chapter 3 modules
Principles of neuroscience that has emerged in relation to the neuron
1. Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system. All the major structures of the brain are composed of neurons 2. Information travels within a neuron in the form of an electrical signal by action potentials. 3. Information is transmitted between neurons by means of chemicals called neurotransmitters
Which of the following are principles of behavioral genetics?
1. The relationship between specific genes and behavioral is complex, usually with many genes involved in each trait 2. By studying twins and adoptees, as well as genetic markers, behavioral geneticists may disentangle the contributions of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) that influence behavior. 3. The environment influences how and when genes affect behavior
Earliest ancestors of humans appeared in africa ___million years ago
6 million
The neurotransmitter that controls muscle movement and plays a role in mental processes such as learning, memory, attention, sleeping and dreaming is?
Acetylcholine
During the ____potential, the electoral charge within the axon briefly reverses.
Action
fMRI can show us which areas of the brain ___are as a participant completes a task, such as reading.
Active oxygenated
fMRI is used to provide three dimensional images of__
Activity within singing brain
Decreased levels of Acetylcholine have been implicated in _____
Alzheimer's
Catecholamines
Are chemicals released from the adrenal glands that function as hormones and as neurotransmitters
All the nerves of the peripheral nervous system that serve involuntary systems of the body are called the_____
Autonomic
The parasympathetic nervous system is part of the ____nervous system
Autonomic
The sympathetic nervous system is part of the ___ nervous system which is a apart of the___ nervous system
Autonomic; peripheral
Once released into the synaptic cleft, neurotransmitters may
Be reabsorbed by the terminal button be inactivated by enzymes activate a receptor site.
The__ is each of the large halves of the brain that are covered with convolutions, or folds
Cerebrum
Humans have twenty-three pairs of _____, which are cellular structures that hold genetic information in threadlike strand of DNA
Chromosome
____ is a large molecule that contains genes
DNA
A type of MRI, the___shows better imagining of myelinated fibers which aids in the understanding of the brain connectivity
Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)
____alleles show their effect even if there is only one copy of that gene in the pair.
Dominant
____is a neurotransmitter that released in response to behaviors that feel good or are rewarding to the person or animal.
Dopamine
Research has shown that smoking cigarettes can actually affect gene expression by turning on switches that attach to DNA and turn the gene on or off. This finding is a compelling example of research in___
Epigenetic's
___concerns changes in the way genes are turned on or off without a change in the sequence of the DNA
Epigenetic's
Which two neurotransmitters have energizing or arousing properties and are produced by the adrenal glands and the brain?
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
_____tends not to affect mental states whereas ___ does increase mental arousal and alertness
Epinephrine; norepinephrine
___messages make it more likely that neighboring neurons will fire
Excitatory messages
____ neurotransmitters increase the likelihood of an action potential while ____neurotransmitters make an action potential less likely
Excitatory;inhibitory
Most structures in the area of the brain are bilateral, meaning they are found on both sides of the brain. What area is it?
Forebrain
Neurotransmitter exclusively inhibitory
GABA
____states that individuals DO NOT differ in whether or not they have a specific gene, but rather in the form that it takes
Gene-by environment interaction
All genetic information in DNA is know as the
Genome
The most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain is__
Glutamate
______ are small changes in membrane potential that by themselves are insufficient to cause the neuron to fire.
Graded potentials
____matter is the brain tissue composed of neuron cell bodies, whereas___matter is brain tissue made up of myelinated axons.
Gray matter; white matter
List in order the major regions of the brain from earliest(first) to newest (last)
Hindbrain midbrain forebrain
The___ maintains homeostasis and is important in controlling sexual behavior.
Hypothalamus's
Glutamate
Is a major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain is important in learning and memory increases the likelihood that a postsynaptic neuron will fire.
The reticular formation
Is involved in falling asleep and waking up. Is located in both the hindbrain and midbrain
Drawback of fMRI
It is unclear how well it represents underlying neural activity.
what is in forebrain?
Limbic system Thalamus cerebrum
The brain imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to produce very finely detailed images of the structure (but not the activity) of the brain
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging
The fatty substance wrapped around some axons that insulate the axon and make the nerve impulse travel more efficiently is called the ___ ___
Myelin sheath
NIRS uses___instead of magnets to produce images of brain tissue
NIRS(Near infrared spectrometry) uses light
The process of developing new neurons is called?
Neurogenesis
___are cells that process and transmit information in the nervous system
Neurons
The terminal button stores ___until they are released in response to an action potential
Neurotransmitters
Through a process called enzymatic degradation,____ are destroyed
Neurotransmitters
_____can activate receptor sites, be reabsorbed by terminal buttons, and be inactivated by enzymes
Neurotransmitters
Which technique involves injecting the patient with a harmless radioactive form of oxygen and uses scanners and computers to create images of brain regions using that oxygen during the task
PET
____emmission tomography measures blood flow to brain areas in the active brain
PET (Positron emission tomography)
The _____nervous system is the part of the nervous system that comprises all the nerve cells in the body outside of the central nervous system.
Peripheral
The___is a hindbrain structure that serves as a bridge between lower brain regions and higher midbrain and forebrain activity.
Pons
Ions involved un neural transmission?
Potassium chlorine sodium
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Produces detailed images of the structure of the brain is a brain imaging technique makes uses of magnetic fields
The Thalamus
Receives inputs from ears, eyes, skin, or taste buds. Relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex.
Inhibitory messages
Reduce the likelihood of an action potential in neighboring neurons
The parasympathetic nervous system_____
Relaxes or returns in the body to a less active, restful state.
The ___is the difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the axon when the neuron is at rest.
Resting potential
____is a way of removing excess neurotransmitter from the synapse, in which excess neurotransmitter is returned to the sending, or presynaptic, neuron for storage in vesicles and future use.
Reuptake
The neurotransmitter involved in controlling emotional states, especially anger, anxiety and depression is
Serotonin
GABA(Gamma-aminobutyric acid)
Slows CNS activity Tells postsynaptic neurons not to fire is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
The biggest functional difference between the left and right cerebral hemispheres is in
Speech and language comprehension
The two components of the atomic nervous system are the?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic division.
The junction between an axon and the adjacent neuron, where information is transmitted from one neuron to another is called the_____
Synapse
The little knobs at the end of the axon that contain tiny sacs of neurotransmitters are called___
Terminal buttons
The ___ is a forebrain structure that receives inputs from the ears, skin, eyes or taste buds and relays sensory information to the part of the cerebral cortex most involved in processing that specific kind of sensory information
Thalamus
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a brain imaging technique
That uses magnetic field to produce detailed images of the activity of the brain.
Which of the following brain areas seems to be the most involved in the attentional deflects of individuals with schizophrenia
The cingulate gyrus
Arborization is
The growth of new dendrites
The ____ system includes the amygdala and hippocampus, and has been linked to emotion and motivation
The limbic system
Which of the following IS a hindbrain structure?
The medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum.
How do the brains of various mammals differ?
The relative size of brain structures differs among mammals
What is one drawback of PET?
The use of radioactive materials in this technique means it is not risk free.
Describe the concept of voltage-dependent channels
These channels or passages will only open when certain electrical conditions are met.
Uses of the diffusion tensor
To help locate important tracts to avoid during surgery TO study connections among brain areas
What is the main function of the parasympathetic nervous system?
To restore the body
Arthropods were probably the first organism to have
a brain
A chromosome is
a coiled-up thread of DNA
Electroencephalography (EEG)
a method for measuring brain activity in which the electrical activity of the brain is recorded from electrodes placed on a person's scalp
Monogenic traits are determined by
a single gene
Neurons fire because of the electrical impulse called ___ ____
action potential
PET shows researchers which areas of the brain are more or less
active
The ___ glands are structures that sit atop each kidney and release hormones important in stress, emotions, regulation of heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar
adrenal
The amygdala has been linked to?
agression fear
Once a neuron reaches a certain threshold it always fires, and fires at the same intensity each time. This is know as
all-or-none principle
Pairs or alternate forms of a gene are called ___ receive one from each parent
alleles
The ___, different forms of a gene, inherited from one parent may produce brown eyes whereas from another parent it produces blue eyes.
alleles
Electrical stimulation of this brain structure makes cats arch their backs in an angry-defensive manner. The ____ is most likely the brain structure involved in this response
amygdala
The ____ is a small, almond-shaped structure located directly in front of the hippocampus; it has connections with many important brain regions and is important for processing emotional information, especially that related to fear.
amygdala
Neurons are
are the cells that process and transmit information throughout the nervous system
Synaptic Vesicles
are tiny sacs in the terminal buttons contain neurotransmitters
The temporal lobe is the site of the
auditory cortex
The ___nervous system includes all the nerves of the peripheral nervous system that serve involuntary systems of the body, such as the internal organs and glands. ....al controls involuntary actions
autonomic
The____ is the long projection that extends from a neuron's soma that transmits electrical impulses toward the adjacent neuron
axon
Parkinson's disease and hunting tons disease are neurological disorders affecting the functioning of neurons in the _____
basal ganglia
The ____ _____ a collection of structures surrounding the thalamus involved in voluntary motor control.
basal ganglia
What are the chemicals released from the adrenal glands that control ANS activation?
catecholamines
____ are a class of chemicals released from the adrenal glands that function a hormones and as neurotransmitters
catecholamines
The soma is also called
cell body
The nervous system is divided into which 2 main parts?
central and peripheral
The hindbrain structure involved in body movement, balance, coordination, fine-tuning motor skills, and cognition is the ____
cerebellum
The _____ _____ is the thin outer layer of the cerebrum, in which much of the human thought, planning, perception, and consciousness takes place
cerebral cortex
The beltlike structure in the middle of the brain the plays an important role in attention and cognitive control is called the ______
cingulate gyrus
what do the structure of the forebrain do?
control cognitive, sensory, and motor function and regulates temperature, eating, sleeping, reproductive functions, and the display of emotions
What do the structures of the midbrain do?
control the eye muscles, process auditory and visual information, and imitate voluntary movement of the body
When this brain structure is cut, there is no way for one side of the brain to talk to the other side of the brain. What structure is it?
corpus callous
The ____ ____ is the collection of nerve fibers that connect the two hemispheres of the brain
corpus callsum
Different parts of the cortex are responsible for different functions. This is called ____
cortical localization
____ is a hormone which is responsible for painting the activation of bodily systems during prolonged stress
cortisol
Fingerlike projections from a neurons soma that receive incoming messages from other neurons are called
dendrites
Neurotransmitters are released by a neuron's terminal button into the synapse, where they are picked up by the ____ of the neuron
dendrites
When a neuron becomes ____an action potential is fired
depolarized
The axon carries..
electrical impulses called action potentials
____ involves placing electrodes on a person's scalp
electroencephalogram
An _____ records electrical active in the brain
electroencephalography
The amygdala has been linked to....
emotions....especially fear and aggression
The ____ system is the bodily system of glands that secrete and regulate hormones
endocrine system
system that sends chemical messages (hormones) through the blood
endocrine system
A neurotransmitter that arouses the body and prepares it for fight-or-flight is
epinephrine
____is a special technique that extracts electrical activity to measure cognitive processes
event related potential (ERP)
_____ potential is a special technique the extracts electrical activity from raw EEG data to measure cognitive process
event-related potential (ERP)
Glutamate is an ____ neurotransmitter
excitatory neuropteransmitter
Images from which of these techniques tell us where activity in the brain is occurring during particular task by tracking blood oxygen used in brain tissue.
fMRI
___is a brain imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to produce very finely detailed images of the activity of the brain.
fMRI
Ions are...
found inside cells chemically charged particles found outside cells
The cerebral cortex consist of ___ large areas called lobes, each of which has been linked to different behaviors.
four
The ____ lobes are the most interconnected with other brain regions which allow for complex humans behaviors such as insight, creativity and problem solving.
frontal
Phineas gage's traumatic brain injury provided early evidence that the ____ plays a key role in regulating social behavior
frontal lobe
The ____ lobe is responsible for attention, problem solving, planning, abstract thinking, impulse control, creativity, and social awareness
frontal lobe
The ____ continue to develop until a person is in their early 20's. This is in part, why children and adolescents are more impulsive than adults
frontal lobes
Lobes of the cerebral cortex
frontal, temporal, parental, and occipital
_____ are small segments of DNA that contain information for producing proteins
genes
Each person's unique and incomparable genetic information is called his or her _____
genotype
The cells of the central nervous system that provide structural support, promote efficient communications between neurons, and clean up cellular debris are called ____cells
glial cells
____ _____ hold neurons in place and provide them with nourishment.
glial cells
An accident victim is unable to form from new memories. The part of the brain most likely injured is the
hippocampus
The ____ is a limbic structure that wraps itself around the thalamus and plays a vital role in learning and memory
hippocampus
Which region of the brain is considered the most plastic ( ability to change and adapt)
hippocampus
____ are chemicals, secreted by glands, that travel in the bloodstream and carry messages to tissues and organs all over the body
hormones
regulate both the functioning and growth of the body
hormones
The ____ is a limbic structure that regulates almost all major drives and motives we have, such as hunger, thirst, temperature, and sexual behavior.
hypothalamus
The small structure in the cerebrum that is involved in the perception of bodily sensations, emotional states, empathy, and addictive behavior.
insula
types of neurons
interneuron motor sensory
If you touched a sharp object, ______ in the spinal cord would receive pain information from sensory neurons on your fingers and communicate it to motor neurons in the muscles of your arms so that you could pull your hand away
interneurons
____ are neurons that are stimulated or inhibited by other neurons
interneurons
The cerebrum
is responsible for body movement and balance means "little brain" is located in the hindbrain
The ____ hemisphere processes information in a more focused and analytical manner.
left hemisphere
The medulla is a hindbrain structure that extends directly from the spinal cord; regulates breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
medulla
The hippocampus has been linked to
memory
People with parkinson's disease have problems focused in which area of the brain?
midbrain
____are active when we observe others performing an action as well as when we are performing the same action
mirror neurons
Huntington's disease is an example of ___transmission
monogenic
Nerve cells that carry commands for movement from the brain to the muscles of the body are called _____ neurons
motor
____ neurons stimulate muscles to contract
motor
The somatosensory cortex is directly behind the ____, and these two regions are considered "twins" because their layouts are carrell and directly next to one another
motor cortex
A random change in genetic sequence is called an _____
mutation
When at rest, the inside of the neuron is ____ charged relative to the outside
negatively
The human ____ system, which is divided into two main parts, the central and the peripheral systems, controls all actions and automatic processes of the body
nervous
____ is the brain's ability to adopt new functions, reorganize itself, or make new neural connections through out life, as a function of experience
neuroplasticity
_____ are chemicals that transmit between neurons
neurotransmitters
The ___ are the gaps in the myelin sheath across which the action potential jumps
nodes of ranvier
The neurotransmitter ____ is found to be unusually low in people with ADHD
norepinephrine
The visual cortex is located in the?
occipital lobe
Neurons are nerve cells made up of
one axon, multiple dendrites, and terminal buttons
Interneurons are
only communicate with other neurons
The ___releases hormones, including insulin, that play a vital role in regulating blood sugar levels
pancreas
The _____ lobe plays an important role in the sensation and perception of touch
parietal lobes
The ___nervous system is comprised of the autonomic and somatic nervous system
peripheral
The___nervous system is the part of the nervous system that comprises all the nerve cells in the body outside the central nervous system.
peripheral
An ____ is an organism's observed characteristics
phenotype
A war veteran had his corpus callous cut. If asked to stare at a spot on a screen, what do you predict will happen if a picture of an object was shown to the LEFT of the spot? The patient could _____
pick the object out of a group of hidden objects using his left hand, but cannot identify it verbally
The hypothalamus controls the ____gland
pituitary
____ is the master gland of the body because it secretes hormones that control the release of hormones from glands elsewhere in the body
pituitary gland
A___ trait is a trait where a specific gene plays only a small role
polygenic
Personality, height, and weight are examples of ____ traits
polygenic
Neurotransmitters bind with receptors in the receiving, or ____, neuron
postsynaptic
At rest, the charge difference between the inside and the outside of the neuron is known as a resting ___
potential
Which cortex is associated with the frontal lobe
primary motor cortex
The occipital lobe
processes visual information
The movement of the action potential down the length of the axon is called_____
propagation
What is the function of sensory neurons
receive information from sensory organs
___ genes that show their effects only when both alleles are the same.
recessive
Which comes first first in neural transmission
resting potential is at -70mV
The _____ is a network of nerve fibers that run up through both the hindbrain and the midbrain. It is crucial to waking up and falling asleep.
reticular formation
What brain structure is important for vigilance?
reticular formation
The ____ hemisphere integrates information in a more holistic, or broader, manner
right hemisphere
____neurons receive incoming sensory information from the sense organs ( eyes, ear, skin, tongue, nose)
sensory neurons
The ____neurons receive incoming sensory information from the sense organs whereas the ____neurons carry commands for movement from the brain to the muscles of the body.
sensory;motor
Which of the following is a strength of EEG
showing when brain activity takes place
Because the connection between genes and behavior is so complex, most understand these influences are not caused by ___ gene
single gene
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that
slows ANS activity Plays a role in mental processes such as learning, memory, and attention controls muscle movement.
Imagine that an activated gene in your paternal grandmother gets turned off environmentally in your father, but you inherit it as a deactivated gene. This is an example of ___ inheritance
soft
The ___nervous system includes nerve cells of the peripheral nervous system that transmit sensory information to the central nervous system and those the transmit information from the DNS to the skeletal muscles.
somatic
Which cortex us associated with the parietal lobe?
somatosensory cortex
The myelin sheath....
speeds the conduction of action potentials
The main function of the___ nervous system is to activate the body. It is part of the ___nervous system
sympathetic; autonomic
A neurotransmitter is released from terminal buttons into the___
synaptic cleft
Because they house and connect with the hippocampus and amygdala, the ____ lobes are involved with memory and emotion.
temporal lobes
sound is processed in the ____ lobe
temporal lobes
ERP has excellent resolution but poor_____ resolution
temporal;spatial
Action potentials trigger the release of neurotransmitters when they reach the
terminal button
release sex hormones that lead to the development of sex characteristics, sex drive, and other aspects of sexual maturation?
testes ovaries
structure is in the forebrain
thalamus
What is the definition of synaptogenesis
the formation of entirely new synapses or connections with other neurons
The central nervous system is
the part of the nervous system that comprises the brain and spinal cord
The span of time, after an action potential has been generated, when the neuron is returning to its resting state and the neuron cannot generate an action potential is called
the refractory period
The arrival of an action potential at the terminal button of a neuron triggers
the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
The __nervous system, a division of the autonomic nervous system, activates fight to flight activity
the sympathetic
The gaps between neurons is called
the synaptic cleft
True or false: the brain commentates for deflcits in one sensory modality by reorganizing and rewiring unused regions to take on new functions
true
true or false: although the occipital lobes are associated with visual processing, they usually process tackle and/verbal information for people who are blind
true
____ is an area deep in the left temporal lobe responsible for the ability to speak in meaningful sentences and to comprehend the meaning of speech.
wernicke's area