Chapter 3: Defensive Driving

To help avoid a skid on slippery surfaces:

-Drive more slowly and stay farther behind the vehicle ahead. Slow down as you approach curves and intersections. Avoid fast turns. Avoid quick stops. "Pump" the brakes to slow or stop. (Antilock brakes should not be pumped.) Shift to low gear before going down a steep hill. Avoid especially slippery areas, such as ice patches, wet leaves, oil, or deep puddles. -If the brakes get wet, for example from driving through a puddle, and your braking ability is reduced, dry them by lightly pressing the gas pedal and brake pedal at the same time so that the vehicle drives against the pressure of the brakes. Do this only until the brakes begin working.

Stopping distance

-It takes about 230 feet to stop a vehicle traveling at 55 mph on a dry road. A slick or wet road will increase that distance four times. You must slow down when driving in rain or snow, even if the road may normally support a higher speed.

Signal controlled

A signal-controlled intersection is one that is controlled by traffic lights or signs. The traffic signals, signs, and/or right-of-way rules determine when you should stop and when you should proceed. When you come to a traffic signal or sign, always look left, then right, and then left again for traffic before crossing. Follow the directions and don't put yourself and others at risk by trying to "beat the light" or "jump the line."

Drop-offs

A sudden drop in level at the edge of the roadway is known as a "drop-off". The road may drop off due to mountainous areas, erosion during severe weather conditions, or road construction. Drop-offs are dangerous because if you pull or stray off the road where one exists, you can lose control. When you come to a drop-off, DON'T APPLY YOUR BRAKES! If you do, the uneven traction will cause you to lose control of your vehicle. Take your foot off the accelerator, grip the steering wheel firmly, and as soon as possible, steer back onto the road.

COLLISION TYPES According to the U.S. Department of Transportation, approximately 36% of vehicle occupant deaths in 2004 in the state of Virginia occurred in multiple-vehicle crashes. Intersections Many collisions occur in intersections uncontrolled by stop signs or traffic signals.

Blind Intersections Blind intersections have visual obstructions such as buildings, trees, or other objects that prevent a clear view of the traffic approaching the intersection. Unless you reduce your speed to as slow as 15 mph, you will increase your chances of becoming involved in a collision. Right-of-way Right-of-way is another issue at intersections. Before turning right on a red light, you must come to a complete stop to allow cross traffic, oncoming traffic that has a protected left turn that is green, or pedestrians on the crosswalk to proceed. At four-way stops, always allow the first vehicle at the intersection—or the one to the right, if two arrive simultaneously—to cross first. If someone else ignores your right-of-way, just cross when it is safe. Yielding to pedestrians While some pedestrian deaths and injuries are the result of jaywalking or darting out into the roadway from behind objects, many also result from a failure of drivers to yield the right-of-way at intersections. Pedestrians have the right-of-way within any marked or unmarked crosswalk at an intersection. Sometimes, drivers, underestimating their own speed and braking distances, fail to stop until they are already in the crosswalk. Turns Turns, when improperly executed at intersections, tend to result in collisions. You are asking for trouble when you make a left turn from the wrong lane. Always make a left turn from the farthest left lane in the direction you are traveling to avoid a collision with another vehicle. Wide Turns—Commercial Vehicles When large trucks turn, they need more space than regular vehicles due to the wide range of their turns. You must always remember that because trucks require more space to turn, you should never try to squeeze by them or pass them while they are making their turn. Either follow behind them or wait until they have completed their turn before trying to overtake them.

Exiting

Crossing one or more lanes in a mad dash to make a freeway exit at the last minute can cause a pile-up as other drivers swerve frantically to avoid colliding with you or as you hit the exit ramp at too high a speed. Collisions can also occur if you slow down in the middle of the freeway, waiting for an opening in order to cross over to the exit ramp. In order to allow yourself enough time, watch the signs, know where you are, and move over to the exit lane in a timely fashion. If you don't see the exit until too late, don't try any heroics. Calmly take the next exit and head back. It's better to lose 10 minutes than the rest of your life.

Space cushion

Driving too close to other vehicles and failing to keep a space cushion around your vehicle will remove any opportunity for taking evasive action when trouble occurs. Perhaps 90% of the time, with your adrenaline pumping, you can get away with bumper-to-bumper driving at 75 mph. What about the other 10% of the time when your luck doesn't hold out?

Look Ahead for trouble

Look Ahead For Trouble Look ahead about 10 to 15 seconds of travel time for trouble—one-quarter mile on highway and one block in the city. This will help you to avoid last-minute emergency maneuvers. Check ahead for speed on hilltops and curves. Watching brake lights in adjacent lanes will clue you in on the movement and relative speeds of the traffic ahead. In case of trouble, start braking early to warn the driver behind you and open up space in front of you.

Seasonal Hazards

Storms, rain, snow, dust, ice, sleet, hail, fog, and rush-hour traffic are seasonal hazards that also affect your driving. They all require slower speeds, no matter what the posted speed limits may say, and greater attention to the environment. For instance, if you can see 100 feet ahead, what lies 101 feet ahead may be a truck stopped dead in its tracks.

Soft shoulders

Unpaved edges of the roadway are known as "soft shoulders." The shoulder surface may consist of sand, dirt, or loose gravel. Many roads, especially in the country, have soft shoulders. If your right wheels wander onto this kind of shoulder, they will meet more resistance and pull the vehicle to the right. If this happens, take your foot off the accelerator, firmly grip the steering wheel, and gradually pull the vehicle back onto the roadway. Most roadways will display warning signs so that you know what type of road you will soon be dealing with, but do not rely solely on these signs. Always beware.

Road Conditions

You may at times encounter hazardous road conditions such as soft shoulders, drop-offs, bad surface conditions, or seasonal hazards like ice. Under such circumstances, constantly adjust your speed and direction in order to retain control of your vehicle.

Marked or unmarked intersections

You must signal at least 100 feet before turning or changing lanes at a marked or unmarked intersection. It is dangerous to pass another vehicle where someone is likely to enter or cross the road. Pedestrians, bicycles, and motorcycles are just some of the obstacles that may block your vision in an intersection. The basic speed limit in any given situation is one that satisfies the safety of persons and property present. At intersections, slow down and be alert for vehicles, pedestrians, and bicyclists already in or approaching the intersection that are not stopping.

There are three distinct accident flash points when driving on the freeway:

merging, exiting, and providing a space cushion around your vehicle.

Using the right-of-way

That's a question that often arises in driving, and one that is answered by knowing and following the right-of-way rules. When to Use the Right-of-Way Use your right in a business-like fashion, as others expect you to proceed so they can also move on. But make sure that it is safe to drive forward, with no pedestrians or other vehicles in your intended path, as they have the right-of-way at intersections. When to Give Up the Right-of-Way If a driver "jumps the line" and moves ahead of his or her turn without yielding when it is your right-of-way, don't contest the move or let it upset you. No collision is worth the aggravation. The chart below displays when you have the right-of-way.

1. Blind intersections have buildings, trees, or other objects preventing a clear view of the traffic approaching the intersection. Unless you reduce your speed to as slow as ______ mph, you will increase your chances of becoming involved in a collision.

15 mph

How do you avoid collisions?

Defensive Driving Techniques The key is to drive defensively, which means defending yourself as you drive. You are constantly on the alert for "hostile" actions by other drivers, drunk drivers, crazy drivers, and poor weather conditions. Follow these defensive driving techniques to avoid collisions. Be Alert. Don't assume that other drivers will drive courteously. Be aware of vehicles a few cars ahead. Stay alert and look for trouble spots developing around you. Constantly Identify Escape Routes. By looking ahead, you allow yourself the opportunity to see hazards—like a stalled vehicle—early. Your reaction time on average is three-quarters of a second before you begin to change speed or direction in response to a problem. At 55 mph, you are 67 feet closer to the problem before taking any action. In order to calculate a safe following distance, apply the two-second rule. Note when the rear of the vehicle in front of you passes by an object such as a street sign. Count the number of seconds it takes until the front of your vehicle passes the sign (count one-thousand-one, one-thousand-two). If it's less than two seconds, you need to reduce your speed to allow for a larger space cushion. If the roads are slick or the speeds greater, your following distance will need to be increased to three seconds or more. Always scan ahead and think ahead for hazards or likely hazards Work out contingency plans. It is a good idea to always have an alternate route if something happens on the road on which you are currently traveling. Use Your Horn Use your horn to warn another of your presence or of an impending situation. Do NOT use your horn to express your emotions (i.e. anger, rage, disappointment).

Driving on Mountains

Drive as fast as the road and present conditions allow and no faster. If poor weather has moved in or the roads are slick, give yourself at least a 3-to-4-second following distance and be alert for the unexpected. If you must brake, realize that you need 75 feet to stop (not including reaction time) on dry roads. If the roads are wet or you are driving down a steep incline, it'll take longer. You'll meet less traffic on these roads, but vehicles—especially ones laboring up a steep incline or encroaching on your lane—pedestrians, animals, and even rockslides can pop up behind blind curves or over the brow of a foothill. If others are driving too slowly for you, wait for passing lanes or turnouts rather than trying to pass while driving on mountain roads.

Stress, Anger, Emotion & Fatigue

How Do These Factors Affect Driving? Drivers who display inappropriate emotions while driving, such as grief or worry, will not have their attention on the road and will drive erratically. Drivers who are tired will nod off at the wheel, especially in the early hours of the morning, drift in and out of lanes, or drive slowly as their foot comes off the accelerator. If you notice that you are becoming tired, pull over in a well-lit, safe area and take a nap or trade off with another driver, if one is available. Accident potential Driving while angry, tired, upset, stressed out, and certainly when ill, will increase the odds of your having an accident by a factor of 10. Now, that is something to worry about! In addition, your reaction time will be reduced. Drivers who are too sleepy to drive properly cause about 200,000 accidents a year around the country. Over 50% of fatalities in vehicle accidents were caused in part by the driver being sleepy. Although out-of-state licensed drivers represented 8.3% of all drivers involved in crashes, they represented 14.6% of drivers involved in fatal crashes. This may be due in part to fatigued driving on out-of-state trips.

OTHER CAUSES AND TYPES OF COLLISIONS There are other circumstances in which different collisions tend to occur.

Incorrect Lane Changes Too many drivers change lanes without signaling. Neglecting to look in their blind spot may also cause a crash. Develop the habit of always doing a head check and signaling before you make your move. Illegal or Improper Passing Some examples of improper passing include passing on the shoulder, passing a stopped school bus unloading children, or cutting in front of a vehicle before both of its lights are visible in your rear-view mirror. If the time saved by such a maneuver is measured in seconds, is it worth the risk of hitting an innocent person? Head-On Collisions Drivers under the influence commonly cause head-on collisions. They may also be caused by drivers who cut across oncoming traffic at an angle to enter a side street on the left side of the road. Head-on collisions are never pretty, as you effectively double the speed of impact. Drive with your eyes open and your mind focused. Rear-End Collisions Rear-end collisions happen for a variety of reasons. Tailgating, or driving too closely to the vehicle in front of you, may result in a rear-end collision. Distractions like cell phones, children, or eating also detract from the job of driving. Whatever the reason, rear-end collisions occur as a result of irresponsible driving. Concentrate on creating space cushions and drive at speeds that correspond to the stopping distance available. Fixed Object Collisions Fixed object collisions are usually the result of driving under the influence, driving too fast for the road conditions, or fatigue. Whatever the reason, the driver's focus is taken off the road long enough to cause a collision. Slippery Surface Skids Slippery surface skids are another frequent source of collisions. They result from failing to take into account the slick roads (perhaps after a light rain following a drier period or black ice following a freeze). Driving at speeds unsuitable for such conditions increases your potential for crashing. Do not brake hard if your vehicle begins to skid. To handle a skid effectively, turn into the skid or turn your steering wheel in the direction of your skidding vehicle. Once you have control of your vehicle, use your brakes to slow down. Vehicle Failure Vehicle failure is another cause of collisions. Some collisions occur because a driver loses control due to a vehicle malfunction. Others occur due to stalled vehicles that have not pulled to the shoulder of the road. Keep your vehicle serviced regularly and get problems fixed when they first make their appearance to avoid this kind of problem.

Distracted driving

Inside the Vehicle Inside the vehicle, you may be distracted by a passenger, a cell phone, applying make-up, eating or drinking, changing the radio station, arguing or talking, reading a map, trying to restore order among children or pets, or countless other stimuli. A study done by The New England Journal of Medicine revealed that the chances of having an accident double when a person sips a drink or lights a cigarette while driving; it quadruples when a person speaks on the phone. Hands-free phones do not reduce this statistic, indicating that it is the driver's attention rather than his or her hands being otherwise occupied that makes the difference. Outside the Vehicle Events occurring outside the vehicle also cause distractions. These include interesting objects, buildings, sites, passers by, as well as other vehicles or their occupants. Rubbernecking is also a major cause of traffic jams that could otherwise be avoided.

Collisions occur for many reasons—often a combination of them. A driver's mental or physical condition, the environment, and visual obstructions all contribute to collisions.

Mental When you are wrapped up in thought, angry, worried, or upset, your attention won't sufficiently be on the road to preempt or respond to events. You will make unnecessary mistakes, like passing without checking your blind spot or stomping on the accelerator instead of the brake. You will probably drive similarly to the way you feel—emotionally and illogically. Physical Any number of physical problems may also contribute to collisions. Driving while tired or ill can precipitate collisions. In addition to falling asleep at the wheel, your reaction time slows, making rational decisions difficult. Taking medication or drugs to combat any of these conditions can add to your inability to drive alertly and calmly. Consult your doctor while taking medication or after major surgery. Driving when you are physically or mentally unfit is unsafe for both you and others. Environment Environmental hazards include everything from potholes in the road to rain, fog, snow, windstorms, black ice, or road construction. Be constantly aware of your environment. Visual Habits One common visual habit that contributes to collisions is not performing a head check before moving into another lane. Another habit is using peripheral vision when turning right on a red light at an intersection, instead of looking directly for oncoming traffic or pedestrians. Failing to wear the needed prescription lenses when driving is also a habit likely to result in a collision. These habits are all easy to resolve: wear prescription lenses and look before you act—don't just assume the road is clear. Other Drivers Finally, other drivers can do any of the above, especially if they are under the influence of alcohol, medicinal or psychiatric drugs, or are tired, upset or distracted. Their turn indicator control may have been snapped off, they may tailgate as a matter of principal, or they may switch lanes every few seconds at twice the posted speed limit. Whatever the reason, other drivers can result in grief for you unless you remain alert. Fall back or pull off the road if you have to, so as to avoid collisions with such drivers.

Merging

Merging too slowly with traffic on a freeway or moving into a freeway when there is no space to move into is guaranteed to result in trouble when the through traffic has nowhere to move. If you are not hit by another vehicle, then that driver—and every other driver—managed to brake sharply or was lucky enough to have space to swerve into another lane.

Bad pavement

Not all streets are perfectly paved. The sharp edges of potholes, broken pavement, cracks in the road, and gravel can all affect your ability to drive safely. These conditions can cause you to lose control of your vehicle. They can also result in tire blowout or damage to the suspension of your vehicle. When you come to a street with bad pavement, slow down, hold the steering wheel firmly, and be ready to take action without swerving into oncoming traffic.

Speed

Speeding can kill! This is truer when driving at night because you have less visibility in the darkness. This can be critical if you are driving fast, as you need to see to stop in time. You will often need to reduce your speed at night so that you are able to stop within the distance illuminated by your headlights and any streetlights.

Slippery surface skids

Slippery surface skids are another frequent source of collisions. They result from failing to take into account the slick roads (perhaps after a light rain following a drier period or black ice following a freeze). Driving at speeds unsuitable for such conditions increases your potential for crashing. Do not brake hard if your vehicle begins to skid. To handle a skid effectively, turn into the skid or turn your steering wheel in the direction of your skidding vehicle. Once you have control of your vehicle, use your brakes to slow down.

Open roadway

The faster the speed, the greater the distance needed between you and the vehicle ahead of you. If traveling at 55 mph, allow yourself a cushion for braking of at least 300 feet (including reaction time) when the roads are dry. As in freeway driving, signal your intent to turn or change lanes 5 seconds before you do so. The kinds of hazards you may encounter include narrowing roads, animals, slow-moving farm equipment, or changing speed limits as you drive through residential areas. If you want to pass a slow-moving vehicle, wait until you have a good stretch of broken center line on your side of the road and at least 10 seconds of clear road ahead with no oncoming traffic. If all is clear, signal for at least 5 seconds, look in your rear-view and side mirrors, and do a head check to make sure no one is trying to overtake you. Then proceed to carefully pass.

Speed

The faster you drive, the less control you will have of your vehicle. If you can only see 100 feet ahead because of weather conditions, do not drive at a speed that requires 230 feet to stop. You must either adjust your speed and drive according to the environmental conditions or find a safe place to wait out the bad weather.

Following Distance

Use the 2-second rule to establish the correct following distance between your vehicle and the vehicle ahead. To establish a 2-second space cushion, note when the rear of the vehicle in front of you passes by an object, such as a street sign. Start counting the number of seconds it takes until the front of your vehicle passes that same object (count one-thousand-one, one-thousand-two). If it's less than2 seconds, you need to reduce your speed to allow for a larger space cushion. In ordinary traffic, weather, and road conditions, a 2-second following distance suffices to allow you to avoid a collision or an obstacle in the road. However, you must increase your following distance to3 seconds or more in certain situations.

Vehicle failure

Vehicle failure is another cause of collisions. Some collisions occur because a driver loses control due to a vehicle malfunction. Others occur due to stalled vehicles that have not pulled to the shoulder of the road. Keep your vehicle serviced regularly and get problems fixed when they first make their appearance to avoid this kind of problem.

AVOIDING A COLLISION WITH THE VEHICLE AHEAD

Vehicle position Where you place your vehicle in the lane is important. Avoid being near oncoming traffic. Avoid the left-hand lane on a two-way, multi-lane highway without any median because this will give you more time to respond to any out-of-control vehicle that may cross the center lane into opposing traffic. On a narrow two-lane highway, stay over to the right for the same reason.

Some road surfaces are more slippery than others. Here are some guidelines in order to adjust speeds:

Wet roads — go 5 to 10 miles slower Packed snow — cut speed in half Ice — slow to a crawl In heavy rain, your tires can lose all contact with the road at a speed of about 55 mph. When this happens, your vehicle will hydroplane. "Hydroplaning" occurs when a thin film of water builds up between the tires and pavement and makes steering and braking practically impossible. If your vehicle starts to hydroplane, do not panic and apply the brakes, but slow down gradually.

Stopping Limits

When approaching a stop sign at an intersection or railroad crossing, come to a complete stop at any limit line marked on the pavement. If no limit line exists, stop before reaching any crosswalk. If no markings exist, come to a complete stop before reaching the entrance to the intersection or railroad crossing.

Increase your following distance:

When being tailgated When vision is blocked or visibility is poor When speed is increased When adverse roadway or weather conditions exist

Visibility

When driving during the day, you can see better and further ahead because of the bright, even lighting. You can see road signs, traffic hazards, and turns in the road much better than if you were driving at night. When driving at night, on the other hand, visibility becomes a big issue. Streetlights and headlights can never reveal as much detail as daylight. Headlights sometimes present glare problems that can temporarily blind a driver. Older people may take half a minute to adjust their eyes to the darkness after being blinded (compared to 5 seconds for younger people). Even one second of "blindness" is too long. To avoid being blinded by an approaching vehicle at night, slow down and avoid looking directly into the lights of the approaching vehicle. When confronted by oncoming high beam headlights, keep your eyes on the right side of your lane.

Freeway driving

When traveling at 55 mph on dry roads, it will take about 300 feet to react to a hazard and bring your vehicle to a stop. A large truck will take about 500 feet while traveling at the same speed. By disregarding this fact, you submit yourself to extreme danger. Allow large vehicles extra distance when you merge ahead of them into their lane. Signal at least 5 seconds before changing lanes to give other drivers time to make room. Although freeways eliminate pedestrians and intersections, they have their own hazards. You must be equally alert while driving on freeways as in the high-density city.

Be as Courteous While Driving as in Other Social Situations

You must use good manners if you want to get along with other drivers on the road. Just because you are cut off from other drivers by walls of steel and glass is no reason to treat them any differently than if you were to meet them at a party. It is estimated that drivers perform small and large illegal maneuvers about 400 times before they are caught. Each one is a source of irritation, inconvenience, and danger to others. A strategy we can all benefit from is to set a good example to others when driving. The U.S. Department of Transportation has estimated that the average driver has a couple of close calls a month and an actual collision every 6 years. Many of these close calls and collisions occur because drivers refuse to be courteous to other drivers.