Chapter 5 Adaptations to Anaerobic Training Programs
What is anaerobic training?
High-intensity, intermittent bouts of exercise such as weight training; plyometric drills; and speed, agility, and interval training.
What are the acute cardiovascular responses to anaerobic exercise?
increased cardiac output, stoke volume, heart rate, oxygen uptake, systolic blood pressure, and blood flow to active muscles
What is parasympathetic overtraining syndrome?
increased parasympathetic activity at rest and with exercise
What is sympathetic overtraining syndrome?
increased sympathetic activity at rest
Resistance training _________ % fat free mass
increases
Resistance training _________ anaerobic power
increases
Resistance training _________ fiber size
increases
Resistance training _________ maximal rate of force production
increases
What changes can anaerobic training make to the neuromuscular junction?
increased area of NMJ; more dispersed, irregularly shaped synapses and a greater total length of nerve terminal branching; increased end-plate perimeter length and area, as well as greater dispersion of acetylcholine receptors within the end-plate region
Resistance training _________ muscular endurance
increases
Resistance training _________ muscular strength
increases
Resistance training _________ sprint speed
increases
Resistance training _________ stored ATP
increases
Resistance training _________ stored creatine phosphate
increases
Resistance training _________ stored glycogen
increases
Resistance training _________ vertical jump
increases
What is upregulation of anabolic hormone receptors important for?
mediating the hormonal effects
What are stress fractures?
microfractures in bone due to structural fatigue
Anaerobic training requires adenosine trip-phosphate (ATP) to be generated at a ______ rate than the aerobic energy system is capable of.
faster
What is overtraining syndrome (OTS)?
A condition whereby too much training results in the maladaptions of body responses including several biological, neuromuscular, and hormonal regulation mechanisms
What is Bone Mineral Density (BMD)?
A measure of the amount of minerals (mainly calcium) contained in a certain volume of bone; any increase in muscle strength or mass may result in an increase in BMD
What is a motor unit?
A motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates; the functional unit of the neuromuscular system
What is procollagen?
A triple helix with 3 preprocollagen strands. Stabilized by hydroxy groups of lysine and proline. Made soluble by adding extra amino acids on the 3' and 5' ends.
Sprint training enhances ____ release
Calcium
What is rate pressure product?
HR x systolic BP, used to evaluate cardiac work (values > 12,000 are thought to indicate increased myocardial work)
What is reactive hyperemia?
Increased blood flow to an organ in response to a period of reduced blood flow
What are the main functions of cartilage?
Provide a smooth joint articulating surface; Act as a shock absorber for forces directed through the joint; Aid in the attachment of connective tissue to the skeleton
What is hydroxyapatite?
The calcium-rich crystalline structure of teeth and bones
What is the size principle?
This term refers to the principle of which asserts that the size of the motor neuron dictates the order of motor unit recruitment, with small-sized motor neurons being recruited first. exceptions exist, especially with respect t explosive, ballistic contractions that can selectively recruit high-threshold units to rapidly achieve more force and power
What is hyaline cartilage?
Translucent cartilage that covers the ends of the bones
What is the continuum of muscle fiber types?
Type I, Ic, IIc, IIac, IIa, IIax, IIx
Exercise activities that recruit motor units with Type IIx muscle fibers initiate a shift toward which type of fibers?
Type IIa fibers
Maximal strength and power increases of agonist muscles result from an increase in recruitment, rate of firing synchronization of firing, or a combination of these factors.
Various adaptations of motor units
Can transformations from Iix to IIax to IIa be seen?
Yes
What is electromyography (EMG)?
a common research tool used to examine the magnitude of neural activation within skeletal muscle
What is detraining?
a decrement in performance and loss of the accumulated physiological adaptations following the cessation of anaerobic training or where there is a s substantial reduction in frequency, volume, intensity, or any combination of these variables
What is osteoporosis?
a disease in which BMD and bone mass become reduced to critically low levels
What is the myotatic reflex?
a reflex which harnesses the involuntary elastic properties of the muscle and connective tissue and acts to positively increase force production without any additional energy requirement
What is fibrous cartilage?
a very tough form of cartilage found in the intervertebral disks of the spine and at the junctions where tendons attach to bone
What is overtraining?
accumulation of training stress resulting long-term decrements in performance with or without associated physiological and psychological signs and symptoms of maladaptation; restoration can take several weeks or months
What is selective recruitment?
an exception to the size principle in which an athlete is able to inhibit lower-threshold motor units and in their place activate higher-threshold motor units
What are the specific changes within a tendon that contribute to its increase in size and strength?
an increase in collagen fiber diameter; a greater number of covalent cross-links within the hypertrophied fiber; an increase in the number of collagen fibrils; an increase in the packing density of collagen fibrils
What is hyperplasia?
an increase in the number of muscle fibers via longitudinal fiber splitting
What is bilateral facilitation?
an increase in voluntary activation of the agonist muscle group during bilateral movements
What effect does anaerobic training have on reflex response?
anaerobic training may enhance the reflex response, thereby enhancing the magnitude and rate of force development
What is the pennation angle?
angle of orientation between muscle fibers and tendon, which affects the force production capabilities as well as the range of motion of a muscle
What percentage of the force required to fracture bone is the MES?
approximately 10%
What is Type II collagen fiber for?
cartilage
What is a bilateral deficit?
asymmetries in force production between unilateral and bilateral movements
What is Type I collagen fiber for?
bone, tendon, and ligaments
Which type (s) of muscle fibers does resistance training increase the muscle fiber area of?
both Type I and Type II; Type II fibers have greater increases in size than Type I fibers
The process of hypertrophy involves:
both an increase in the synthesis of the contractile proteins actin and myosin within the myofibril and an increase in the number of myofibrils within the muscle fiber itself. The new myofilaments are added to the external layers of the myofibril, resulting in an increase in its diameter.
What does the application of a longitudinal weight-bearing force do to bone?
causes the bone to bend, creating a stimulus for new bone formation at the regions experiencing the greatest deformation
What is the bone matrix made of?
collagen fibers
What is cortical bone?
compact bone; outer shel surrounding trabecular bone
What is the neuromuscular junction?
connection between the motor neuron and the muscle fiber; represents another potential site for neural adaptation following anaerobic training
With heavy resistance training, all muscle fibers get larger because they are all recruited in ___________ _____ by their ____ to produce high levels of force. In advanced lifters, the _______ _______ ______ might adapt by allowing these athletes to recruit some motor units not in __________ _____, recruiting ______ ones first to help with greater production of power or speed in a movement.
consecutive order, size, central nervous system, consecutive order, larger
What are actin and myosin?
contractile proteins; sliding myofilaments, responsible for muscle movement
Resistance training _________ % body fat
decreases
Resistance training _________ mitochondrial density
decreases
Many neural changes with anaerobic training take place along the __________ _____________ ______
descending corticospinal tracts
When do muscle fiber transitions occur?
during training
When does a shift of the type of myosin adenosine triphosphate (ATPase) and heavy chains occur?
during training
When do dramatic increases in neural adaptations occur?
early in a training program
What is the function of elastin?
elastin is found in ligaments in addition to collagen to allow normal joint motion
What is overreaching (functional overreaching FOR)?
excessive training on a short-term basis; recovery takes a few days or weeks
What is the acute anabolic hormone response to anaerobic exercise critical for?
exercise performance and subsequent training adaptations
What is critical when trying to maximize osteogenic stimuli?
exercise selection
What are structural exercises?
exercises which direct force vectors primarily through the spine and hips
What is cross-education?
exercising muscle undergoing unilateral resistance training produces increased strength and neural activity in the contralateral resting muscle
What are osteogenic stimuli?
factors that stimulate new bone formation
What is tendon stiffness?
force transmitted per unit of strain, or tendon elongation; increases as a result of resistance training
What is myogenesis?
formation of muscle
What does an increase in EMG indicate?
greater neural activation
Anaerobic training may elicit adaptations along the neuromuscular chain, beginning in the ______ _____ centers and continuing down to the level of individual ______ ______.
higher brain, muscle fibers
What are the three primary ways in which skeletal muscle adapts to anaerobic training?
increases its size, facilitates fiber type transitions, and enhances its biochemical and ultra-structural components; these changes result in enhanced muscular strength, power, and endurance
Motor cortex activity _________ when the level of force developed _________ and when new exercises or movements are being learned.
increases, increases
What is the function of osteoblasts?
lay down additional collagen fibers for bone formation
The functional unit of the neuromuscular system is the...
motor unit
What is muscle hypertrophy?
muscular enlargement from an increase in the cross-sectional area of the existing fibers
What performance improvements occur following anaerobic exercise?
muscular strength, power, local muscular endurance, body composition, flexibility, aerobic capacity, motor performance
Forces that reach or exceed a threshold stimulus initiate...
new bone formation in the area experiencing the mechanical strain
Resistance training _________ capillary density
no change or decreases
Resistance training _________ aerobic power
no change or slight increase
What is nonfunctional overreaching (NFOR)?
occurs when the intensification of a training stimulus continues without adequate recovery and regeneration; an extreme state of overreaching; leads to stagnation and a decrease in performance that will continue for several weeks or months
The difference in energy requirement is made up by the anaerobic energy system, which works in the absence of ______ and includes the anaerobic galactic system (aka the phosphagen or creatine phosphate system) and the anaerobic lactic system (aka the glycolytic system).
oxygen
Resistance training increases angle of ______
pennation
What is progressive overload?
progressively placing greater than normal demands on the exercising musculature
What is elastin?
protein base similar to collagen that forms elastic tissue
What sort of structural and architectural changes does resistance training create?
resistance training increases my fibrillar volume, cytoplasmic density, sarcoplasmic reticulum and T-tubule density, and sodium-potassium ATPase activity
What is trabecular bone?
spongy bone
What are titin and nebulin?
structural proteins
What are the two types of OTS?
sympathetic and parasympathetic
Where do previously dormant osteoblasts migrate?
the area in a bone experiencing a strain
What happens when collagen fibers become mineralized?
the bone diameter effectively increases
What is peak bone mass?
the highest attainable bone density for an individual
What are the sites where connective tissues can increase strength and load-bearing capacity?
the junctions between the tendon, ligament, and bone surface; within the body of the tendon or ligament; in the network of fascia within skeletal muscle
What are the components of mechanical load that stimulate bone growth?
the magnitude of the load (intensity), rate (speed) of loading, direction of the forces, and the volume of loading (repetitions)
What is a microfibril?
the parallel arrangement of filaments
What is a collagen fiber?
the primary structural component of all connective tissue
What is the ventilatory equivalent?
the ratio of air ventilated to oxygen used by the tissues
What is cross-linking in collagen?
the strong chemical bonds that form between adjacent collagen molecules throughout the collagen bundles
What is minimal essential strain (MES)?
the threshold stimulus that initiates new bone formation
What is the periosteum?
the tough membrane that covers the outside of the bone where new bone formation predominantly occurs
What is specificity of loading?
the use of exercises that directly load the particular region of interest of the skeleton; if the body interprets these forces as new or novel, they will stimulate bone growth in the area that is receiving the strain
Which type of bone responds more rapidly to stimuli than cortical bone?
trabecular bone