Chapter 3+4+6+18. Ecosystem Ecology, Global Climates and Biomes, Population and Community Ecology, Conservation of Biodiversity, Biosphere
tropical rainforest
a warm and wet biome found between 20 degrees North and 20 degrees South of the equator, with little seasonal temperature variation and high precipitation
taiga: animals
foxes, lynxes, bears, minks, squirrels, grey wolves, caribou, reindeers, moose migration and hibernation and insulating feather layer or fur layer adaptations adaptations for cold and not a lot of food
Aquatic Factors- Salinity -fresh vs. salt
fresh water- .5 ppt salt (marine) water- .5 - 35 ppt
morphological resource partitioning
evolution of differences in body size or shape
temperate grassland: natural disturbances
fires are common, as dry and windy conditions fan flames ignited by lightning (every few years) plants adapted to wildfires
phytoplankton
floating algae
streams and rivers are characterized by
flowing fresh water that may originate from underground springs or as runoff from rain or melting snow
Freshwater Aquatic Ecosystem Zones -less than .5 ppt
flowing or standing lakes vs wetland
temperate seasonal forest: latitude range/ location/ growing season
found in the eastern United States, Japan, China, Europe, Chile, and eastern Australia mid-latitudes more abundant than temperate rainforests
coral reefs, where, how diverse
found in warm, shallow waters beyond the shoreline and represent Earth's most diverse marine biome
the amount of energy available in an ecosystem determines
how much life the ecosystem can support
anthropogenic environmental disturbances include
human settlements, agriculture, air pollution, clear-cutting of forests, mountain-top removal for coal mining
Abiotic factors- productivity factors terrestrial -water
needed for plant growth and hydration ✓
cellular respiration
process that unlocks the chemical energy stored in the cells of organisms
photosynthesis
producers use solar energy to convert CO2 and H2O into C6H6O6, a form of potential energy usable by wide range of organisms
tropical rainforest: productivity
productivity is high because of productivity, approx 24000 ha of biome is cleared each year for agriculture
Middle Stages of Succession
Mix of heliophyllic and heliophobic Maximum biodiversity Maximum biomass Maximum amount of nutrient cycling True in all biomes
Succession
Natural process of establishing or reestablishing an ecosystem
five categories when calculating instrumental value:
provisions, regulating services, support systems, resilience, and cultural services
resilience
rate at which an ecosystem returns to its original state after a disturbance (high resilience returns rapidly, less resilience is slower)
forests, grasslands, and other terrestrial ecosystems increase
retention of nutrients on land
marine biomes include
shallow marine areas such as estuaries, coral reefs, and the open ocean
chaparral also called
shrubland or woodland
tundra: rate of decomp
slaw decomp (cold temp, slow chem reactions)
temperate rainforest: rate of decomp
slow decomposing needles and cool temperatures favor slaw decomp (not as slow as boreal forest or tundra)
why are perennial plants in subtropical deserts vulnerable to disturbances
slow overall growth makes them vulnerable, and they have long recovery times
boreal forest or taiga: rate of decomp (why -2)
slow process -waxy needles of evergreen trees contain compounds resistant to decomp
chaparral: soil/ ground surface
soils are low in nutrients because of leaching by winter rains
temperate seasonal forest: soil/ ground surface
soils generally contain more nutrients than boreal forests higher soil fertility and long growing season make them have greater productivity than boreal forests
Allelopathy
some early succession plants produce toxins that prevent the growth of later plants
chemosynthesis
some species of bacteria in the aphotic zone use energy contained in bonds of methane and hydrogen sulfide to generate energy
instrumental value
something has worth as an instrument or tool that can be used to accomplish a goal
intrinsic value
something has worth independent of any benefit ecosystems
desert: plants
sparse vegetation cacti, euphorbs, and succulent plants annual plants grow rapidly during periods of rain perennial plants experience spurts of growth when it rains, but exhibit little growth during the rest of the year
salt marshes provide important habitat for what
spawning fish and shellfish (2/3 of marine fish and shellfish species spend their larval stages in estuaries)
Abiotic factors- productivity factors terrestrial -sunlight
sun is plentiful; always have access to it ✘
heliophylic
sunloving
what can plant growth be limited by
temperature and precipitation
what characteristics of a terrestrial biome determine its productivity
temperatures, growing seasons, and rainfall in a region
ecological succession
the predictable replacement of one group of species by another group of species over time. can be primary or secondary. time span differs
ecological efficiency
the proportion of consumed energy that can be passed from one trophic level to another. range from 5 to 20 percent. avg is 10 percent across all ecosystems
Mutation
change in genetic structure (Causes mutation: base pairs switching (during transcription/ translation- cellular level on accident) pollutants of toxins Nuclear radiation (can lead to cancers, birth defects, etc) UV radiation (melanoma,))
what characteristics are used to identify terrestrial biomes
characteristics such as average annual temp, annual precip, geographic distribution, and distinctive plant growth categorize biomes
terrestrial biomes are categorized by
dominant plant growth forms
desert: soil/ ground surface
dry soil new soil -too dry to support
Trophic Levels
eating levels within a food chain trophic interaction may be direct or indirect
chaparral: natural disturbances
hot, dry summers favor natural occurrence of wildfires
commensalism
one species benefits but another is neither harmed nor helped
Indirect Trophic Interaction
one species consumes another species which causes a change in a third species (i.e. predator/prey relationships) Species A → Species B → Species C
Direct Trophic Interaction
one species consumes another species within a community Species A → Species B
Natural Selection
one variation favored over another
euphotic epipelgic
photosynthesis less light
aquatic biomes are categorized by
physical characteristics such as salinity, depth, and waterflow
how energy spreads through an ecosystem
plants absorb energy from the sun. that energy is spread throughout an ecosystem as herbivores feed on plants and carnivores feed on herbivores
chaparral: special plant adaptations
plants adapted to both fire and drought
emergent vegetation
plants that are rooted to the bottom and emerge above the waters surface
Calculating Biodiversity Simpson index -
probability that two randomly selected individuals in the habitat belong to the same species more often applied to plants
competitive exclusion principle
two species competing for the same limiting resource cannot coexist
spatial resource partitioning
two species reduce competition by using different habitats
temporal resource partitioning
two species reduce competition by utilizing resource at different times
Competitive Exclusion Principle
two species that have exactly the same requirements cannot coexist in exactly the same habitat
photic zone
upper layer, receives sunlight for photosynthesis
alien species
(exotic species) species that live outside their historical range
Interference (+/-/0)
(-) early species prevent growth of later species (Allelopathy) (Example: phragmites- reed common to wetlands that produces tannic acid)
Facilitation (+/-/0)
+ early successional species facilitate (enable) later successional species to grow and prosper (Early species suffer from a "tragic fall:" the early species modifies the microclimate and soil conditions to such an extent that they can no longer survive)
Mutualism (+/-/0)
+ + benefits both
Parasitism (+/-/0)
+ - parasite/host
Predation (+/-/0)
+ - predator/prey
Competition (+/-/0)
+ - two or more organisms fight for the same resources
Commensalism (+/-/0)
+ 0 benefits one, other not harmed
Saprotrophism (+/-/0)
+ 0 saprotrophs gain nutrients from dead or decaying plants or animals
Benthic level of aquatic ecosystem
-fixed/ burrow/ walk live in/ on lake/ sea bottoms (patrick)
Nektonic level of aquatic ecosystem
-swimmers - swim freely and independently of the current -micro - whales (pearl)
Amensalism (+/-/0)
0 - impedes one's success without benefit or cost to other
Chemosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O + ECHEM → C6H12O6 + 6O2 (Chemical energy is typically H2S (hydrogen sulfide) Volcanic activity, geysers, ocean trenches)
Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O + ESUN → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Planktonic level of aquatic ecosystem
1. cyanobacteria/ algae (1st trophic level) 2. zooplankton -Float of drift near surface (plankton)
Theoretical Biomass Pyramid
10% Rule Normal: > 1% 1.5 g/m2 > 1 % 11 g/m2 > 1 % 37 g/m2 3 % 809 g/m2
for every 10 degrees C (18 degrees F) temperature increase, plants need
20 mm (.8 in) of additional precipitation each month
NPP of ecosystems ranges from
25 to 50 percent of GPP, or as little as 25 percent of the solar energy striking the planet
desert: latitude range/ location/ growing season
30 degrees N and S latitudinal band of subtropical deserts, also known as hot deserts, includes Mojave Desert in the southwestern US, the Sahara Desert in Africa, the Arabian Desert of the Middle East, and the Great Victoria Desert of Australia
Disruptive Selection
Acts against individuals with "average" condition Favors the extremes Example: fur color Directional AND disruptive selection affect the gene pool Both cases result in evolution
Stabilizing Selection
Affects the extremes Most common form of natural selection Results in: (Decrease in diversity Maintenance of a stable gene pool NO EVOLUTION) Example: birth weight of babies
Directional Selection
Affects the extremes One end does very well Results in: (Frequency distribution favoring that extreme in future generations) Example: industrial melanism
Ecological Community
An area with interacting species Early idea - includes only living organisms Minimal Requirements 1. Animal/Consumer 2. Plant/Producer 3. Decomposer (nutrient recycling)
Ecosystem
An area with interacting species and all abiotic factors (Soil, precipitation, temperature, nutrients, rates of decomposition, pH, sun) Minimum Requirements 1. Consumer 2. Producer 3. Decomposer 4. Abiotic factors Provide a variety of environmental services
highest diversity of species in ecosystem that experience
an intermediate frequency of disturbance
must occur first in order for succession to occur
Disturbance (Examples: flood, drought, fire, storms, landslides (natural deforestation), pollution, farming (monoculture), surface mining, urbanization, warfare (anthropogenic))
Great Barrier Reef
Australia covers an area of 2600 km2, hosts a tremendous diversity of other organisms (fish and invertebrates use structure as refuge to live in and place to find food) there are more than 400 species of coral, 1500 species of tropical fish, and 200 of birds
Three Currencies of Energy
Biomass Energy content Carbon content
Cellular Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ECHEM
CO2 taken up during photosynthesis =
CO2 taken in sunlight + CO2 produced in dark
Simpson Diversity Index D N n low D high D used when/ where
D = Simpson Diversity Index N = total number of organisms of all species n = number of individuals of a particular species (A low D value suggests a stable and well-established site. A high D value could suggest a polluted site, recent habitation, or agricultural land.) Usually used in studies of vegetation but can also be applied to animals.
1st Law of Thermodynamics
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed (It can only change from one form to another) Energy flows through the ecosystem (Nutrients cycle)
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Energy conversions are never 100% efficient In any energy conversion, some amount of energy is lost as heat (Heat is the lowest form of energy) Increases entropy
Environmental Gradient vs. Ecotone
Environmental Gradient: gradual change in abiotic conditions Ecotone: transition between biomes (SPECIES change rapidly Highest biodiversity along the gradient Edge offers shelter and refuge in most areas)
Range of Tolerance
Environmental conditions under which an organism can live Fundamental niches Realized niche
establishing succession
Establishing - primary succession: occurs on "new" land, no seeds in the soil (no seed bank), long time (Examples: lava flows, after glaciers retreat)
Cosmopolitan (generalist/ubiquitous) species
Found in a wide range of areas with suitable habitat
gross primary productivity
GPP total amount of solar energy that the producers capture via photosynthesis over in a given amount of time
NPP =
GPP - respiratory producers
Biodiversity: 3 Concepts
Genetic Diversity Habitat Diversity Species Diversity
temperate grassland: latitude range/ location/ growing season
Great Plains of North America (prairies), in South America (pampas), and in central Asia and eastern Europe (steppes) relatively long growing season mid-latitudes
Shannon-Weiner Index H n S N pi
H = Shannon Index n = number of individuals in species S = species richness (number of species) N = total number of all individuals pi = relative abundance of each species; calculated as the proportion of individuals of a given species to the total number of individuals in the community: n/N
Factors that Decrease Biodiversity
Higher latitude and altitude (extreme environments) Environmental stress (pollution) Extreme limitations of the supply of a basic resource (desert doesn't have water. Only plants adapted to low water can survive. CAM plants. C-4 plants (cactus, aloe plant, horned toads) (end up being nocturnal animals because its cooler at night)) Introduction of exotic species Multiple anthropogenic disturbances
Biodiversity: Biological Corridor La Selva Biological Station in Sarapiqui, Costa Rica
Home to a number of endangered species Biggest threats? Deforestation Loss of wetlands Goal: protect biodiversity, promote sustainable development
Exotic (invasive) species
Introduced to a new geographic area; non-native
Climax Species
Large/tall plants Seedlings can grow in shade of trees Slow growing/long life Slower rate of seed dispersal covering less area Persistent High biomass More nutrient uptake than decomposition; uptake occurs rapidly Poorest soil
Factors that Increase Biodiversity
Low latitude and altitude Diverse habitats Natural disturbances (fires, storms, etc.) Low variation in environmental conditions Middle stages of succession Evolution High diversity in food webs/chains
biodiversity
Measure of all species in a given area Number of individual organisms Variety of species Includes variability within and between species, within and between ecosystems Often used as a measure of the health of an environment Some scientists include the abiotic factors and species relationships in their definition Multi-faceted definition includes 3 concepts...
Species Dominance
Most abundant species
Trophic Level Efficiency (TLE)
NP at level n/NP at level n-1 x 100
net primary productivity
NPP energy captured minus the energy respired by producers
Endemic (specialist) species
Native to a particular area, but not elsewhere
Total Biological Productivity (or Gross Production) - Respiration
Net Production
Gross Productivity =
Net Productivity - Cellular Respiration
Hubbard Brook ecosystem
New Hampshire study of disturbances since 1962. investigators monitores hydrological and biogeochemical cycles of 6 watersheds, ranging in an area from 12 to 42 ha. Soil in each watershed underlain by impermeable bedrock, so no deep percolation of water; all precipitation leaves by evapotransporation or by runoff (water and nutrient amounts measured at main drainage stream). at Hubbard Brook, effects of clear-cutting and suppression of plant growth. determined - when trees no longer there to take up nitrates from soil, nitrate leaches into stream. importance of plants in regulating cycling of nutrients and consequences of not allowing succession
Species Diversity
Number of different species that inhabit a specific area Species Richness Species Evenness Species Dominance
Keystone species
Presence of this species contributes to biodiversity Extinction would lead to the extinction of other species
Trophic Level Efficiency Efficiency =
Output/Input x 100 Input is always greater: never 100% efficient
Genetic Diversity
Range of all genetic traits, both expressed and recessive, that makes up the gene pool for a particular species
reestablishing succession
Reestablishing - secondary succession: occurs on land that contains seeds (seed bank), quicker (Examples: forest fires, flooding, tsunamis, abandoned fields)
Species Evenness
Relative abundance of species Pi = n/ N
Pioneer Species
Short Heliophyllic Fast growing Short-lived Rapid and widespread seed dispersal Small seeds Low biomass Good competitors (Weeds) Adaptations for poor soil Make new soil for future species
Chronic Patchiness
Succession never occurs When a harsh environment or frequent disturbance favors early successional species, therefore, the later successional species are not favored and will not grow (Example: yard → grass → mow (frequent disturbance); as a monoculture- area with only one species over the area) (Example: farming- crop of corn, wheat, etc.: only the species you want (turning over the farm))
Habitat Diversity
The range of habitats that can be found in a defined area; biotic & abiotic factors
Species Richness
Total number of species S
defenses may be
behavioral, morphological, chemical
temperate grassland
a biome characterized by cold, harsh winters and hot, dry summers
chaparral
a biome characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters
savanna
a biome marked by warm temperatures and distinct wet and dry seasons
desert (subtropical)
a biome prevailing at approximately 30 degrees N and S, with hot temperatures, extremely dry conditions, and sparse vegetation
temperate seasonal forest
a biome with warmer summers and colder winters than temperate rainforests and dominated by deciduous trees
temperate rainforest
a coastal biome typified by moderate temperatures and high precipitation
tundra
a cold and treeless biome with low-growing vegetation
watershed
a common place for scientists to conduct studies on ecosystem processes; all the land in a given landscape that drains into a particular stream, river, lake, or wetland
boreal forest or taiga
a forest made up primarily of coniferous evergreen trees that can tolerate cold winters and short growing seasons
coral bleaching
a phenomenon in which the algae inside the corals die. without algae, the corals die, and the reef turns white. algae are dying from environmental change and disease, including lower ocean pH and abnormally high water temps
disturbance
an event caused by physical, chemical, or biological agents that results in changes in population size or community composition
pioneer species
ability to colonize rapidly and grow well in full sunshine (aspen and cherry)
of the 1 percent of sun's energy captured by a producer, how much fuels respiration, how much supports growth and reproduction
about 60 percent is used to fuel the producer's respiration. remaining 40 percent can be used to support producer's growth and reproduction
Haiti -tree problem and solutions
according to the UN, 76% of Haitians lived on less than $2.00 a day. Because other forms of cooking fuel were to expensive, people turned to cutting trees from forests and making charcoal from firewood in 1923, 60% of this mountainous country was covered in forest. by 2006, more than 9 million people lived in small nation, less than 2% of land remained forested for more than 2 decades, the us agency for international development has funded planting of 60 million trees there (locals in desperate need don't let grow) a more successful effort was planting mango trees. mature tree can provide $70 to $150 worth of mangoes annually. value increases economic incentive to let trees reach maturity
what forms the base of the food web in photic zone
algae (ph.z: includes tiny zooplankton, fish, wales)
Abiotic factors- productivity factors aquatic -water
almost all the time water is abundant ✘
salt marshes are found
along coast in temperate climates many found in estuaries (
what part of Biological Productivity equation is Net Productivity (NP):
amount of energy to be passed up food chain
what part of Biological Productivity equation is Cellular Respiration (R):
amount of energy used by the organism; HEAT
Entropy:
amount of thermal energy NOT available to do work
tundra: latitude range/ location/ growing season
arctic tundra- northernmost regions of Northern Hemisphere (Russia, Canada, Scandinavia, Alaska) antarctic- edges of Antarctica and nearby islands alpine- high mountains (high winds and low temps prevent trees) short growing season- 4 months in summer
tundra: 3 types
arctic, antarctic, alpine
freshwater wetlands
are aquatic biomes that are submerged or saturated by water for at least part of each year, but shallow enough to support emergent vegetation throughout. they support species of plants that are specialized to live in submerged or saturated soils. include swamps, marshes, and bogs
Habitat
area where you live
estuary
areas along the coast where the fresh water of rivers mixes with the salt water from the ocean
desert: avg temp/ precip/ general description of climate
avg annual temp exceeds 20 degrees celsius hot temperatures and extremely dry conditions
tropical rainforest: avg temp/ precip/ general description of climate
avg annual temps exceed 20 degrees celsius warm and wet little seasonal temp variation frequent precip that depends on ITCZ
savanna: avg temp/ precip/ general description of climate
avg annual temps exceed 20 degrees celsius warm temps and distinct wet and dry seasons -caused by ITCZ movement (precip during summer)
what is the base of deep ocean food webs
bacteria that use chemosynthesis (d.o: includes tubeworm)
natural rates and patterns of biochemical cycling in ecosystem provides what
basis for determining how disturbances changes system
tropical rainforest: rate of decomp
because of high productivity and warm temp and abundant rainfall, decomp is extremely rapid
boreal forest or taiga: soil/ ground surface
because of slow rate and low nutrient content of the needles, boreal forest soils are covered in a thick organic material layer but poor nutrient level poorly suited for agriculture
mutualism
benefits two interacting species by increasing both species' changes of survival or reproduction
boreal forest or taiga: latitude range/ location/ growing season
between about 50 degrees and 60 degrees N in Europe, Russia, and North America
invasive alien species pose a threat to what, how
biodiversity by acting as predators, pathogen, or superior competitors to native species
as water flow changes,
biological communities also change
temperate seasonal forest: animals
birds like broad-winged hawks, cardinals, snowy owls, etc white tailed deer, raccoons, opossums, porcupines, red fozes
taiga also known as
boreal forest
disturbances can occur over what time scales
both short and long time scales
the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem provide the
boundaries that distinguish one ecosystem from another
temperate seasonal forest: plant
broadleaf deciduous trees (beech, maple, oak, and hickory) some coniferous tree species may be present
tertiary consumers
carnivores that eat secondary consumers; bald eagles
scavangers
carnivores, such as vultures, that consume dead animals
Abiotic factors- productivity factors terrestrial -temperature
climate affects type of organism ✓
chaparral: latitude range/ location/ growing season
coast of southern California (called chaparral) southern South America (matorral) southwestern Australia (mallee) southern Africa (fynbos) large region surrounding Mediterranean Sea (maquis) 12 month growing season mid0latitudes
world's largest tree: where and what
coastal redwoods (hundreds to thousands of years, heights of 90 m and diameters of 8 m)
tundra: avg temp/ precip/ general description of climate
cold little precip, but enough to support some plant growth 50 mL per year
temperate grassland also called
cold desert
symbiotic relationship
commensalism, mutualism, parasitism are types the relationship of two species that live in close association with each other
tropical rainforest: plants
common epiphytes include mosses and ferns, orchids, bromeliads
savanna: latitude range/ location/ growing season
common in much of Central America, on the Atlantic Coast of South America, in Southern Asia in northwestern Australia, and in sub-Saharan Africa moderately long growing season
measurement of NPP allows
comparison of different ecosystems' productivity. greater productivity, the more primary consumers can be supported also useful to measure change in an ecosystem
resource partitioning
competition for limiting resource leads to this, when two species divide a resource based on differences in the species behavior or morphology
interactions with other species have 4 categories
competition, predation, mutualism, and commensalism
taiga: plants
coniferous (cone-bearing) evergreen trees plant growth constrained by temper more than by precip pine, spruce, fir some deciduous trees such as birch, maple, aspen (important source of trees for pulp, paper, and building materials. many have been extensively logged because of this)
secondary consumers
consumers that eat primary consumers; include creatures such as lions, hawks, and rattlesnakes
salt marshes contain what vegetation, and how productive
contain nonwoody emergent vegetation and it is the most productive biome (rivers carry large amounts of nutrient-rich organic material, so estuaries are extremely productive places for plants and algae, which helps filter contaminents
tropical rainforest: biodiversity
contains more biodiversity per hectare than any other terrestrial biome and contains up to 2/3 of Earth's species
bathyal
dark, 4km (Giant Squids, whales, oarfish)
detritus
dead tissues and waste products
Genetic Drift
decrease in genetic variability (bottleneck effect)
aphotic zone
deeper layer that lacks sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis
Abiotic factors- productivity factors aquatic -sunlight
depth will determine photosynthesis ✓
Aquatic Factors- DO levels -aerobic vs anaerobic
determines type of ecosystem i.e. eutrophic lake, deep ocean vent
desert: animal adaptations
dissipate heat remain inactive during sunny part of day retain water
intermediate disturbances hypothesis
ecosystems experiencing intermediate levels of disturbances are more diverse than those with high or low disturbance levels
cultural services
ecosystems provide cultural aesthetic benefits (instrumental value for some people who pay to see beauty) intellectual gain and aesthetic staisfaction
Saltwater Aquatic Ecosystem Zones -Nearshore/ Neritic Zone
edge of continental shelf 200 meters (shallow) high DO, low pressure stable temperature/ stable salinity Majority of Sea Life high productivity
temperate rainforest: animals
elk beavers, raccoons (wide variety)
lakes and ponds contain standing water, some of which is too deep to support
emergent vegetation
Saltwater Aquatic Ecosystem Zone -Pelagic Zone
euphotic epipelgic bathyal abyssal hadal
rocky intertidal zone along Pacific Coast of North America (aquatic succession)
exposed air at low tide, lies underwater at high tide. major streams turn rocks over - bare rocks colonized through primary succession. rock - algae - barnacles and algae (15 months) - dominated by barnacles and mussels (3 years)
Saltwater Aquatic Ecosystem Zones -Intertidal zone
exposed at low tide, submerged at high tide attached vegetation Arctic: kelp forests Temperate: sea grass Tropical: coral reefs/ tide pools
C6H12O6
glucose
provisions
goods that humans can use directly (lumber, food, crops, medicinal plants, natural rubber, furs)
Environmental Gradient:
gradual change in abiotic conditions
temperate grassland: plants
grasses and non-woody flowering plants plants generally well adapted to wildfires and frequent grazing by animals deep roots store energy to enable quick regrowth
most streams and rapidly flowing rivers have how many producers, and what provides the base of the food web
have few plants or algae to act as producers inputs of organic matter from terrestrial biomes provide base (this matter is consumed by insect larvae and crustaceans such as crayfish, which then provide food for secondary consumers, fish)
primary consumers
heterotrophs that consume producers are called herbivores or this; include variety of families plant/ algae eating animals, such as zebras, grasshoppers, and tadpoles
when disturbances influences populations and communities, but has no effect on overall flows of energy, ecosystem has
high resistance
climax stage
historically described as end of succession (oldest forests) (now- typically not final)
polygons: where and what
honeycomb of ice walls beneath surface of soil. ice wedges under ground, soil cracked above ice, causing the polygons to form TUNDRA
temperate grassland: animals
hooves (grazing) antelope, buffalo, elk herd animals (ungulate)
chaparral: avg temp/ precip/ general description of climate
hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters plant growth constrained by low precip in summers and relatively low temps in winter avg annual temp between 5 degrees 20 degrees celsius
natural environmental disturbances include
hurricanes, ice storms, tsunamis, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, forest fire
tundra: permafrost
impermeable, permanently frozen layer of soil
Kenyan water problems 2003-2006
in April 2003, heavy rains began to fall along the equator in Western Kenya, flooding villages, roads, and bridges. more than 70 people died, and hundreds of thousands had to abandon their homes. in the capital, Nairobi, mudslides damaged water pipes that led from a reservoir to a water treatment plant, causing more than a million people to be affected by resulting disruption of water supplies. in many parts of the country, displaced flood victims had no clothing, food, or drinking water. the danger of waterborne diseases like cholera increased. rains continued months past their normal stopping time, bypassing a period of relative dryness that normally occurred. widespread flooding prevented inhabitants to rebuild. that same year, nomadic tribes hundreds of kilometers in the northeast, living in northern Kenya, anxiously awaited the summer rains that ended their dry season. the region suffered a prolonged drought for the next three years. crops died and people had to walk even two hours to find water, until even those wells dried. local newspapers attributed 50 human deaths to the drought, but officials thought the number was higher. the Kenyan government confirmed that over 25 million people were at risk of starvation and they declared the situation a national disaster. by the time the rains finally arrived in 2006, decomposing animals carcasses littered the landscape, threatening the drinking water quality
savanna: what 2 things keep the landscape open
in areas with the longest dry seasons, the tropical seasonal climate leads to formation of savannas, relatively open landscapes grazing and five discourage growth of many smaller woody plants, keeping landscapes open
tundra: soil/ ground surface
in the winter, soil is completely frozen during summer, upper soil layer thaws, creating pools of standing water because of slow decomp rate, organic matter in soil accumulates and there are relatively low levels of soil nutrients
consumers/ heterotrophs
incapable of photosynthesis and must obtain their energy by consuming other organisms
parasitoids
lay eggs inside other organisms (wasps, flies)
Biogenic Disturbances
infestation by pests or disease (Examples: gypsy moth and Dutch elm disease)
hadal
inside deep ocean trenches/ vents chemosynthetic bacteria (H2S) (crabs, tubeworms)
ITCZ
intertropical convergence zone
Migration
introduction of a new organism into an area (cause natural selection, evolution that way. If an organism is not resilient, they cannot adapt to new species.. Sometimes two subspecies reproduce when a new species comes into an area..)
primary succession in Indonesia in 1883
island volcano Krakatoa erupted. ash and lava killed all living organisms and buried soil. by 1884, algae and grasses establishes on (lava) rock and ash - followed by trees and shrubs
Trophic Level Efficiency If you eat lower on the food chain,
it increases energy
temperate seasonal forest: why have humans disturbed this biome more than any other
it is very productive so it has been converted to agriculture on a large scale (historically one of the first- when European settlers arrived North America, they cleared large areas of the eastern forests for agriculture and dwellings)
true predators
kill prey and consume (African lions eat gazelles, great horned owls eat small rodents)
tropical rainforest: layers of the forest
large trees form a forest canopy that shades underlying vegetation several layers of successively shorter trees make up subcanopy or understory attached to the trunks and branches of the trees are epiphyates, plants that held small pools of water that support small aquatic ecosystems for above forest floor numerous species of woody vines (lianas) are rooted in soil, but climb up trunks and often into canopy
tropical rainforest: latitude range/ location/ growing season
lie within approx 20 degrees N and S of equator found in Central and South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, and Northwestern Australia also found on large tropical islands where oceans provide constant source of atmosphere water vapor
lakes and ponds can be divided into distinct zones:
littoral, limnetic, profundal, benthic
parasites
live on or in organism they consume (host). (tapeworms)
desert: animals
lizard, bobcat, cactus wren, coyote small, nocturnal water conservation adaptation
organisms posses distinct growth forms, many of which represent adaptations to
local temperature and precipitation patterns
savanna: soil/ ground surface
low amounts of precip constrain plants from using the soil nutrients that are released from decomp/ soils are fairly fertile and can be farmed (-the fertility has resulted in the conversion of large areas of tropical seasonal forest and savanna into agricultural fields and grazing lands) (99% of the tropical seasonal forest of Pacific Central America and the Atlantic coast of South America has been converted to human uses, including agriculture and grazing)
temperate grassland: avg temp/ precip/ general description of climate
lowest annual precip of any biome cold, harsh winters and hot, dry summers plant growth constrained by insufficient precup in summer and cold temp in winter avg annual temp between 5 degrees and 20 degrees
chaparral: animals
major agriculture use of biome is grazing animals
two broad categories for aquatic biomes
marine and freshwater
saltwater biomes also known as
marine biomes
temperate rainforest: latitude range/ location/ growing season
mid-latitudes coastal biome west coast of North America from northern California to Alaska, in southern Chile, on est-coast of New Zealand, and on island of Tasmania (off Australian coast) 12 month growing season
savanna: what makes the herbivores unique
migratory herd, find water
temperate rainforest: plants
mild temp and high precip support very large trees coniferous species most common in North America (fir, spruce, cedar, hemlock, redwood) -attractive lumber source. much of biome has been logged and converted into single- species tree plantations ferns and mosses commonly found living under enormous trees
Serengeti Plain in East Africa -energy
millions of herbivores, far fewer carnivores. in accordance to second law of thermodynamics, when one organism consumes another, not all the consumed energy is transferred to the consumer. therefore, all carnivores in an area contain less energy than all the herbivores in the same ares
boreal forest or taiga: leaching
minerals drain away from the soil because of rainwater
Abiotic factors- productivity factors aquatic -temperature
moderated by water's high specific heat ?
tropical rainforest: animals
monkeys, bats, possums, kangaroos, tigers, fox, snakes
temperate grassland: biome is primarily used for
more than 98% of tallgrass prairie in US converted to agriculture less productive shortgrass prairie used for wheat and grazing cattle
how much of the freshwater biome has been drained for agriculture and development or to eliminate breeding grounds for mosquitoes and various disease-causing organisms
more than one half
benthic zone
muddy bottom of lake or pond beneath limnetic or profundal zone ocean floor
regulating services
natural ecosystems help to regulate environmental conditions
support systems
natural ecosystems provide numerous support services that would be extremely costly for humans to generate. ex/ pollination of food crops. ecosystems provide habitats for animals that pollinate crops, an they provide natural pest control services (they serve as habitat for predators that prey on agricultural pests. healthy ecosystems also filter harmful pathogens and chemicals from water
how many biomes
nine biomes
tundra: plants
no trees low growing vegetation small woody shrubs, mosses, heaths, lichens
temperate rainforest: soil/ ground surface description
nutrients released are rapidly taken up by trees or leeched down by abundant rainfall through soil, leaving soil low in nutrients
mangrove swamps, where, what
occur along tropical and subtropical coasts. they contain trees whose roots are submerged in water mangrove swamps provide sheltered habitats for fish and shellfish mangrove trees are salt tolerant and often grow in estuaries. they can be found along shallow coastlines that lack inputs of freshwater. trees help protect coastline from erosion and storm damage. falling leaves and trapped organic material produce a nutrient rich environment
secondary succession
occurs in areas that have been disturbed but have not lost their soil (forest fire, hurricane). rapid colonization by plants easily dispersed (grasses, wildflowers) - better competitors next (beech, maple)
primary succession
occurs on surfaces that are initially devoid of soil. bare rock - algae, lichens, mosses - erosion - deaths improve soil quickly - new soil - plants with deep root systems (grasses, wild flowers) - deaths improve soil quality - new species. type of community that develops determined by temperature and rainfall
resistance
of an ecosystem, a measure of how much a disturbance can affect the flows of energy and matter
how much sunlight is converted into chemical energy via photosynthesis
only about 1 percent
limnetic zone
open water. rooted plants can no longer survive. phytoplankton are only photosynthetic organisms. this zone extends as deep as sunlight can penetrate. Freshwater Aquatic Ecosystem Zone open, well-lit surface water. PHOTOSYNTHESIS
producers, or autotrophs
organisms that use the sun's energy to produce usable forms of energy (plants, algae, etc)
detritivores
organisms, such as dung beetle, that specialize in breaking down dead tissues and waste products into smaller particles
pathogens
parasites that cause disease in their host (viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists, helminths)
PSU
practical salinity units
what distinguishes a savanna from a grassland
presence of trees and a warmer avg temp
boreal forest or taiga: disturbances
prevent forest from reaching succession stages (insects, fire)
species fundamental niche
range of abiotic conditions that an organism can tolerate
Fundamental niches
range of tolerance when species are found alone
Realized niche
range of tolerance when two species are found together (formed from competitive situation); always more limited
temperate grassland: soil/ ground surface
rapid decomp and long growing season dd large amounts of nutrients to soil very productive
temperate seasonal forest: avg temp/ precip/ general description of climate
receive over 1m of precip annually much warmer summers and colder winters than temperate rainforests (away from ocean moderating) average annual temp between 5 degrees and 20 degrees celsius
restoration ecology
restoring damaged ecosystems (two high profile projects- Florida Everglades and Chesapeake Bay)
trophic pyramids
representation of distribution of biomass among trophic levels
resilience
resilience ensures that an ecosystem will continue to exist in its current state, which means it can continue to provide benefits to humans. depends greatly on species diversity and genetic diversity
to analyze productivity,
scientists calculate biomass of all individuals accumulated over a given period of time
food chain
sequence of consumption from producers through tertiary consumers
distribution around world determined by 3 factors
species fundamental niche, must be able to disperse to that area, and interactions with other species
native species
species that live in their historical range, typically where they have lived for thousands or millions of years
ecosystem's resilience often depends on
specific interactions of biogeochemical and hydrologic cycles
tundra: animals
standing water ideal habitat for mosquitoes and other insects migration and hibernation adaptations caribou, ermine, polar bears, arctic fox, white wolves, grizzly bears, shrews, voles smaller body size or large herd animals adaptations for cold
Biological Productivity
stored energy in biomass ("Banking" of energy within an ecosystem) Example: Income (Gross Pay - Taxes = Net Pay)
freshwater biomes include
streams, rivers, lakes, and wetlands
rapids (what, what species or not what species)
stretches of turbulent water where water and air are mixed together in fast moving streams and rivers. this allows large amounts of atmospheric oxygen to dissolve in water. these high oxygen environments support fish species like trout and salmon that require the large amounts , lower oxygen environments support species like catfish
community ecology
study of the interactions between species, determines survival of species in a habitat
boreal forest or taiga: avg temp/ precip/ general description of climate
subarctic biome very cold climate very little (precip?) have avg annual temperatures below 5 degrees Celsius (41 F)
trophic levels
successive levels of organisms consuming one another
temperature is an important factor in determining which species can (aquatic)
survive in a particular aquatic habitat
food web
take into account the complexity of nature. illustrates that all species in an ecosystem are connected to one another
Calculating Biodiversity Shannon-Weiner index -
takes into account the number of species and the evenness of the species used most often, but tedious opposite summation
temperate grassland: 3 types of grasslands
tallgrass prairie (NA prairies- 1m rainfall per year (eastern) support grasses that can grow to 2.5m high. too many fires keep trees from encroaching) shortgrass prairie (to the west- .5m precip favors grass less than .5m tall) cold desert (farther west (.25m precip) sparse vegetation, in rain shadow of Rocky Mountains)
temperate rainforest: avg temp/ precip/ general description of climate
temperate climate avg annual temp between 5 degrees and 20 degrees Celsius moderate temp and high precipitation mild summers and winters -winters rainy, summers foggy ocean currents along coasts help moderate temperature fluctuations and ocean water provides a source of water vapor
temperate seasonal forest also known as
temperate deciduous
although terrestrial biomes are categorized by plant growth forms,
the animals species living in different biomes are often quite distinctive as well
decomposers
the fungi and bacteria that complete the breakdown process by recycling the nutrients from dead tissues and wastes back into the ecosystem
Calculating Biodiversity Species richness -
the least sophisticated of the indices available
tropical rainforest: soil/ ground surface
the lush vegetation takes up nutrients quickly, leaving few nutrients to accumulate in the soil soils lose their fertility quickly because rate of decomp is so high
freshwater wetlands are among
the most productive biomes on planet
intertidal zone, where, conditions
the narrow band of coastline that exists between the levels of high tide and low tide. range from steep, rocky areas to broad, sloping mudflats environmental conditions relatively stable during high tide when its submerged. conditions can be harsh during low tide when organisms are exposed to direct sunlight, high temperatures, and desiccation
in the open ocean, sunlight cannot reach
the ocean bottom exact depth the sunlight reaches determined by amount of sediment and algae suspended in water, generally does not exceed 200m
Coevolution
two or more species reciprocally affect each other's evolution Example: acacia trees and acacia ants
littoral zone
the shallow area of soil and water near the shore where algae and emergent plants such as cattails grow. most photosynthesis here Freshwater Aquatic Ecosystem Zone high water mark (rarely inundated) to permanently submerged shoreline -helps to prevent runoff
savanna: plants
the trees drop their leaves during the dry season as an adaptation to survive the drought conditions, then produce new leaves during wet season (tropical deciduous forests) areas with moderately long dry seasons support dense stands of shrubs and trees savannas are dominated by grasses and scattered deciduous trees acacia and baobab trees
predation
the use of one species as a resource by another species
intertidal zone organisms
these zones are home to wide variety of organisms that have adapted to these conditions (barnacles, sponges, algae, mussels, crabs, and sea stars)
mangrove trees
they are salt tolerant and often grow in estuaries. they can be found along shallow coastlines that lack inputs of freshwater. trees help protect coastline from erosion and storm damage. falling leaves and trapped organic material produce a nutrient rich environment
freshwater biomes provide several critical ecosystem services:
they can take in large amounts of rainwater and release slowly into groundwater or nearby stream, reducing severity of floods and droughts filter pollutants from water many bird species depend on wetlands during migration or breeding (1/3 all endangered bird species in the US spend some parts of their lives in wetlands, even though this biome makes up only 5% of the nation's land are
Convergent evolution
two separate species converge into two species with very similar, yet distinct characteristics Example: dolphins and sharks
golf courses- problems and solutions, results
they cover 3 million hectares worldwide. 2/3 of this area consists of closely mowed turf grass. the grass cannot grow deep roots, causing problems. grass dries out easily and has difficulty obtaining soil nutrients. the grass is susceptible to challenges from weeds, grubs that feed on grass roots, and fungal diseases that kill or weaken the grass. to combat these problems, golf courses use a disproportionate amount of water, fertilizer, and pesticides. golf courses collectively use 9.5 billion liters of water annually. use of fertilizer goes beyond the amount for corn, the heaviest nitrogen user of all major food crops. irrigation or rain causes up to 60% fertilizer to leach into nearby waterways. golf courses use about 6x the amount of agricultural pesticides per hectare as do conventional farms since 1991, the Audubon Cooperative Sanctuary Program (ACSP), a partnership between Audubon International and the US Golf Association, has been working to improve environmental management of golf courses. by 2008, more than 2100 golf courses worldwide had participated in the ACSP. Audubon International found that over 80% of the courses in the program reduced the amounts and toxicity of pesticides applied improved nutrient retention within the course, and used less water for irrigation. the average course area devoted to providing wildlife habitat increased by about 50%. 99% of managers reported playing quality and golfer satisfaction were maintained or improved
coral, what, where, how
tiny animal that secrete layer of calcium carbonate (limestone) as an external skeleton. corals live in water poor in nutrients and food. Corals live in vast colonies, when one dies, their limestone skeleton remains, which develops over time into coral reefs
aphotic zone contains a variety of organisms that are bioluminescent in order to do what
to help then feed in dark waters (crustaceans, jelly fish, squid, fish)
desert: plant adaptations
to prevent water loss, the leaves of desert plants may be small, nonexistent, or modified into spines, and the outer layer of the plant is thick with few pores for water and air exchange to protect themselves against herbivores, desert plants have developed defense mechanisms such as spines to discourage grazing most photosynthesis occurs along plant stem, which stores water so photosynthesis can continue even during dry periods
abyssal
to the ocean floor, 6km (angular fish, vampire squid, dumbo fish, blob fish, combs)
what part of Biological Productivity equation is Gross Productivity (GP):
total energy produced by the organism
biomass
total mass of all living matter in a specific area (NPP establishes rate at which biomass is produced over given amount of time)
Ecotone:
transition between biomes
savanna also known as
tropical seasonal forest
terrestrial biomes have three categories
tundra and boreal forest, temperate, and tropical
Divergent evolution
two closely related species gradually become more and more dissimilar Examples: Darwin's finches, Lake Victoria cichlids
bogs
very acidic wetlands that typically contain sphagnum moss and spruce trees.
profundal zone
very deep lakes have region underneath the limnetic zone. producers cannot survive there because there is no sunlight, so nutrients are not easily recycled into the food web. bacteria decompose the detritus that reaches the profundal zone, but they consume oxygen in the process. as a result DO concentrations are not sufficient to support many large organisms Freshwater Aquatic Ecosystem Zone below the range of effective light penetration
temperate seasonal forest: rate of decomp
warm summer temp favors rapid decomp (leaves shed by broadleaf trees are more readily decomposed)
what are some of the ways that humans use different biomes
warm temperatures, long growing seasons, and abundant rainfall can make a region highly productive- suited for growing many crops warm regions that have less abundant precipitation are suitable for growing grains (wheat) and forgiving domesticated animals (cattle and sheep) colder regions- best used to grow forests for harvesting lumber
as fast moving streams combine to form larger rivers, how is water flow affected
water flow slows, sediments and organic material settle to the bottom, and rooted plants and algae are better able to grow
chaparral: plants
well adapted to both fire and drought (many plants quickly resprout after fire, others produce seeds that only open in heat of fire) drought resistant shrubs (yucca, scrub oak, and sage bush) major agriculture uses of biome are growing drought resistant deep-rooted crops, such as grapes to make wine
swamps
wetlands that contain emergent trees (Great Dismal Swamp in Virginia and N. Carolina and the Okefenokee Swamp in Georgia and Florida)
marshes
wetlands that contain primarily non woody vegetation, including cattails and sedges
Niche
what you do in that area; all of the environmental factors influencing the organisms
coral relationship with algae
when a coral digests its food, it releases CO2 and nutrients. algae use CO2 during photosynthesis to produce sugars, which they release to the corals. the coral gains energy, and the algae CO2, nutrients, and a safe place to live
invasive species
when alien species spread rapidly across large area
growing season
when temperatures are warm enough for plants to grow. the months when it is above 0 degrees C (32 degrees F)
the abiotic components of the ecosystem determine
which organisms can live there
rivers are typically how wide/ how much water
wide and carry large amounts of water
savanna: animals
wildebeest, warthogs, elephants, zebras, rhinos, gazelles, hyenas, cheetahs, lions, leopards, ostrich, mousebirds, sterlings herd animals (with hooves)