chapter 3 modules

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Principles of neuroscience that has emerged in relation to the neuron

1. Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system. All the major structures of the brain are composed of neurons 2. Information travels within a neuron in the form of an electrical signal by action potentials. 3. Information is transmitted between neurons by means of chemicals called neurotransmitters

Which of the following are principles of behavioral genetics?

1. The relationship between specific genes and behavioral is complex, usually with many genes involved in each trait 2. By studying twins and adoptees, as well as genetic markers, behavioral geneticists may disentangle the contributions of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) that influence behavior. 3. The environment influences how and when genes affect behavior

Earliest ancestors of humans appeared in africa ___million years ago

6 million

The neurotransmitter that controls muscle movement and plays a role in mental processes such as learning, memory, attention, sleeping and dreaming is?

Acetylcholine

During the ____potential, the electoral charge within the axon briefly reverses.

Action

fMRI can show us which areas of the brain ___are as a participant completes a task, such as reading.

Active oxygenated

fMRI is used to provide three dimensional images of__

Activity within singing brain

Decreased levels of Acetylcholine have been implicated in _____

Alzheimer's

Catecholamines

Are chemicals released from the adrenal glands that function as hormones and as neurotransmitters

All the nerves of the peripheral nervous system that serve involuntary systems of the body are called the_____

Autonomic

The parasympathetic nervous system is part of the ____nervous system

Autonomic

The sympathetic nervous system is part of the ___ nervous system which is a apart of the___ nervous system

Autonomic; peripheral

Once released into the synaptic cleft, neurotransmitters may

Be reabsorbed by the terminal button be inactivated by enzymes activate a receptor site.

The__ is each of the large halves of the brain that are covered with convolutions, or folds

Cerebrum

Humans have twenty-three pairs of _____, which are cellular structures that hold genetic information in threadlike strand of DNA

Chromosome

____ is a large molecule that contains genes

DNA

A type of MRI, the___shows better imagining of myelinated fibers which aids in the understanding of the brain connectivity

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

____alleles show their effect even if there is only one copy of that gene in the pair.

Dominant

____is a neurotransmitter that released in response to behaviors that feel good or are rewarding to the person or animal.

Dopamine

Research has shown that smoking cigarettes can actually affect gene expression by turning on switches that attach to DNA and turn the gene on or off. This finding is a compelling example of research in___

Epigenetic's

___concerns changes in the way genes are turned on or off without a change in the sequence of the DNA

Epigenetic's

Which two neurotransmitters have energizing or arousing properties and are produced by the adrenal glands and the brain?

Epinephrine and norepinephrine

_____tends not to affect mental states whereas ___ does increase mental arousal and alertness

Epinephrine; norepinephrine

___messages make it more likely that neighboring neurons will fire

Excitatory messages

____ neurotransmitters increase the likelihood of an action potential while ____neurotransmitters make an action potential less likely

Excitatory;inhibitory

Most structures in the area of the brain are bilateral, meaning they are found on both sides of the brain. What area is it?

Forebrain

Neurotransmitter exclusively inhibitory

GABA

____states that individuals DO NOT differ in whether or not they have a specific gene, but rather in the form that it takes

Gene-by environment interaction

All genetic information in DNA is know as the

Genome

The most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain is__

Glutamate

______ are small changes in membrane potential that by themselves are insufficient to cause the neuron to fire.

Graded potentials

____matter is the brain tissue composed of neuron cell bodies, whereas___matter is brain tissue made up of myelinated axons.

Gray matter; white matter

List in order the major regions of the brain from earliest(first) to newest (last)

Hindbrain midbrain forebrain

The___ maintains homeostasis and is important in controlling sexual behavior.

Hypothalamus's

Glutamate

Is a major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain is important in learning and memory increases the likelihood that a postsynaptic neuron will fire.

The reticular formation

Is involved in falling asleep and waking up. Is located in both the hindbrain and midbrain

Drawback of fMRI

It is unclear how well it represents underlying neural activity.

what is in forebrain?

Limbic system Thalamus cerebrum

The brain imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to produce very finely detailed images of the structure (but not the activity) of the brain

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging

The fatty substance wrapped around some axons that insulate the axon and make the nerve impulse travel more efficiently is called the ___ ___

Myelin sheath

NIRS uses___instead of magnets to produce images of brain tissue

NIRS(Near infrared spectrometry) uses light

The process of developing new neurons is called?

Neurogenesis

___are cells that process and transmit information in the nervous system

Neurons

The terminal button stores ___until they are released in response to an action potential

Neurotransmitters

Through a process called enzymatic degradation,____ are destroyed

Neurotransmitters

_____can activate receptor sites, be reabsorbed by terminal buttons, and be inactivated by enzymes

Neurotransmitters

Which technique involves injecting the patient with a harmless radioactive form of oxygen and uses scanners and computers to create images of brain regions using that oxygen during the task

PET

____emmission tomography measures blood flow to brain areas in the active brain

PET (Positron emission tomography)

The _____nervous system is the part of the nervous system that comprises all the nerve cells in the body outside of the central nervous system.

Peripheral

The___is a hindbrain structure that serves as a bridge between lower brain regions and higher midbrain and forebrain activity.

Pons

Ions involved un neural transmission?

Potassium chlorine sodium

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Produces detailed images of the structure of the brain is a brain imaging technique makes uses of magnetic fields

The Thalamus

Receives inputs from ears, eyes, skin, or taste buds. Relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex.

Inhibitory messages

Reduce the likelihood of an action potential in neighboring neurons

The parasympathetic nervous system_____

Relaxes or returns in the body to a less active, restful state.

The ___is the difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the axon when the neuron is at rest.

Resting potential

____is a way of removing excess neurotransmitter from the synapse, in which excess neurotransmitter is returned to the sending, or presynaptic, neuron for storage in vesicles and future use.

Reuptake

The neurotransmitter involved in controlling emotional states, especially anger, anxiety and depression is

Serotonin

GABA(Gamma-aminobutyric acid)

Slows CNS activity Tells postsynaptic neurons not to fire is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain

The biggest functional difference between the left and right cerebral hemispheres is in

Speech and language comprehension

The two components of the atomic nervous system are the?

Sympathetic and parasympathetic division.

The junction between an axon and the adjacent neuron, where information is transmitted from one neuron to another is called the_____

Synapse

The little knobs at the end of the axon that contain tiny sacs of neurotransmitters are called___

Terminal buttons

The ___ is a forebrain structure that receives inputs from the ears, skin, eyes or taste buds and relays sensory information to the part of the cerebral cortex most involved in processing that specific kind of sensory information

Thalamus

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a brain imaging technique

That uses magnetic field to produce detailed images of the activity of the brain.

Which of the following brain areas seems to be the most involved in the attentional deflects of individuals with schizophrenia

The cingulate gyrus

Arborization is

The growth of new dendrites

The ____ system includes the amygdala and hippocampus, and has been linked to emotion and motivation

The limbic system

Which of the following IS a hindbrain structure?

The medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum.

How do the brains of various mammals differ?

The relative size of brain structures differs among mammals

What is one drawback of PET?

The use of radioactive materials in this technique means it is not risk free.

Describe the concept of voltage-dependent channels

These channels or passages will only open when certain electrical conditions are met.

Uses of the diffusion tensor

To help locate important tracts to avoid during surgery TO study connections among brain areas

What is the main function of the parasympathetic nervous system?

To restore the body

Arthropods were probably the first organism to have

a brain

A chromosome is

a coiled-up thread of DNA

Electroencephalography (EEG)

a method for measuring brain activity in which the electrical activity of the brain is recorded from electrodes placed on a person's scalp

Monogenic traits are determined by

a single gene

Neurons fire because of the electrical impulse called ___ ____

action potential

PET shows researchers which areas of the brain are more or less

active

The ___ glands are structures that sit atop each kidney and release hormones important in stress, emotions, regulation of heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar

adrenal

The amygdala has been linked to?

agression fear

Once a neuron reaches a certain threshold it always fires, and fires at the same intensity each time. This is know as

all-or-none principle

Pairs or alternate forms of a gene are called ___ receive one from each parent

alleles

The ___, different forms of a gene, inherited from one parent may produce brown eyes whereas from another parent it produces blue eyes.

alleles

Electrical stimulation of this brain structure makes cats arch their backs in an angry-defensive manner. The ____ is most likely the brain structure involved in this response

amygdala

The ____ is a small, almond-shaped structure located directly in front of the hippocampus; it has connections with many important brain regions and is important for processing emotional information, especially that related to fear.

amygdala

Neurons are

are the cells that process and transmit information throughout the nervous system

Synaptic Vesicles

are tiny sacs in the terminal buttons contain neurotransmitters

The temporal lobe is the site of the

auditory cortex

The ___nervous system includes all the nerves of the peripheral nervous system that serve involuntary systems of the body, such as the internal organs and glands. ....al controls involuntary actions

autonomic

The____ is the long projection that extends from a neuron's soma that transmits electrical impulses toward the adjacent neuron

axon

Parkinson's disease and hunting tons disease are neurological disorders affecting the functioning of neurons in the _____

basal ganglia

The ____ _____ a collection of structures surrounding the thalamus involved in voluntary motor control.

basal ganglia

What are the chemicals released from the adrenal glands that control ANS activation?

catecholamines

____ are a class of chemicals released from the adrenal glands that function a hormones and as neurotransmitters

catecholamines

The soma is also called

cell body

The nervous system is divided into which 2 main parts?

central and peripheral

The hindbrain structure involved in body movement, balance, coordination, fine-tuning motor skills, and cognition is the ____

cerebellum

The _____ _____ is the thin outer layer of the cerebrum, in which much of the human thought, planning, perception, and consciousness takes place

cerebral cortex

The beltlike structure in the middle of the brain the plays an important role in attention and cognitive control is called the ______

cingulate gyrus

what do the structure of the forebrain do?

control cognitive, sensory, and motor function and regulates temperature, eating, sleeping, reproductive functions, and the display of emotions

What do the structures of the midbrain do?

control the eye muscles, process auditory and visual information, and imitate voluntary movement of the body

When this brain structure is cut, there is no way for one side of the brain to talk to the other side of the brain. What structure is it?

corpus callous

The ____ ____ is the collection of nerve fibers that connect the two hemispheres of the brain

corpus callsum

Different parts of the cortex are responsible for different functions. This is called ____

cortical localization

____ is a hormone which is responsible for painting the activation of bodily systems during prolonged stress

cortisol

Fingerlike projections from a neurons soma that receive incoming messages from other neurons are called

dendrites

Neurotransmitters are released by a neuron's terminal button into the synapse, where they are picked up by the ____ of the neuron

dendrites

When a neuron becomes ____an action potential is fired

depolarized

The axon carries..

electrical impulses called action potentials

____ involves placing electrodes on a person's scalp

electroencephalogram

An _____ records electrical active in the brain

electroencephalography

The amygdala has been linked to....

emotions....especially fear and aggression

The ____ system is the bodily system of glands that secrete and regulate hormones

endocrine system

system that sends chemical messages (hormones) through the blood

endocrine system

A neurotransmitter that arouses the body and prepares it for fight-or-flight is

epinephrine

____is a special technique that extracts electrical activity to measure cognitive processes

event related potential (ERP)

_____ potential is a special technique the extracts electrical activity from raw EEG data to measure cognitive process

event-related potential (ERP)

Glutamate is an ____ neurotransmitter

excitatory neuropteransmitter

Images from which of these techniques tell us where activity in the brain is occurring during particular task by tracking blood oxygen used in brain tissue.

fMRI

___is a brain imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to produce very finely detailed images of the activity of the brain.

fMRI

Ions are...

found inside cells chemically charged particles found outside cells

The cerebral cortex consist of ___ large areas called lobes, each of which has been linked to different behaviors.

four

The ____ lobes are the most interconnected with other brain regions which allow for complex humans behaviors such as insight, creativity and problem solving.

frontal

Phineas gage's traumatic brain injury provided early evidence that the ____ plays a key role in regulating social behavior

frontal lobe

The ____ lobe is responsible for attention, problem solving, planning, abstract thinking, impulse control, creativity, and social awareness

frontal lobe

The ____ continue to develop until a person is in their early 20's. This is in part, why children and adolescents are more impulsive than adults

frontal lobes

Lobes of the cerebral cortex

frontal, temporal, parental, and occipital

_____ are small segments of DNA that contain information for producing proteins

genes

Each person's unique and incomparable genetic information is called his or her _____

genotype

The cells of the central nervous system that provide structural support, promote efficient communications between neurons, and clean up cellular debris are called ____cells

glial cells

____ _____ hold neurons in place and provide them with nourishment.

glial cells

An accident victim is unable to form from new memories. The part of the brain most likely injured is the

hippocampus

The ____ is a limbic structure that wraps itself around the thalamus and plays a vital role in learning and memory

hippocampus

Which region of the brain is considered the most plastic ( ability to change and adapt)

hippocampus

____ are chemicals, secreted by glands, that travel in the bloodstream and carry messages to tissues and organs all over the body

hormones

regulate both the functioning and growth of the body

hormones

The ____ is a limbic structure that regulates almost all major drives and motives we have, such as hunger, thirst, temperature, and sexual behavior.

hypothalamus

The small structure in the cerebrum that is involved in the perception of bodily sensations, emotional states, empathy, and addictive behavior.

insula

types of neurons

interneuron motor sensory

If you touched a sharp object, ______ in the spinal cord would receive pain information from sensory neurons on your fingers and communicate it to motor neurons in the muscles of your arms so that you could pull your hand away

interneurons

____ are neurons that are stimulated or inhibited by other neurons

interneurons

The cerebrum

is responsible for body movement and balance means "little brain" is located in the hindbrain

The ____ hemisphere processes information in a more focused and analytical manner.

left hemisphere

The medulla is a hindbrain structure that extends directly from the spinal cord; regulates breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

medulla

The hippocampus has been linked to

memory

People with parkinson's disease have problems focused in which area of the brain?

midbrain

____are active when we observe others performing an action as well as when we are performing the same action

mirror neurons

Huntington's disease is an example of ___transmission

monogenic

Nerve cells that carry commands for movement from the brain to the muscles of the body are called _____ neurons

motor

____ neurons stimulate muscles to contract

motor

The somatosensory cortex is directly behind the ____, and these two regions are considered "twins" because their layouts are carrell and directly next to one another

motor cortex

A random change in genetic sequence is called an _____

mutation

When at rest, the inside of the neuron is ____ charged relative to the outside

negatively

The human ____ system, which is divided into two main parts, the central and the peripheral systems, controls all actions and automatic processes of the body

nervous

____ is the brain's ability to adopt new functions, reorganize itself, or make new neural connections through out life, as a function of experience

neuroplasticity

_____ are chemicals that transmit between neurons

neurotransmitters

The ___ are the gaps in the myelin sheath across which the action potential jumps

nodes of ranvier

The neurotransmitter ____ is found to be unusually low in people with ADHD

norepinephrine

The visual cortex is located in the?

occipital lobe

Neurons are nerve cells made up of

one axon, multiple dendrites, and terminal buttons

Interneurons are

only communicate with other neurons

The ___releases hormones, including insulin, that play a vital role in regulating blood sugar levels

pancreas

The _____ lobe plays an important role in the sensation and perception of touch

parietal lobes

The ___nervous system is comprised of the autonomic and somatic nervous system

peripheral

The___nervous system is the part of the nervous system that comprises all the nerve cells in the body outside the central nervous system.

peripheral

An ____ is an organism's observed characteristics

phenotype

A war veteran had his corpus callous cut. If asked to stare at a spot on a screen, what do you predict will happen if a picture of an object was shown to the LEFT of the spot? The patient could _____

pick the object out of a group of hidden objects using his left hand, but cannot identify it verbally

The hypothalamus controls the ____gland

pituitary

____ is the master gland of the body because it secretes hormones that control the release of hormones from glands elsewhere in the body

pituitary gland

A___ trait is a trait where a specific gene plays only a small role

polygenic

Personality, height, and weight are examples of ____ traits

polygenic

Neurotransmitters bind with receptors in the receiving, or ____, neuron

postsynaptic

At rest, the charge difference between the inside and the outside of the neuron is known as a resting ___

potential

Which cortex is associated with the frontal lobe

primary motor cortex

The occipital lobe

processes visual information

The movement of the action potential down the length of the axon is called_____

propagation

What is the function of sensory neurons

receive information from sensory organs

___ genes that show their effects only when both alleles are the same.

recessive

Which comes first first in neural transmission

resting potential is at -70mV

The _____ is a network of nerve fibers that run up through both the hindbrain and the midbrain. It is crucial to waking up and falling asleep.

reticular formation

What brain structure is important for vigilance?

reticular formation

The ____ hemisphere integrates information in a more holistic, or broader, manner

right hemisphere

____neurons receive incoming sensory information from the sense organs ( eyes, ear, skin, tongue, nose)

sensory neurons

The ____neurons receive incoming sensory information from the sense organs whereas the ____neurons carry commands for movement from the brain to the muscles of the body.

sensory;motor

Which of the following is a strength of EEG

showing when brain activity takes place

Because the connection between genes and behavior is so complex, most understand these influences are not caused by ___ gene

single gene

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that

slows ANS activity Plays a role in mental processes such as learning, memory, and attention controls muscle movement.

Imagine that an activated gene in your paternal grandmother gets turned off environmentally in your father, but you inherit it as a deactivated gene. This is an example of ___ inheritance

soft

The ___nervous system includes nerve cells of the peripheral nervous system that transmit sensory information to the central nervous system and those the transmit information from the DNS to the skeletal muscles.

somatic

Which cortex us associated with the parietal lobe?

somatosensory cortex

The myelin sheath....

speeds the conduction of action potentials

The main function of the___ nervous system is to activate the body. It is part of the ___nervous system

sympathetic; autonomic

A neurotransmitter is released from terminal buttons into the___

synaptic cleft

Because they house and connect with the hippocampus and amygdala, the ____ lobes are involved with memory and emotion.

temporal lobes

sound is processed in the ____ lobe

temporal lobes

ERP has excellent resolution but poor_____ resolution

temporal;spatial

Action potentials trigger the release of neurotransmitters when they reach the

terminal button

release sex hormones that lead to the development of sex characteristics, sex drive, and other aspects of sexual maturation?

testes ovaries

structure is in the forebrain

thalamus

What is the definition of synaptogenesis

the formation of entirely new synapses or connections with other neurons

The central nervous system is

the part of the nervous system that comprises the brain and spinal cord

The span of time, after an action potential has been generated, when the neuron is returning to its resting state and the neuron cannot generate an action potential is called

the refractory period

The arrival of an action potential at the terminal button of a neuron triggers

the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

The __nervous system, a division of the autonomic nervous system, activates fight to flight activity

the sympathetic

The gaps between neurons is called

the synaptic cleft

True or false: the brain commentates for deflcits in one sensory modality by reorganizing and rewiring unused regions to take on new functions

true

true or false: although the occipital lobes are associated with visual processing, they usually process tackle and/verbal information for people who are blind

true

____ is an area deep in the left temporal lobe responsible for the ability to speak in meaningful sentences and to comprehend the meaning of speech.

wernicke's area


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