to these attacks was the outright rejection of modern ideas and forces. Protestant fundamentalist sects were especially important in maintaining a literal interpretation of the Bible. - The Catholic Church under Pope Pius IX also took a rigid stand against modern ideas. In 1864, Pope Pius issued a papal encyclical called the Syllabus of Errors in which he stated that it is "an error to believe" that the pope ought to "agree with progress, liberalism, and modern civilization." He condemned nationalism, socialism, religious toleration, and freedom of speech and press.

What two states in Africa remained free from European colonization and control? What invention was most essential for retaining dominance over African tribes?

- Only Liberia, founded by emancipated American slaves, and Ethiopia remained free states. Despite the humanitarian rationalizations about the "white man's burden," Africa had been conquered by European states determined to create colonial empires. - Any peoples who dared to resist (with the exception of the Ethiopians, who defeated the Italians) were simply devastated by the superior military force of the Europeans. - In 1898, Sudanese tribesmen attempted to defend their independence and stop a British expedition armed with the recently developed machine gun. In the ensuing Battle of Omdurman, the Sudanese were massacred. The casualties at Omdurman tell the story of the one-sided conflicts between Europeans and Africans: twenty-eight British deaths to 11,000 Sudanese. Military superiority was frequently accompanied by brutal treatment of Black people. Nor did Europeans hesitate to deceive the Africans to gain their way.

Why was the Salvation Army established?

- Other religious groups also made efforts to win support for Christianity among the working-class poor and to restore religious practice among the urban working classes. - Sects of evangelical missionaries were especially successful; a prime example is the Salvation Army, founded in London in 1865 by William Booth, the army's first "general." The Salvation Army established food centers, shelters where the homeless could sleep, and "rescue homes" for women, but all these had a larger purpose, as Booth admitted: "It is primarily and mainly for the sake of saving the soul that I seek the salvation of the body."

What was Cubism and who was Pablo Picasso?

- Pablo Picasso was from Spain but settled in Paris in 1904. - Picasso was extremely flexible and painted in a remarkable variety of styles. He was instrumental in the development of a new style called Cubism (used geometric designs as visual stimuli to re-create reality in the viewer's mind). - Picasso's 1907 work Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, which portrays five women in a brothel, has been called the first Cubist painting. Picasso and other artists were inspired by collections of objects shipped from European colonies, such as African masks, textiles, tools, and weapons.

What contributions did Cezanne and Van Gogh make in post-Impressionism

- Paul Cézanne was one of the most important Post-Impressionists. Initially, he was influenced by the Impressionists but soon rejected their work. - In paintings, such as Mont Sainte-Victoire, Cézanne sought to express visually the underlying geometric structure and form of everything he painted. He accomplished this by pressing his wet brush directly onto the canvas, forming cubes of color on which he built the form of the mountain. His technique enabled him to break down forms to their basic components. Cézanne explained to one young painter that you must see in nature "the cylinder, the sphere, and the cone." - Another famous Post-Impressionist was a tortured and tragic figure, Vincent Van Gogh. For van Gogh, art was a spiritual experience. He was especially interested in color and believed that it could act as its own form of language. Van Gogh maintained that artists should paint what they feel, which is evident in his Starry Night. Despite his influence on later artists, Van Gogh considered himself an artistic failure—he sold only one of his paintings before committing suicide.

Describe the German nationalistic concept of the "Volk" and Houston Stewart Chamberlain's view of the Aryan race.

- Perhaps nowhere was the combination of extreme nationalism and racism more evident and more dangerous than in Germany. - The concept of the Volk had been an underlying idea in German history since the beginning of the nineteenth century. - One of the chief propagandists for German volkish thought (the belief that German culture is superior and that the German people have a universal mission to save Western civilization from "inferior" races) was Houston Stewart Chamberlain, an Englishman who became a German citizen. - Modern-day Germans, were the only pure successors of the "Aryans," who were portrayed as the true and original creators of Western culture. The Aryan race, under German leadership, must be prepared to fight for Western civilization and save it from the destructive assaults of such lower races as Jews, Negroes, and Orientals. Increasingly, Jews were singled out by German volkish nationalists as the racial enemy in biological terms and as parasites who wanted to destroy the Aryan race.

Who were David Livingstone and Henry Stanley? Why are they complex characters to discuss in imperialism?

- Popular interest in the forbiddingly dense tropical jungles of Central Africa was first aroused in the 1860s and 1870s by explorers, such as the Scottish missionary David Livingstone and the British-American journalist Henry M. Stanley. - Leopold engaged Stanley to establish Belgian settlements in the Congo.

What happened in Canada in the late 19th century (other than the invention of hockey (it's not the world's greatest sport btw))

- Real unity was difficult to achieve, however, because of the distrust between the English-speaking majority and the French-speaking Canadians, living primarily in Quebec. Wilfred Laurier , who became the first French Canadian prime minister in 1896, was able to reconcile the two groups. During his administration, industrialization boomed, especially the production of textiles, furniture, and railway equipment. Hundreds of thousands of immigrants, primarily from Europe, also flowed into Canada. Many settled on lands in the west, thus helping populate Canada's vast territories.

Why was Russia attempting to expand its eastern territorial control down into Northern China (Manchukuo) and Korea? Who did they come into conflict with? How did this conflict turn out?

- Russia's territorial expansion to the south and east, especially its designs on northern Korea, led to a confrontation with Japan. Japan made a surprise attack on the Russian eastern fleet at Port Arthur on February 8, 1904. - In response, Russia sent its Baltic fleet halfway around the world to the East, only to be defeated by the new Japanese navy at Tsushima Strait off the coast of Japan. - Europeans could not believe that an Asian state was militarily superior to a great European power, the Russians admitted defeat and sued for peace in 1905.

Describe Russia's territorial expansion into East Asia. What other region were the Russians attempting to expand?

- Russian explorers had penetrated the wilderness of Siberia in the seventeenth century and reached the Pacific coast in 1637. In the eighteenth century, Russians established a claim on Alaska, which they sold to the United States in 1867. Altogether, 7 million Russians settled in Siberia between 1800 and 1914, by which time 90 percent of the Siberian population was Slavic, not Asiatic. - The Russians also moved south, attracted by warmer climates and the crumbling Ottoman Empire. By 1830, the Russians had established control over the entire northern coast of the Black Sea and then pressed on into Central Asia, securing the trans-Caspian area by 1881 and Turkestan in 1885. These advances brought the Russians to the borders of Persia and Afghanistan, where the British also had interests because of their desire to protect their holdings in India. In 1907, the Russians and British agreed to make Afghanistan a buffer state between Russian Turkestan and British India and to divide Persia into two spheres of influence. Halted by the British in their expansion to the south, the Russians moved east into Asia. The Russian occupation of Manchuria and an attempt to move into Korea brought war with the new imperialist power, Japan. After losing the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, the Russians agreed to a Japanese protectorate in Korea, and their Asian expansion was brought to a temporary halt.

How did nationalism begin to express itself in the music of the following composers of this era? Grieg: Debussy: Stravinsky:

- Scandinavian composer Edvard Grieg remained a dedicated supporter of Norwegian nationalism throughout his life. Grieg's nationalism expressed itself in the lyric melodies found in the folk music of his homeland. - Among his best-known works is the Peer Gynt Suite (1876), incidental music to a play by Henrik Ibsen. Grieg's music paved the way for the creation of a national music style in Norway. - Impressionist music stressed elusive moods and haunting sensations and is distinctive in its delicate beauty and elegance of sound. The composer most tangibly linked to the Impressionist movement was Claude Debussy, whose musical compositions were often inspired by the visual arts. - One of Debussy's most famous works, Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (1894), was actually inspired by a poem, "Afternoon of a Faun," written by his friend, the Symbolist poet Stéphane Mallarmé. But Debussy did not tell a story in music; rather, Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun re-created in sound the overall feeling of the poem. - Other composers adopted stylistic idioms that imitated presumably primitive forms in an attempt to express less refined and therefore more genuine feelings. A chief exponent of musical primitivism was Igor Stravinsky, one of the twentieth century's most important composers, both for his compositions and for his impact on other composers. He gained international fame as a ballet composer and together with the Ballet Russe, under the direction of Sergei Diaghilev, revolutionized the world of music with a series of ballets. The three most significant ballets Stravinsky composed for Diaghilev's company were The Firebird (1910), Petrushka (1911), and The Rite of Spring (1913). All three were based on Russian folk tales. The Rite of Spring proved to be a revolutionary piece in the development of music. At its premiere on May 29, 1913, the pulsating rhythms, sharp dissonances, and unusual dancing overwhelmed the Paris audience and caused a riot at the theater. Like the intellectuals of his time, Stravinsky sought a new understanding of irrational forces in his music, which became an important force in inaugurating a modern musical movement.

Who was Sergei Witte and how did he attempt to incite industrial growth in Russia?

- Starting in the 1890s, Russia experienced a massive surge of state-sponsored industrialism under the guiding hand of Sergei Witte, the minister for finance from 1892 to 1903. - Witte saw industrial growth as crucial to Russia's national strength. Believing that railroads were a powerful weapon in economic development, Witte pushed the government toward a program of massive railroad construction. By 1900, some 35,000 miles of railroads had been built, including large parts of the 5,000-mile trans-Siberian line between Moscow and Vladivostok, on the Pacific Ocean. - Witte also encouraged a system of protective tariffs to help Russian industry and persuaded Tsar Nicholas II that foreign capital was essential for rapid industrial development. Witte's program made possible the rapid growth of a modern steel and coal industry in Ukraine, making Russia by 1900 the fourth-largest producer of steel behind the United States, Germany, and Great Britain.

What was the Boer War? How did it start, and how did it conclude?

- The Boer War began in 1899 and dragged on until 1902 due to the Boers' use of guerrilla tactics, the British sustained high casualties and immense expenses in securing victory. Almost 450,000 British and imperial forces were needed to defeat 87,000 Boers at a cost of 22,000 British deaths. The British implemented the concentration camp, rounding up thousands of Boer civilians and prisoners of war and placing them in enclosed camps. - Mass newspapers in Britain reported on the high casualties, costs, and brutalities against Boer women and children, causing a public outcry and arousing antiwar sentiment at home. Britain had won, but the cost of the Boer War demonstrated that increased military and monetary investment would be needed to maintain the British Empire. British policy toward the defeated Boers was remarkably conciliatory. Transvaal and the Orange Free State had representative governments by 1907, and in 1910, the Union of South Africa was created. Like Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, it became a fully self-governing dominion within the British Empire.

What were the consequences following Austria's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina — otherwise known as the Bosnian Crisis of 1908? How did these tensions manifest themselves with Russia and other European states?

- The Bosnian Crisis of 1908-1909 initiated a chain of events that eventually spun out of control. Since 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina had been under the protection of Austria, but in 1908, Austria took the drastic step of annexing these two Slavic-speaking territories. - Serbia became outraged at this action because it dashed the Serbs' hopes of creating a large Serbian kingdom that would include most of the southern Slavs. But this was why the Austrians had annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. To the Austrians, a large Serbia would be a threat to the unity of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, with its large Slavic population. - The Russians, as protectors of their fellow Slavs and desiring to increase their own authority in the Balkans, supported the Serbs and opposed the Austrian action. - Backed by the Russians, the Serbs prepared for war against Austria. At this point, William II intervened and demanded that the Russians accept Austria's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina or face war with Germany. Weakened from their defeat in the Russo-Japanese War in 1904-1905, the Russians backed down. Humiliated, they vowed revenge.

What was India's response to British Parliament's direct rule during the era known as the Raj? Why was Indian society so fractured?

- The British government had been in control of India since the mid-nineteenth century. After crushing a major revolt in 1858, the British ruled India directly. Under Parliament's supervision, a small group of British civil servants directed the affairs of India's almost 300 million people. - The British brought order to a society that had been divided by civil wars for some time and created a relatively honest and efficient government. The British introduced Western-style secondary schools and colleges where the Indian upper and middle classes and professional classes were educated and taught English so that they could serve as trained subordinates in the government and army. - In 1829, the British banned the practice of sati, which called for a widow to immolate herself on her husband's funeral pyre. Some suggest that the abolition became central to Britain's image of itself as culturally superior. Female infanticide was also discouraged. Although women's position in Indian society was not significantly altered, the recognition of women by the law did afford some protection against these practices. - Population had increased from 136 million in 1864 to 300 million by 1904. This population growth led to extreme poverty as a way of life for most Indians; The new system of education implemented by the British served only the elite, upper-class Indians, and it was conducted only in the rulers' English language while 90 percent of the population remained illiterate. - the best jobs and the best housing were reserved for Britons. Even well-educated Indians were never considered the equals of the British. - Such smug racial attitudes made it difficult for British rule, no matter how beneficent, ever to be ultimately accepted and led to the rise of an Indian nationalist movement. By 1883, when the Indian National Congress was formed, moderate, educated, upper-class Indians were beginning to seek self-government. By 1919, in response to British violence and British insensitivity, Indians were demanding complete independence

Who opened the Seuz Canal? What did it achieve? How ended up taking control of it?

- The British took an active interest in Egypt after the French opened the Suez Canal in 1869. - Believing that the canal was their lifeline to India, the British sought to control the canal area. Egypt was a well-established state with an autonomous Muslim government, but that did not stop the British from landing an expeditionary force there in 1882. - they claimed that their occupation was only temporary, but they soon established a protectorate over Egypt. From Egypt, the British moved south into the Sudan and seized it after narrowly averting a war with France.

What impacts did the Dreyfus Affair have in government and the Zionist movement being advocated by Herzl in Austria?

- The Dreyfus affair Theodor Herzl, who covered the trial for a Viennese newspaper, that assimilation did not protect Jews from anti-Semitism. As a result, he came to advocate that Jews needed a country of their own, leading to the Zionist movement. - In France itself, the Dreyfus affair led to a change in government. Moderate republicans lost control to radical republicans who were determined to make greater progress toward a more democratic society by breaking the power of the Republic's enemies, especially the army and the Catholic Church. The army was purged of all high-ranking officers who had antirepublican reputations. Most of the Catholic religious orders that had controlled many French schools were forced to leave France. Moreover, church and state were officially separated in 1905, and during the next two years, the government seized church property and stopped paying clerical salaries. - These changes ended the political threat from the right to the Third Republic, which by now commanded the loyalty of most French people. - As a nation of small businessmen and farmers, the French lagged far behind Great Britain, Germany, and the United States in industrial activity. a surge of industrialization after 1896 left the nation with the realization that little had been done to appease the discontent of the French working classes and their abysmal working conditions. The French parliament felt little pressure to enact labor legislation. This made the use of strikes more appealing to the working classes. The brutal government repression of labor walkouts in 1911 only further alienated the working classes.

What was the major conflict pertaining to Irish Home Rule during the years before and during World War I?

- The Liberals also tried to solve the Irish problem. Parliament finally granted home rule in 1914, but the explosive situation in Ireland itself created more problems. - Irish Protestants in northern Ireland, especially in the province of Ulster, wanted no part of an Irish Catholic state. The outbreak of World War I enabled the British government to sidestep the potentially explosive issue and to suspend Irish home rule for the duration of the war. Failure to deal decisively with the issue simply led to more problems later.

Who was David Lloyd George? What kinds of reforms were made in this era and how did he go about funding these programs?

- The Liberals, who gained control of the House of Commons and held the government from 1906 to 1914, perceived that they would have to enact a program of social welfare or lose the support of the workers. % The policy of reform was especially advanced by David Lloyd George, a brilliant orator from Wales who had been deeply moved by the misery of Welsh coal miners and served as chancellor of the Exchequer from 1908 to 1915. - The Liberals abandoned the classic principles of laissez-faire and voted for a series of social reforms. The National Insurance Act of 1911 provided benefits for workers in case of sickness and unemployment, to be paid for by compulsory contributions from workers, employers, and the state. Additional legislation provided a small pension for retirees over seventy and compensation for workers injured on the job. To pay for the new program, Lloyd George increased the tax burden on the wealthy classes. Though both the benefits of the program and the tax increases were modest, they were the first hesitant steps toward the future British welfare state. - Liberalism, which had been based on the principle that the government that governs least governs best, had been transformed.

How was American Imperialism a bit different from European expansion? Where did the US focus their efforts?

- The Samoan Islands became the first important American colony; the Hawaiian Islands were the next to fall. Soon after Americans had made Pearl Harbor into a naval station in 1887, American settlers gained control of the sugar industry on the islands. When Hawaiian natives tried to reassert their authority, the U.S. Marines were brought in to "protect" American lives. Hawaii was annexed by the United States in 1898 during the era of American nationalistic fervor generated by the Spanish-American War. - The American defeat of Spain encouraged Americans to extend their empire by acquiring Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands. Although the Filipinos hoped for independence, the Americans refused to grant it. As President William McKinley said, the United States had the duty "to educate the Filipinos and uplift and Christianize them," a remarkable statement in view of the fact that most of them had been Roman Catholics for centuries. It took three years and 60,000 troops to pacify the Philippines and establish American control.

What caused the Christian church to lose its grasp on urban dwellers? What is anticlericalism and how did it manage to take hold in the late 19th century and early 20th century?

- The growth of scientific thinking as well as modernization presented new challenges to the Christian churches. With the mass migration of people from the countryside to the city, the close-knit, traditional ties of the village in which the church had been a key force gave way to new urban patterns of social life from which the churches were often excluded - Beginning during the eighteenth-century Enlightenment and continuing well into the nineteenth century, European governments, especially in predominantly Catholic countries, had imposed controls over church courts, religious orders, and appointments of the clergy. But after the failure of the revolutions of 1848, governments were eager to use the churches' aid in reestablishing order and relaxed these controls. - Eventually, however, the close union of state authorities with established churches produced a backlash in the form of anticlericalism (opposition to the power of the clergy, especially in political affairs), especially in the liberal nation-states of the late nineteenth century. - As one example, in the 1880s, the French republican government substituted civic training for religious instruction in order to undermine the Catholic Church's control of education. In 1901, Catholic teaching orders were outlawed, and four years later, in 1905, church and state were completely separated. - Science became one of the chief threats to all the Christian churches and even to religion itself in the nineteenth century. Darwin's theory of evolution, becoming widely accepted, seemed to contradict the doctrine of divine creation. By seeking to suppress Darwin's books and to forbid the teaching of the evolutionary hypothesis, the churches often caused even more educated people to reject established religions. - The scientific spirit also encouraged a number of biblical scholars to apply critical principles to the Bible, leading to the so-called higher criticism. One of its leading exponents was Ernst Renan, a French Catholic scholar. In his "Life of Jesus", Renan questioned the historical accuracy of the Bible and presented a radically different picture of Jesus. He saw Jesus not as the son of God but as a human being whose value lay in the example he provided by his life and teaching.

What was the Boxer Rebellion? How did it end? How did the Manchu dynasty end? How well did the new Republic established in China deal with the embarrassment and intrusion of European influence?

- The humiliation of China by the Western powers led to much antiforeign violence, but the Westerners used this lawlessness as an excuse to extort further concessions from the Chinese. - A major outburst of violence against foreigners occurred in the Boxer Rebellion in 1900-1901. "Boxers" was the popular name given to Chinese who belonged to a secret organization called the Society of Harmonious Fists, whose aim was to push the foreigners out of China. The Boxers murdered foreign missionaries, Chinese who had converted to Christianity, railroad workers, foreign businessmen, and even the German envoy to Beijing. - Response to the killings was immediate and overwhelming. An allied army consisting of eighteen thousand British, French, Russian, American, and Japanese troops attacked Beijing, restored order, and demanded more concessions from the Chinese government. The imperial government was so weakened that the forces of the revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen, who adopted a program of "nationalism, democracy, and socialism," overthrew the Manchu dynasty in 1912. The new Republic of China remained weak and ineffective, and China's travails were far from over.

Who was Wassily Kandinsky?

- The modern artist's flight from "visual reality" reached a high point in 1910 with the beginning of abstract painting. - Wassily Kandinsky, a Russian who worked in Germany, was one of the founders of abstract painting. - As is evident in his Square with White Border, Kandinsky sought to avoid representation altogether. He believed that art should speak directly to the soul. To do so, it must avoid any reference to visual reality and concentrate on color.

Who was Germany's new Emperor and what did he do?

- The new imperial Germany begun by Bismarck in 1871 continued as an "authoritarian, conservative, military-bureaucratic power state" during the reign of Emperor William II. - Unstable and aggressive, the emperor was inclined to tactless remarks, as when he told the soldiers of a Berlin regiment that they must be prepared to shoot their fathers and mothers if he ordered them to do so. A small group of about twenty powerful men joined William in setting government policy.

How did anxieties surrounding intellectual and cultural developments of the late 19th and early 20th century extend to the fragility of political democracies that had been growing up to that point? Explain how the liberals felt about this and why they felt they had to change their politics?

- The new mass politics had opened the door to changes that many nineteenth-century liberals found unacceptable, and liberals themselves were forced to move in new directions. The appearance of a new right-wing politics based on racism added an ugly note to the already existing anxieties. - With their newfound voting rights, workers elected socialists who demanded new reforms when they took their places in legislative bodies. - Women, too, made new demands, insisting on the right to vote and using new tactics to gain it. - In central and eastern Europe, tensions grew as authoritarian governments refused to meet the demands of reformers. And outside Europe, a new giant appeared in the Western world as the United States emerged as a great industrial power with immense potential.

Who was Emile Zola? What did he express in his series of novels known as "Rougon-Macquart"?

- The novels of the French writer Émile Zola provide a good example of Naturalism. - a backdrop of the urban slums and coalfields of northern France, Zola showed how alcoholism and different environments affected people's lives. - He had read Darwin's Origin of Species and had been impressed by its emphasis on the struggle for survival and the importance of environment and heredity. These themes were central to his Rougon-Macquart, a twenty-volume series of novels on the "natural and social history of a family." - maintained that the artist must analyze and dissect life as a biologist would a living organism. He said that he had simply done on living bodies the work of analysis that "surgeons perform on corpses."

How did Bulgaria come about in the Balkans and why was this a potential problem for Austro-Hungarian peace? What happened at the Congress of Berlin in 1878 (not to be confused with the Berlin Conference off 1884-5)

- The problem in the Balkans was a by-product of the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. As subject peoples in the Balkans clamored for independence, corruption and inefficiency weakened the Ottoman government. Only the interference of the great European powers, who were fearful of each other's designs on its territories, kept the Ottoman Empire alive. - Complicating the situation was the rivalry between Russia and Austria, (both had designs on the Balkans). For Russia, the Balkans provided the shortest overland route to Constantinople and the Mediterranean. Austria viewed the Balkans as fertile ground for Austrian expansion. Although Germany had no real interests in the Balkans, Bismarck was fearful of the consequences of a war between Russia and Austria over the region and served as a restraining influence on both powers. - In 1876, the Balkan states of Serbia and Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Both were defeated, but Russia, with Austrian approval, attacked and defeated the Ottomans. - The Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 created a large Bulgarian state, extending from the Danube in the north to the Aegean Sea in the south. As Bulgaria was viewed as a Russian satellite, this Russian success caused the other great powers to call for a congress of European powers to discuss a revision of the treaty. - The Congress of Berlin, which met in the summer of 1878, was dominated by Bismarck. The congress effectively demolished the Treaty of San Stefano, much to Russia's humiliation. The new Bulgarian state was considerably reduced, and the rest of the territory was returned to Ottoman control. - The three Balkan states of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania, until then nominally under Ottoman control, were recognized as independent. The other Balkan territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under Austrian protection; Austria could occupy but not annex them.

How was the Social Democrats party in Austria similar and/or different to the Social Democratic Party (SPD) of Germany?

- The threat the nationalities posed to the position of the dominant German minority in Austria also produced a backlash in the form of virulent German nationalism. As Austria industrialized in the 1870s and 1880s, two working-class parties came into existence, both strongly influenced by nationalism. The Social Democrats, although a Marxist party that argued for social and political gains such as universal suffrage and the eight-hour workday, supported the Austrian government, fearful that the autonomy of the different nationalities would hinder industrial development and prevent improvements for workers. Even more nationalistic, however, were the Christian Socialists, who, as we have seen, combined agitation for workers with a virulent anti-Semitism.

What was the "new woman" and what did they stand for? How did Maria Montessori represent the ideals of the new woman?

- These women renounced traditional feminine roles. Although some of them supported political ideologies such as socialism, others simply sought new freedom outside the household and new roles other than those of wives and mothers. - Maria Montessori was a good example of the "new woman." Breaking with tradition, she attended medical school at the University of Rome. In 1896 became the first Italian woman to receive a medical degree. Three years later, she undertook a lecture tour in Italy on the subject of the "new woman," whom she characterized as a woman who followed a rational, scientific perspective. Montessori put her medical background to work in a school for mentally handicapped children. She devised new teaching materials that enabled these children to read and write and became convinced, that the same methods applied to normal students would develop their personality in a "marvelous and surprising way." She established a system of childhood education based on natural and spontaneous activities in which students learned at their own pace. - By the 1930s, hundreds of Montessori schools had been established in Europe and the United States. As a professional woman and an unwed mother, Montessori also embodied some of the freedoms of the "new woman."

How did British industrialization affect the lives of Indian inhabitants for better and for worse?

- They also brought Western technology—railroads, banks, mines, industry, medical knowledge, and hospitals. - British industrialization brought little improvement for the masses. British manufactured goods destroyed local industries, and Indian wealth was used to pay British officials and a large army.

Who was Peter Stolypin?

- Under Peter Stolypin, who served as the tsar's chief adviser from late 1906 until his assassination in 1911, important agrarian reforms dissolved the village ownership of land and opened the door to private ownership by enterprising peasants. - Nicholas II, however, was no friend of reform. Already by 1907, the tsar had curtailed the power of the Duma, and after Stolypin's murder, he fell back on the army and bureaucracy to rule Russia.

Why did the short-lived movement for complete Hungarian separation end up failing?

- While subjugating their nationalities, the ruling Magyars in Hungary developed a movement for complete separation from Austria. - In 1903, when they demanded that the Hungarian army be separated from the imperial army, Emperor Francis Joseph (as king of Hungary) responded quickly and forcefully. He threatened to impose universal male suffrage on Hungary, a move that would challenge Magyar domination of the minorities. Hungarian leaders fell into line, and the new Hungarian parliamentary leader, Count István Tisza, cooperated in maintaining the Dual Monarchy. Magyar rule in Hungary, he realized, was inextricably bound up with the Dual Monarchy; its death would only harm the rule of the Magyar landowning class.

What were the preconditions for revolt in Russia in 1905? What kind of political parties emerged there and how were they treated by the Tsar Nicholas II?

- With industrialization came factories, an industrial working class, industrial suburbs around Saint Petersburg and Moscow, and the pitiful working and living conditions. - Socialist thought and socialist parties developed, although repression in Russia soon forced them to go underground and become revolutionary. - The Marxist Social Democratic Party, for example, held its first congress in Minsk in 1898, but the arrest of its leaders caused the next one to be held in Brussels in 1903, attended by Russian émigrés. The Social Revolutionaries worked to overthrow the tsarist autocracy and establish peasant socialism. Having no other outlet for their opposition to the regime, they advocated political terrorism and attempted to assassinate government officials and members of the ruling dynasty. The growing opposition to the tsarist regime finally exploded into revolution in 1905.

How was Pope Leo's XIII's approach to the new ideologies of the 19th century? What was "De Rerum Novarum"?

- Yet another response of the Christian churches to modern ideas was compromise, an approach especially evident in the Catholic Church during the pontificate of Leo XIII. - Pope Leo permitted the teaching of evolution as a hypothesis in Catholic schools and responded to the challenges of modernization in the economic and social spheres. - In his encyclical De Rerum Novarum in 1891, he upheld the individual's right to private property but at the same time criticized "naked" capitalism for the poverty and degradation in which it had left the working classes. Much in socialism, he declared, was Christian in principle, but he condemned Marxist socialism for its materialistic and antireligious foundations. The pope recommended that Catholics form socialist parties and labor unions of their own to help the workers.

Who was Max Planck? What did he discover and made it revolutionary?

- a Berlin physicist - rejected the belief that a heated body radiates energy in a steady stream / believed that energy is radiated discontinuously, in irregular packets that he called "quanta." - The quantum theory raised fundamental questions about the subatomic realm of the atom. - By 1900, the old view of atoms as the basic building blocks of the material world was being seriously questioned, and Newtonian physics was in trouble.

What did French philosopher Henri Bergson argue? How did his ideas make people question reality?

- a French philosopher, one of the most important influences in sadly 20c French thought - accepted rational, scientific thought as a practical instrument for providing useful knowledge but maintained that it was incapable of arriving at truth or ultimate reality. - reality was the "life force" that suffused all things; it could not be divided into analyzable parts. Reality was a whole that could only be grasped intuitively and experienced directly. When we analyze it, we have merely a description, no longer the reality we have experienced.

What is "psychoanalysis" and why was Sigmund Freud such an important thinker of his day, even though many of his ideas have drawn such criticism and since been partially or wholly disproven?

- a Viennese doctor - put forth a series of theories that undermined optimism about the rational nature of the human mind, which added to uncertainties of the age - His major ideas were published in 1900 in The Interpretation of Dreams, which contained the basic foundation of psychoanalysis (a method developed by Sigmund Freud to resolve a patient's psychic conflict.). - Although many of Freud's ideas have been shown to be wrong in many details, he is still regarded as an important figure because of the impact his theories have had.

Why did anti-Semitic and extreme right wing politics become increasingly prevalent at the end of the 19th century?

- a revival of racism combined with extreme nationalism to produce a new right-wing politics aimed primarily at the Jews. Since the Middle Ages, Jews had been portrayed as the murderers of Jesus and subjected to mob violence; their rights had been restricted, and they had been physically separated from Christians in quarters known as ghettos.

What were some of the legalities granted to Jews?

- as a result of the ideals of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, Jews were granted legal equality in many European countries. The French revolutionary decrees of 1790 and 1791 emancipated the Jews and admitted them full citizenship. For many Jews, emancipation enabled them to leave the ghetto and become assimilated as hundreds of thousands of Jews entered what had been the closed worlds of parliaments and universities. - In 1880, for example, Jews made up 10 percent of the population of the city of Vienna, Austria, but 39 percent of its medical students and 23 percent of its law students. A Jew could "leave his Jewishness behind," as the career of Benjamin Disraeli demonstrated. Many other Jews became successful bankers, lawyers, scientists, scholars, journalists, and stage performers.

Summarize the theory of the unconscious - what were id, ego, and superego? How did Freud's ideas relate to Einsteins's in terms of their social consequences?

- human behavior was strongly determined by the unconscious, by earlier experiences and inner forces of which people were largely oblivious. -To explore the content of the unconscious, Freud relied on hypnosis and dreams, but the latter were cloaked in an elaborate code that had to be deciphered if the content was to be properly understood. - some experiences whose influence persisted in controlling an individual's life remain unconscious because of repression, a process by which unsettling experiences were blotted from conscious awareness but still continued to influence behavior because they had become part of the unconscious. - a human being's inner life was a battleground of three contending forces: the id, ego, and superego. - The id was the center of unconscious drives and was ruled by what Freud termed the pleasure principle (As creatures of desire, human beings directed their energy toward pleasure / away from pain) The id contained lustful drives and desires and crude appetites and impulses. - The ego was the seat of reason and the coordinator of the inner life. It was governed by the reality principle (Although humans were dominated by the pleasure principle, a true pursuit of pleasure was not feasible. The reality principle meant that people rejected pleasure so that they might live together in society) -The superego was the locus of conscience and represented the inhibitions and moral values that society in general and parents in particular imposed on people. The superego served to force the ego to curb the unsatisfactory drives of the id. - The human being was thus a battleground among id, ego, and superego. Ego and superego exerted restraining influences on the unconscious id and repressed out of consciousness what they wanted to. - The most important repressions, according to Freud, were sexual, and he went on to develop a theory of infantile sexual drives embodied in the Oedipus complex (Electra complex for females), or the infant's craving for exclusive possession of the parent of the opposite sex. - Repression began in childhood, and psychoanalysis was accomplished through a dialogue between psychotherapist and patient in which the therapist probed deeply into memory in order to retrace the chain of repression all the way back to its childhood origins. By making the conscious mind aware of the unconscious and its repressed contents, the patient's psychic conflict was resolved.

How did the United States' international position grow during the era of 1860 to 1914? What kinds of challenges did the US face during this time?

- made the shift from an agrarian to a mighty industrial nation, became the world's richest nation and greatest industrial power - (Carnegie Steel produced more than great Britain alone, urbanization with large populations, cities, migration) - serious questions remained about the quality of American life. In 1890, the richest 9 percent of Americans owned an incredible 71 percent of all the wealth. Labor unrest over unsafe working conditions, strict work discipline, and periodic cycles of devastating unemployment led workers to organize.) - During the so-called Progressive Era after 1900, an age of reform swept across the United States. State governments enacted economic and social legislation, such as laws that governed hours, wages, and working conditions, especially for women and children. The realization that state laws were ineffective in dealing with nationwide problems, however, led to a Progressive movement at the national level.)

What changes in our understanding of physics came out of this era and why was it so rattling to the majority of people?

- new physics dramatically altered the widespread belief that the application of already known scientific laws would give humanity a complete understanding of the physical world and an accurate picture of reality - in much of 19c, westerners adhered to Newton's belief that the universe was viewed as a giant machine in which time, space, and matter were objective realities that existed independently of the people observing them. Matter was thought to be composed of indivisible solid material bodies called atoms, but these views became seriously questioned at the end of the 19c Changes: analysis of atoms,

Who was Friedrich Nietzche? What were his ideas on reason? Christianity? Why did he say "God is dead."?

- one of the intellectuals who glorified the irrational - believed that Western bourgeois society was decadent and incapable of any real cultural creativity, bc of its excessive emphasis on the rational faculty at the expense of emotions, passions, and instincts) - Reason, Nietzsche claimed, actually played little role in human life because humans were at the mercy of irrational life forces. - believed that Christianity should shoulder much of the blame for Western civilization's enfeeblement. The "slave morality" of Christianity, he believed, had obliterated the human impulse for life and had crushed the human will - in order to renew society: one must recognize that "God is dead." Europeans had killed God, and it was no longer possible to believe in some kind of cosmic order. Eliminating God and Christian morality had liberated human beings and made it possible to create a higher kind of being Nietzsche called the superman - Superior intellectuals must free themselves from the ordinary thinking of the masses, create their own values, and lead the masses. Nietzsche rejected and condemned political democracy, social reform, and universal suffrage.

Read the blue section on page 719-20, why were tensions building between European nations? What kind of rivalries existed? Why did intellectuals have such a sense of unease in the years preceding World War I?

- political tensions built, fueled by imperialist adventures, international rivalries, and cultural uncertainties. After 1880, Europeans engaged in a great race for colonies around the world. (greatly intensified existing antagonisms among European states) - The development of the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente may have helped preserve peace for a time, but eventually the alliances made it easier for the European nations to be drawn into World War I. - European philosophers, writers, and artists were creating modern cultural expressions that questioned traditional ideas and values and initiated a crisis of confidence. Before 1914, many intellectuals had a sense of unease about the direction in which society was heading, accompanied by a feeling of imminent catastrophe. They proved remarkably prophetic.

What was the Berlin Conference, and why was Germany somewhat behind when it came to overseas possessions?

- the Berlin Conference established the legal claim by Europeans that all of Africa could be occupied by whomever could take it. The rules of engagement governing Europeans' relationships with each other in Africa were determined at the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885. The conference was organized by the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and attended by most European nations. - Between 1884 and 1900, most of the rest of Africa was carved up by the European powers. Germany entered the ranks of the imperialist powers at this time. Initially, Bismarck had downplayed the significance of colonies, but as domestic political pressures for a German empire intensified, Bismarck became a political convert to colonialism. Bismarck explained that this colonial business was a sham, "but we need it for the elections." The Germans established colonies in South-West Africa, the Cameroons, Togoland, and Tanganyika.

What was the Triple Alliance? What was the Triple Entente and why was it formed?

- the European powers sought new alliances to safeguard their security. Angered by the Germans' actions at the congress, the Russians terminated the Three Emperors' League in 1879. - Bismarck then made an alliance with Austria in 1879 that was joined by Italy in 1882. The Triple Alliance of 1882 committed Germany, Austria, and Italy to support the existing political order while providing a defensive alliance against France or "two or more great powers not members of the alliance." At the same time, Bismarck sought to remain on friendly terms with the Russians and signed the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia in 1887, hoping to prevent a French-Russian alliance that would threaten Germany with the possibility of a two-front war. - The Bismarckian system of alliances, geared to preserving peace and the status quo, had worked, but in 1890, Emperor William II dismissed Bismarck and began to chart a new direction for Germany's foreign policy. - Emperor William II embarked on an activist foreign policy dedicated to enhancing German power by finding, Germany's rightful "place in the sun." One of his changes in Bismarck's foreign policy was to drop the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia, which he viewed as being at odds with Germany's alliance with Austria. The ending of the alliance achieved what Bismarck had feared: it brought France and Russia together. Long isolated by Bismarck's policies, republican France leaped at the chance to draw closer to tsarist Russia, and in 1894, the two powers concluded a military alliance. - By 1907, a loose confederation of Great Britain, France, and Russia—known as the Triple Entente—stood opposed to the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. Europe was divided into two opposing camps that became more and more inflexible and unwilling to compromise.

Who were Marie and Pierre Currie? What did they discover? Why was this so important?

- they were French scientists - discovered that the element radium gave off rays of radiation that apparently came from within the atom itself. - atoms were not hard, but small worlds containing such subatomic particles as electrons and protons that behaved in seemingly random and inexplicable fashion. - Inquiry into the disintegrative process within atoms became a central theme of the new physics.

Why was Bismarck so intent on maintaining an alliance with Austria-Hungary and Russia and why didn't this alliance work out very well?

Bismarck knew that the emergence of a unified Germany in 1871 had upset the balance of power established at Vienna in 1815. Fearing the French desire for revenge over their loss of Alsace-Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck made an alliance first in 1873 and again in 1881 with the traditionally conservative powers Austria-Hungary and Russia. But the Three Emperors' League, as it was called, failed to work very well, primarily because of Russian-Austrian rivalry in the Balkans.

Describe the art movement known as Impressionism. What did it reflect? What did impressionist artists attempt to convey in their style and subject matter?

Impressionism: an artistic movement that originated in France in the 1870swhen a group of artists rejected the studios and museums and went out into the countryside to paint nature directly. Impressionists sought to capture their impressions of the changing effects of light on objects in nature. - As well as nature their subjects included streets and cabarets, rivers, and busy boulevards—wherever people congregated for work and leisure. In this sense, Impressionist subject matter reflected the pastimes of the new upper middle class. Instead of adhering to the conventional modes of painting and subject matter, the Impressionists sought originality and distinction from past artworks. Their paintings utilized bright colors, dynamic brushstrokes, and a smaller, more private scale than that of their predecessors. - strove to to capture an impression, a fleeting moment in time, painting outside the studio, smaller pallets, less clarity of forms, non-traditional Camille Pissarro: "Precise drawing is dry and hampers the impression of the whole, it destroys all sensations. Do not define too closely the outlines of things; it is the brushstroke of the right value and color which should produce the drawing.... Work at the same time upon sky, water, branches, ground, keeping everything going on an equal basis and unceasingly rework until you have got it.... Don't proceed according to rules and principles, but paint what you observe and feel. Paint generously and unhesitatingly, for it is best not to lose the first impression."

What did Emily Davison do?

In 1913, Emily Davison accepted martyrdom for the cause of women's suffrage when she threw herself in front of the king's horse at the Epsom Derby horse race

How did Russia's conflict with Japan spur on problems domestically?

In the midst of the war, the growing discontent of increased numbers of Russians rapidly led to upheaval. A middle class of business and professional people longed for liberal institutions and a liberal political system. Nationalities were dissatisfied with their domination by an ethnic Russian population that constituted only 40 percent of the empire's total population. Peasants were still suffering from lack of land, and laborers felt oppressed by their working and living conditions in Russia's large cities. The breakdown of the transport system caused by the Russo-Japanese War led to food shortages in the major cities of Russia.

What was the literacy and art movement of Modernism? How did Naturalism fit into this? What kind of themes did naturalism address?

Modernism: the artistic and literary styles that emerged in the decades before 1914 as artists rebelled against traditional efforts to portray reality as accurately as possible (leading to Impressionism and Cubism) and writers explored new forms. - Throughout much of the late 19c, literature was dominated by Naturalism. Naturalists accepted the material world as real and felt that literature should be realistic. By addressing social problems, writers could contribute to an objective understanding of the world. - Although Naturalism was a continuation of Realism, it lacked the underlying note of liberal optimism about people and society that had been prevalent in the 1850s. The Naturalists were pessimistic about Europe's future and often portrayed characters caught in the grip of forces beyond their control.

What is new imperialism and how is it either similar to (or different from) old imperialism?

New imperialism: the revival of imperialism after 1880 in which European nations established colonies throughout much of Asia and Africa. - The existence of competitive nation-states and growing nationalism after 1870 was a major determinant in the growth of the new imperialism. As European affairs grew tense, heightened competition spurred European states to acquire colonies abroad that provided ports and coaling stations for their navies. - Colonies were also a source of international prestige. Once the scramble for colonies began, failure to enter the race was perceived as a sign of weakness, totally unacceptable to an aspiring great power. - Patriotic fervor was often used to arouse interest in imperialism. (Schools used maps of colonial territories for geography, Newspapers and magazines featured soldiers' letters that made imperialism seem heroic on behalf of one's country, Volunteer groups, fostered enthusiasm for imperial adventures, Plays were written to excite people about expansion abroad, artists and photographers traveled with British colonial forces to provide images for British newspapers)

What was post-Impressionism? Although it is similar to Impressionism, what are the nuances that made it different from Impressionism?

Post-Impressionism: an artistic movement that began in France in the 1880s. Post-Impressionists sought to use color and line to express inner feelings and produce a personal statement of reality. - retained the Impressionist emphasis on light and color but revolutionized it even further by paying more attention to structure and form. Post-Impressionists sought to use both color and line to express inner feelings and produce a personal statement of reality rather than an imitation of objects. - Impressionist paintings had retained a sense of realism, but the Post-Impressionists shifted from objective reality to subjective reality and in so doing began to withdraw from the artist's traditional task of depicting the external world. Post-Impressionism was the real beginning of modern art.

How did the following factors play a role into the motivation of European nations to expand into Africa and Asia? Social Darwinism and Racism: Religion: Economics:

Social Darwinism and Racism: social Darwinists believed that in the struggle between nations, the fit are victorious and survive. Superior races must dominate inferior races by military force to show how strong and virile they are. One Englishman wrote, "To the development of the White Man, the Black Man and the Yellow must ever remain inferior, and as the former raised itself higher and yet higher, so did these latter seem to shrink out of humanity and appear nearer and nearer to the brutes." Religion: arguing that Europeans had a moral responsibility to civilize ignorant peoples. This notion of the "white man's burden" helped at least the more idealistic individuals rationalize imperialism in their own minds. Thousands of Catholic and Protestant missionaries went abroad to seek converts to their faith. the belief that the superiority of their civilization obligated them to impose modern industries and new medicines on supposedly primitive nonwhites was yet another form of racism. Economics: There was a great demand for natural resources and products not found in Western countries, (rubber, oil, and tin) European investors advocated direct control of the areas where the raw materials were found. The large surpluses of capital that bankers and industrialists were accumulating often encouraged them to seek higher rates of profit in underdeveloped areas. these factors combined to create an economic imperialism, whereby European finance dominated the economic activity of a large part of the world. Businesses invested where it was most profitable, not necessarily where their own countries had colonial empires. - Followers of Karl Marx argue that imperialism was economically motivated because they associated imperialism with the ultimate demise of the capitalist system. Marx had hinted at this argument, but it was one of his followers, the Russian V. I. Lenin, who in "Imperialism, the Highest Stage of World Capitalism" developed the idea that capitalism leads to imperialism. According to Lenin, as the capitalist system concentrates more wealth in ever-fewer hands, the possibility for investment at home is exhausted, and capitalists are forced to invest abroad, establish colonies, and exploit small, weak nations. The only cure for imperialism was the destruction of capitalism.

What is Social Darwinism? Who was Herbert Spencer? How did this fit into the increasing levels of nationalism felt by various European peoples?

Social darwinism: the application of Darwin's principle of organic evolution to the social order; led to the belief that progress comes from the struggle for survival as the fittest advance and the weak decline. - most popular exponent of social Darwinism was the British philosopher Herbert Spencer - argued that societies were organisms that evolved through time from a struggle with their environment. Progress came from "the struggle for survival," as the "fit" advanced while the weak declined. - The state should not intervene in this natural process. - In their pursuit of national greatness, extreme nationalists argued that nations, too, were engaged in a "struggle for existence" in which only the fittest survived.

How did granting universal male suffrage in Austria-Hungary in 1907 make the national tensions much worse there?

The granting of universal male suffrage in 1907 served only to exacerbate the problem of its numerous nationalities because nationalities that had played no role in the government now agitated in the parliament for autonomy. This led prime ministers after 1900 to ignore the parliament and rely increasingly on imperial emergency decrees to govern. Parliament itself became a bizarre forum in which, in the words of one incredulous observer, "about a score of men, all decently clad, were seated or standing, each at his little desk. Some made an infernal noise violently opening and shutting the lids of their desks. Others emitted a blaring sound from little toy trumpets; ... still others beat snare drums."

What was the Pan-German League?

The tensions in German society created by the conflict between modernization and traditionalism were also manifested in a new, radicalized, right-wing politics. A number of pressure groups arose to support nationalistic goals. Groups such as the Pan-German League stressed strong German nationalism and advocated imperialism as a tool to overcome social divisions and unite all classes. They were also anti-Semitic and denounced Jews as the destroyers of the national community.

Describe the golden age of Russian literature and some of the authors and works they produced. Include in your response their overall significance to the themes addressed in this era.

Tolstoy: greatest work was War and Peace, a lengthy novel played out against the historical background of Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812. It is realistic in its vivid descriptions of military life and character portrayal. Each person is delineated clearly and analyzed psychologically. Upon a great landscape, Tolstoy imposed a fatalistic view of history that ultimately proved irrelevant in the face of life's enduring values of human love and trust. Dostoevsky: combined narrative skill and acute psychological and moral observation with profound insights into human nature. He maintained that the major problem of his age was a loss of spiritual belief. Western people were attempting to gain salvation through the construction of a materialistic paradise built only by human reason and human will. - feared that the failure to incorporate spirit would result in total tyranny. His own life experiences led him to believe that only through suffering and faith could the human soul be purified, views that are evident in his best-known works, Crime and Punishment and The Brothers Karamazov

What was Zionism? Where was it geographically prevalent? What role did Theodor Herzl play in the Zionist movement? What kinds of obstacles did Jews face in the Ottoman Empire? How successful was the Zionist movement in the pre-World War I era?

Zionism: an international movement that called for the establishment of a Jewish state or a refuge for Jews in Palestine. - Did emancipation mean full assimilation, and did assimilation mean the disruption of traditional Jewish life? Many Jews paid the price willingly, but others advocated a different answer, a return to Palestine. For many Jews, Palestine, the land of ancient Israel, had long been the land of their dreams. - During the nineteenth century, as nationalist ideas spread, the idea of national independence captured the imagination of some Jews. - A key figure in the growth of political Zionism was Theodor Herzl. In 1896, he published a book called The Jewish State in which he maintained that "the Jews who wish it will have their state." Financial support for the development of settlements in Palestine came from wealthy Jewish banking families who wanted a refuge in Palestine for persecuted Jews. Establishing settlements was difficult, though, because Palestine was then part of the Ottoman Empire and Ottoman authorities were opposed to Jewish immigration. - the First Zionist Congress, which met in Switzerland in 1897, proclaimed as its aim the creation of a "home in Palestine" secured by public law for the Jewish people. One thousand Jews migrated to Palestine in 1901, and the number rose to three thousand annually between 1904 and 1914; but on the eve of World War I, the Zionist dream remained just that.

Describe the ruthless settlement of the Belgians in the Congo.

the real driving force for the colonization of Central Africa was King Leopold II of Belgium, who rushed enthusiastically into the pursuit of empire in Africa. - Profit, however, was far more important to Leopold than progress; his treatment of the Africans was so brutal that even other Europeans condemned his actions. In 1876, Leopold created the International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa and engaged Henry Stanley to establish Belgian settlements in the Congo. Alarmed by Leopold's actions, the French also moved into the territory north of the Congo River.