chapter 4: memory and learning

Positive reinforcement

Under instrumental​ conditioning, when the environment provides​ ________, in the form of a​ reward, this strengthens the response and we learn the appropriate behavior.

Shaping

. The shaping process is part of instrumental conditioning and rewards​ "intermediate" actions.

The halo effect

A bottle of​ private-label pain reliever is packaged to resemble​ Excedrin®. Consumers assume that this​ "me-too" product shares other characteristics of the original. This is referred to by which of the following​ terms? example of stimulus generalization

Nostalgia

A retro​ brand, an updated version of a brand from a prior historical​ period, triggers​ ________, a look back at a time when life was​ (in our​ memories) simpler.

Associative network

According to activation models of​ memory, incoming information is connected to​ a(n) _______________, which stores many bits of related information. The way we encode or mentally program information helps to determine how our brains will store this information. In​ general, it's more likely that​ we'll retain incoming data when we associate it with other things already in memory.

Product Association

Advertisements typically pair a product with a positive stimulus to create a desirable association.

Frequency marketing

Airline frequent flyer programs are an example of which of the​ following?

Deliberately to obtain a goal

Although responses in classical conditioning are​ involuntary, we make responses in instrumental conditioning​ ________.

Product line extension

A​ ________ is the result of marketers adding new products that are related to an​ existing, popular brand.

Stimulus generalization

Family​ branding, product line​ extensions, and licensing are marketing strategies based on which of the​ following?

Cognitive learning theory

Unlike behavioral theories of​ learning, ________ stresses the importance of internal mental processes. sees consumers as​ problem-solvers who use information to make decisions.

Stimulus discrimination

Companies with a​ well-established brand image and brand equity encourage​ ________ when they promote the unique attributes of their brand. refers to a part of the learning process where responses are made to some stimuli but not to others.

Repetition

Conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli have been paired a number of times. This concept is called​ ________.

Conditioned response

Consumers who get food poisoning from a restaurant are not likely to return to that restaurant. This is an example of which of the​ following?

Storage

During the​ ___________ stage of the memory​ process, we integrate knowledge with what is already in memory and​ "warehouse" it until needed. takes the information from the encoding stage and integrates it with existing knowledge.

Pioneer brand

Evidence indicates that we can more easily retrieve information from memory about​ a(n) ________ than about a follower brand. Evidence indicates that we can more easily retrieve information from memory about​ a(n) pioneer brand than about a follower brand.

By instilling their values about consumption in their children

In which way do parents directly attempt to influence consumer socialization in their​ children? Parents influence consumer socialization both directly and indirectly. They deliberately try to instill their own values about consumption in their children. Children learn about consumption as they watch their​ parents' behaviors and imitate them.

Create and maintain awareness

One of the basic goals of marketers is to​ ________, because once we are already familiar with a product​ we're more likely to recall messages about it.

Response bias

People tend to give​ "yes" answers to questions regardless of what the questions ask. This is an example of contamination in consumer recall measurement called​ ________. the result of​ "good subjects" who try to figure out what the experimenter is looking for and give the response they think they should give.

Impact

Recognition and recall are two basic measures of which of the​ following?

Classical Conditioning

Researchers have found that the pleasure and appetite centers of the brains of small children will light up at the sight of the Golden Arches. This is an example of​ ________.

The endowed progress effect

The closer a consumer is to achieving a​ goal, such as a store​ reward, the more motivated​ s/he is to keep doing something. This is known as​ ________. In what researchers term the endowed progress​ effect, there is a clear connection to basic learning processes. Organisms are drawn to goals. The closer we are to achieving our​ goals, the more motivated we are to keep doing something.

Sensory meaning

The iconic shape of the​ Coca-Cola bottle is a stimulus that​ ________. Sometimes we process a stimulus in terms of sensory​ meaning, such as​ color, shape, or texture of the product or package.

Incidental

The​ casual, unintentional acquisition of knowledge takes place during which type of learning​ process? We learn even when we​ don't try. its an ongoing process and learning is continually updated.

Salience

The​ prominence, or the level of activation in our​ memory, of a brand is referred to as​ _____. The salience of a brand refers to its prominence or level of activation in memory. Stimuli that stand out in contrast to their environments are more likely to command​ attention, which, in​ turn, increases the likelihood that we will recall them.

Associative networks

We each have organized systems of concepts that relate to​ brands, manufacturers, and stores filed in our memories. Which of the following terms refers to the​ "system" of these bits of related​ information?

Knowledge structures

We each have organized systems of concepts that relate to​ brands, manufacturers, and stores stored in our memories. Which of the following terms is used to identify these storage​ units? Incoming pieces of information get placed in an associative network​ which, in​ turn, get stored in knowledge structures filled with nodes containing pieces of data.

Incidental Learning

We often learn even when we​ don't try. Immediate recognition of a brand​ logo, although we have never purchased or used that​ product, is an example of which of the​ following? the idea that we do not have to receive the experience directly.

Proactive interference

What is the result when prior learning interferes with the process of new​ learning? Forgetting also occurs as a result of​ interference; as we learn additional​ information, it displaces the previous information. Prior learning can interfere with new​ learning, a process we term proactive interference.

Positive reinforcement

When a manufacturer provides a reward in order to strengthen the response of a consumer to a​ brand, it is using​ ____________________. When the environment provides positive reinforcement in the form of a​ reward, this strengthens the response and we learn the appropriate behavior.

Episodic memory

When an event is personally relevant to a​ consumer, whichtype of memory will be​ used, creating a stronger​ memory? relate to events that are personally relevant. As a​ result, a​ person's motivation to retain these memories will likely be strong.

Averaging

When conducting memory and recall​ tests, some people make an effort to normalize memories by not reporting extreme cases. This lapse is referred to as​ _____.

Halo Effect

Which of the following describes the phenomenon where similar stimuli generate the same response in a consumer as an original​ stimulus? People also react to​ other, similar stimuli in much the same way they responded to the original​ stimulus; we call this generalization a halo effect

Von restorff effect

Which of the following explains why unusual advertising or distinctive packaging tends to facilitate brand​ recall? shows that almost any technique that increases the novelty of the stimulus also improves recall.

Memory

Which of the following is the process of acquiring information and storing it over time so that it will be available when we need​ it? Marketers rely on consumers to retain information they collect on products and services so they will apply it to future purchases.

Classical conditioning

Which of the following is the term used when an unconditioned stimulus is paired with a conditioned​ stimulus, which, in​ time, will result in similar responses due to​ association? Pavlov used classical conditioning to associate food with the ringing bell.

Observational learning

Which of the following occurs when we watch the actions of others and learn from the reinforcements they receive for their​ behaviors? In these​ situations, learning occurs as a result of vicarious rather than direct experience.

Spontaneous recovery

Which of the following reestablishes a connection in memory where a consumer may feel an emotional reaction to stimuli they have not been exposed to in a long​ time? A stimulus​ is, at​ times, able to evoke a weakened response even years after we first perceived it. We call this effect spontaneous​ recovery, and this reestablished connection may explain​ consumers' powerful emotional reactions to songs or pictures they have not been exposed to in quite a long time.

Episodic memories

Which of the following refers to memories of specific events that are personally​ relevant? Because episodic memories are personally​ relevant, a​ person's motivation to retain these memories is likely to be strong. Tying a product to a special personal event is strong motivation for consumers.

Learning

Which of the following terms is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior caused by​ experience?

Spreading activation

Which of the following terms refers to the spreading of meaning across the​ network, which allows us to recall concepts such as competing brands and relevant​ attributes? a marketing message might activate our memory of a brand directly or it might do so indirectly when it links to something else​ that's related to the brand in our knowledge structure. The process of spreading activation allows us to shift back and forth among levels of meaning.

Observational learning

Which type of learning occurs when we watch others and note the reinforcements they receive based on their​ behaviors? occurs when we watch the actions of others and note the reinforcements they receive for their behaviors. In these​ situations, learning occurs as a result of vicarious rather than direct experience.

Behavioral

Which type of learning takes place as the result of simple stimulus responses to external​ events? assume that learning takes place as the result of responses to external events. Those who subscribe to this view do not focus on internal​ thought, but emphasize the observable aspects of behavior.

gamification

a strategy that turns routine actions into gaming elements.

Response bias

an example of contamination in consumer recall measurement where people tend to give​ "yes" answers to questions regardless of what the questions ask.

Operant conditioning

another term for instrumental conditioning where we learn through positive and negative reinforcement.

Extinction

happens when the effects of prior conditioning diminish and finally disappear.

State dependent retrieval

illustrates that we are better able to access information if our internal state is the same at the time of recall as it was when we learned the information.

Symbolic association

is another term for semantic meaning.

Encoding

is the stage where information enters the memory system in a way that our system will recognize.

Chunking

refers to the process of combining small pieces of memories into larger ones for storage.

Stimulus generalization

refers to the tendency of similar stimuli to evoke similar responses.

Working memory

short-term memory and stores information we are currently processing.

conditioned

​A(n) ___________ response is the result of the repeated pairing of an unconditioned​ stimulus, which naturally triggers the desired​ response, and a conditioned​ stimulus, which does not typically generate the desired response. applies to responses controlled by the autonomic and nervous systems. When marketers pair cues with conditioned​ stimuli, such as brand​ names, consumers may learn a specific response when cues are encountered later.

Schema

​A(n) ______________ is a complex cognitive framework that we develop through experience. We integrate propositions to produce an even more complex unit called a schema. A schema is a cognitive framework we develop through experience. We encode information more readily when that information is consistent with an existing schema.

Memory lapse

​Omitting, averaging, and telescoping are typical problems that are included in which of the​ following? People have a tendency to forget information or retain inaccurate memories. Typical problems include omitting​ (leaving facts​ out), averaging​ (the tendency to​ "normalize" memories), and telescoping​ (inaccurate recall of​ time).

Instrumental conditioning

​_______ refers to what occurs when we learn to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and avoid those that yield negative outcomes.

Elaborative rehearsal

​________ is a cognitive process that is utilized by marketers through catchy slogans or jingles that consumers repeat on their own like​ Nike's "Just Do​ It." involves thinking about the meaning of a stimulus and relating it to other information already in memory.

Behavioral learning

​________ is a theory that assumes that learning takes place as a response to external events. does not focus on internal thought processes but rather the external stimuli and the resulting responses.

Repetition

​_________ is used to increase the strength of the​ stimulus-response association and prevent the decline of these associations in memory.